THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

FROM  THE  LIBRARY 
OF 

ELI  SOBEL 


A   GRAMMAR  OF 
THE   GERMAN    LANGUAGE 


OXFORD :  HORACE  HART 
PRINTER  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY 


A  GRAMMAR 

OF  THE 

GERMAN  LANGUAGE 


DESIGNED   FOR  A   THOROUGH   AND   PRACTICAL 

STUDY   OF   THE   LANGUAGE  AS   SPOKEN 

AND  WRITTEN   TO-DAY 


BY 

GEORGE   O.  CURME 

PROFESSOR   OF   GERMANIC   PHILOLOGY   IN   NORTHWESTERN    UNIVERSITY 


„  !Die  ©pradje  i)l  fetn  fcrttgefl,  mf)mbe$  £>ing,  fonbcrn  eti»a$  in  jcbem 
Jlugenblicfe  2Bcrbenbe3,  Sntfie^enbed  unb  a3erge^enbcg."    (^umbclbt.) 

„  Sicfcr  SDIenfc^  rebet  tute  fin  Slid),"  ifl  ein  franfeS  Sob.    Untgefefyrt  fci 
bie  ficfung :  „  !Dic^  Suc^  rebct  toie  ein  SDIenfc^."    (Dtto  ©c^roebcr.) 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

1905 
All  rights  reserved 


SRLfc 
URt 

PP 

3105 


05 


DEDICATED  TO 

HERMANN    COLLITZ  AND   GEORG   EDWARD 
WITH  GRATITUDE  AND  REGARD 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  intended  to  furnish  to  students  of  the  German  language 
and  literature  an  outline  of  German  grammar,  based  not  upon  some  ideal 
conception  of  how  the  language  should  be  spoken,  but  upon  the  actual 
varying  usage  of  the  intelligent  classes  in  the  German  Empire,  Austria,  and 
Switzerland.  An  earnest  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  the  work  a 
valuable  book  of  reference,  so  that  the  general  student  might  find  in  it 
an  impartial  and  rather  full  presentation  of  the  facts  of  the  language  founded 
upon  the  works  of  scholars  and  also  an  independent  study  of  the  polite 
and  colloquial  literature  itself.  In  order  to  attain  to  the  greatest  possible 
completeness  in  the  given  space,  it  was  thought  best,  not  to  present  the 
materials  gathered  in  the  course  of  the  work  on  the  subject,  but  only  to  give 
precise  statements  of  results  illustrated  in  most  cases  by  a  few  apt  examples. 
In  this  way  a  great  many  more  points  have  been  treated  than  in  large 
scholarly  works  where  the  prominent  aim  is  to  present  the  materials  gathered 
in  long  researches.  The  plan  to  make  the  book  as  complete  as  possible  has 
been  materially  furthered  by  the  slow  development  of  the  work  throughout  a 
period  of  over  fifteen  years.  From  year  to  year  new  points  presented  them- 
selves and  old  ones  appeared  in  fuller  outline,  so  that  continued  search  and 
occasional  accidental  finds  have  added  much  to  the  original  draft  of  the 
work. 

The  full  index  will  place  the  contents  of  the  book  at  the  disposal  of  the 
student. 

This  treatise  often  differs  considerably  from  German  works  in  subject 
matter  and  manner  of  presentation,  as  it  is  written  entirely  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  needs  of  English-speaking  students.  Hence  considerable  space 
is  often  devoted  to  points  scarcely  mentioned  by  German  scholars,  or  not 
treated  at  all. 

Throughout  the  book  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  classification  in 
order  that  the  individual  life  of  the  grammatical  categories  might  be  carefully 
studied.  It  is  hoped  that  the  results  of  this  course  will  prove  to  have  not 
only  a  scientific  but  also  a  practical  value.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  order  that 
both  of  these  aims  might  be  attained,  the  inflection  of  nouns  is  presented  in 
the  minutest  detail.  Here  it  is  hoped  that  full  treatment  will  lead  to 
clearness.  This  part  of  German  grammar  is  so  inconsistent  and  confused 
that  only  a  full  picture  can  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  inflection  as  it 
actually  is.  However  clear  the  inflectional  groups  may  appear  to  one  versed 
in  historical  grammar  who  is  familiar  with  the  various  causes  that  have 
produced  the  present  forms,  to  the  general  student  these  groups  are  not 
entirely  clear  unless  the  list  of  words  composing  each  group  is  complete,  as 
there  is  often  no  formal  sign  by  which  one  may  be  guided  in  assigning  a 


viii  PREFACE 

word  to  its  proper  group.  Here,  indeed,  the  German  himself  constantly 
blunders,  how  then  can  a  foreigner  without  the  fullest  light  expect  to  see 
clearly  ?  The  confusion  is  often  increased  and  natural  tendencies  arrested 
by  learned  men,  who,  looking  at  the  questions  from  different  stand-points, 
suggest  different  forms  as  the  correct  usage.  Also  the  best  authors  of  our 
time  reflect  in  their  works  the  general  uncertainty  with  regard  to  form.  Of 
course,  final  decisions  cannot  be  given  in  such  cases,  and  it  only  remains 
to  record  the  fluctuations  of  usage.  The  dire  confusion  at  this  point  will 
ultimately  lead  to  considerable  changes  in  the  language  itself,  and  indeed 
certain  tendencies  toward  uniformity  and  simplicity  are  apparent.  In 
treating  this  difficult  subject  the  words  of  foreign  origin  have  been  included. 
The  unscientific  method  of  excluding  such  words,  so  generally  followed  by 
German  scholars,  has  led  to  false  impressions  as  to  the  real  size  and  im- 
portance of  the  existing  classes  of  German  nouns. 

Although  this  book  is  designed  as  a  study  of  the  German  of  to-day,  it 
was  found  necessary,  in  order  to  give  a  faithful  picture  of  the  living  language 
in  all  its  varied  styles,  to  include  to  a  certain  extent  a  study  of  the  earlier 
forms  of  the  language.  It  is  difficult  to  state  the  precise  date  when  a  certain 
form  or  expression  can  fairly  be  said  to  be  dead.  Colloquial  language  often 
preserves  earlier  forms  that  have  elsewhere  passed  away.  The  master-pieces 
of  earlier  parts  of  the  present  period  are  still  heard  everywhere  in  the 
theaters,  and  otherwise  still  occupy  the  thought  of  the  present  generation, 
and  thus  still  influence  the  language  of  poetry  and  higher  diction  in  general. 
The  language  of  Luther  is  still  heard  in  the  churches  and  has  stamped 
itself  upon  the  language  of  certain  classes  of  people  and  styles  of  speech. 
Beautiful  gems  of  thought  in  the  form  of  proverbs  have  been  handed  down 
from  earlier  times  like  precious  heir-looms  unchanged.  Literature  now 
abounds  in  description  of  the  language  and  customs  of  people  in  the  out- 
of-the-way  provinces,  who  speak  quaint  dialects  which  often  faithfully 
preserve  grammatical  forms  now  no  longer  in  general  use.  In  the  historical 
novel  and  drama  we  find  a  conscious  or  unconscious  imitation  of  the 
peculiar  language  of  older  parts  of  the  period.  Among  the  earliest  forms  of 
the  present  period  treated  here  the  examples  taken  from  Luther's  translation 
of  the  Bible  are  especially  frequent.  Also  as  this  translation  is  fairly 
available  to  all,  many  references  to  interesting  constructions  in  it  have 
been  made  by  merely  quoting  chapter  and  verse  after  a  short  remark 
explaining  the  construction.  The  edition  here  used  is  that  of  1545,  the  last 
published  by  Luther  himself.  The  available  editions  which  will  probably  be 
used  by  students  are  all  largely  modernized,  but  even  from  these  imperfect 
texts  general  impressions  can  be  obtained.  The  language  of  the  N.  H.  G. 
period  has  been  uniformly  conformed  in  spelling  to  the  new  official  ortho- 
graphy, as  far  as  it  could  faithfully  reproduce  the  original  form  of  the  words, 
with  the  exception  of  passages  taken  from  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible. 
These  are  given  with  Luther's  spellings,  capitalizations,  and  punctuation 
in  the  hope  that  they  might  prove  interesting  and  instructive.  Of  course 
only  the  most  general  points  in  this  important  part  of  the  period  are  touched 
upon.  A  word  from  a  period  earlier  than  N.  H.  G.  is  never  introduced  for 


PREFACE  ix 

its  own  sake,  or  to  give  a  picture  of  an  older  state  of  things,  but  always 
solely  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  light  upon  some  dark  construction  in 
present  usage  or  the  literature  that  is  still  generally  studied.  Thus  there 
is  not  the  slightest  attempt  to  give  a  connected  outline  of  earlier  periods. 
However,  in  thus  introducing  glimpses  of  earlier  forms  of  speech,  a  good 
deal  is  gained  toward  teaching  the  student  to  look  at  language  in  the  true 
light,  and  he  may  thus  in  an  easy  and  forcible  way  learn  that  grammar 
is  not  made  up  of  the  infallible  decrees  of  book-makers,  but  that  it  is  a 
growth,  and  has  reached  its  present  form  by  various  evolutions,  here  piously 
preserving  fossilized  remnants  of  by-gone  ages,  there  struggling  toward 
uniformity  out  of  a  tangle  of  prehistoric  conditions  no  longer  understood, 
now  enriched  by  the  genius  of  the  individual,  and  now  by  the  rich  quota 
of  the  different  dialects,  now  working  constructively  along  plain  and  simple 
lines  not  hitherto  known. 

Although  attention  has  thus  been  carefully  directed  to  early  N.  H.  G. 
and  also  to  the  language  of  the  classical  period  and  the  conspicuous  authors 
of  the  first  half  of  the  IQth  century,  the  main  stress  lies  in  the  direction 
of  present  usage.  Seven  hundred  works  of  varied  styles  published  since 
1850  by  authors  from  various  parts  of  the  German  Empire,  Austria,  and 
Switzerland,  have  been  carefully  read.  Representative  newspapers  from 
different  parts  of  these  same  countries  have  been  studied.  In  this  work, 
however,  the  political  lines  that  have  been  drawn  across  the  map  of  Germany, 
dividing  it  up  into  Austria,  Switzerland,  etc.,  have  in  all  points  of  a  general 
nature  been  disregarded,  and  terms  North,  South,  etc.,  have  been  used  as 
designations  of  the  different  parts  of  one  country — one  at  least  in  language. 
In  little  points,  usage  differs  considerably,  not  only  in  different  parts  of 
this  territory,  but  also  in  the  same  section,  and%the  author  has  not  been 
able  to  share  the  assurance  of  certain  grammarians  who  are  so  positive 
that  they  have  prescribed  the  correct  forms.  The  plain  fact  is  that  there 
is  considerable  fluctuation  in  present  usage,  though  not  so  much  as  earlier 
in  the  period,  and  this  fluctuation  is  found  even  in  the  highest  forms  of 
current  literature.  Everywhere  throughout  these  pages  will  be  found  double 
and  triple  forms  for  the  same  thing,  that  is  a  picture  of  the  language  as 
it  is.  A  table  of  many  fluctuating  forms  has  been  kept  by  the  author 
constantly  before  him,  and  data  inserted  from  time  to  time.  In  some  cases 
the  prevailing  form  has  become  apparent,  and  has  been  recorded.  In 
other  cases  the  situation  will  not  become  clear  until  many  minute  investi- 
gations have  been  made  by  many  scholars.  In  still  other  cases  nothing 
can  be  fixed,  as  the  language  itself  has  not  assumed  definitive  form.  To 
prescribe  forms  at  this  point,  as  many  German  grammarians  do,  is  quite 
pernicious,  for  the  capricious  decisions  of  different  scholars,  differing  widely 
as  they  often  do,  add  to  the  general  confusion  and  arrest  natural  linguistic 
tendencies.  However,  between  forms  that  fluctuated  in  Lessing's  day  a 
final  decision  has  often  been  made,  or  both  forms  have  been  retained  with 
different  shades  of  meaning. 

The  usage  of  the  best  authors  of  our  time  has  been  taken  in  all  cases 
as  the  highest  authority.  By  this,  however,  poets  and  philosophers  are 


x  PREFACE 

not  alone  meant.  The  best  authors  in  the  different  fields  of  literature, 
even  the  much  maligned  newspapers,  have  been  taken  as  guides.  The 
pessimistic  views  of  certain  scholars  with  regard  to  the  language  of  the 
daily  press  are  not  supported  by  the  facts.  The  German  newspaper  man 
fills  his  place  worthily  and  furnishes  additional  evidence  of  the  power 
and  flexibility  of  the  German  language.  Indeed,  his  influence  is  especially 
needed  in  these  days  of  intense  realism,  when  polite  literature  often 
abandons  the  literary  language  entirely,  or  intersperses  into  it  copious 
samples  of  dialect  from  every  part  of  two  empires  and  the  Swiss  republic. 
It  is,  however,  far  from  our  intention  to  criticize  these  naturalistic  tendencies 
in  literature  which  are  so  truly  characteristic  of  our  time,  for  we  are  not 
indifferent  to  a  movement  which  in  such  a  marked  manner  has  widened 
human  sympathies  and  increased  the  interest  in  polite  literature  in  general. 
This  broadening  of  the  sphere  of  literature  has  increased  the  burdens  of 
the  grammarian,  and  made  it  seem  to  the  author  of  the  present  work  quite 
necessary  that  at  least  the  salient  features  of  popular  language  should  be 
treated.  Still  greater  attention  has  been  paid  to  colloquial  speech,  and  this 
study  has  been  made  more  easy  by  the  extensive  literature  of  the  naturalistic 
school,  which  has  consciously  striven  to  reproduce  the  language  of  actual 
life.  Indeed,  an  earnest  attempt  has  been  made  to  treat  the  different  styles 
of  speech  and  to  define  as  carefully  as  possible  their  proper  boundaries. 
Although,  in  general,  matters  pertaining  to  style  belong  to  rhetoric,  a  large 
number  of  the  points  in  question  belong  strictly  to  grammar.  Just  as  each 
locality  has  its  particular  dialect,  so  has  each  style  its  own  individual 
grammatical  forms.  One  style  requires  a  genitive,  another  the  accusative, 
one  style  a  strong  verb,  another  a  weak  one,  &c.  The  conservative  literary 
language  clings  to  old  grammatical  forms,  while  colloquial  speech  prefers 
newer,  more  regular  ones.  Foreigners  are  particularly  liable  to  stumble  here 
and  the  native  German  grammarian  in  his  quite  uniform  recommendation 
of  the  older  more  dignified  inflection  may  lead  English-speaking  students 
astray.  The  conservative  German  grammarian  may  be  pardoned  for  his  zeal 
in  defending  the  decaying  forms  of  the  language.  To  the  foreigner,  however, 
who  is  not  able,  as  is  a  native,  to  discover  the  misguided  enthusiasm  of  the 
grammarian,  many  of  these  lauded  forms  are  very  misleading,  as  they 
represent  the  language  of  the  past,  or  of  poetry,  or  elevated  discourse. 
Even  the  great  learned  works  of  the  best  German  scholars  give  the  student 
only  too  often  erroneous  ideas  of  the  present  state  of  the  language,  so  great 
is  their  zeal  in  unfolding  the  usage  of  earlier  periods  and  so  strong  their 
apathy  towards  the  questions  of  to-day.  These  decaying  forms  are  throughout 
this  work  always  treated  as  such  and  not  recommended  as  models  of  present 
usage.  To  every  people  and  every  generation  language  is  bequeathed,  not 
as  an  article  of  antiquarian  interest  that  must  remain  untouched  and  be 
carefully  kept  unchanged,  but  as  the  most  useful  and  plastic  of  things,  that 
which  is  connected  with  all  that  is  interesting  in  life  and  which  can  be 
readily  adapted  to  the  new  and  changing  needs  of  the  generation.  Also 
with  regard  to  new  forms  and  constructions,  the  usage  of  the  best  authors 
has  been  taken  as  authority  rather  than  the  dictum  of  conservative  gram- 


PREFACE  xi 

marians.  A  rich  and  plastic  language  like  the  German  is  capable  of  great 
and  varied  development  if  it  remains  the  language  of  the  nation  and  is 
not  degraded  to  the  position  of  the  language  of  a  few  narrow-minded 
theorists.  In  the  nation  lie  ever  concealed  countless  hidden  forces  that 
are  unceasingly  at  work  on  the  strengthening,  upbuilding,  and  beautifying 
of  the  language.  In  its  present  interesting  period  of  linguistic  growth,  may 
the  German  language  remain  unchecked  and  free  !  However,  for  the  sake 
of  those  who  still  believe  in  the  dictatorial  powers  of  the  grammarian,  in 
every  instance  there  is  a  note  after  such  new  forms  indicating  that  they 
are  not  approved  by  certain  grammarians. 

The  conclusions  with  regard  to  the  pronunciation  are  the  result  of  the 
author's  personal  observations  in  different  parts  of  Germany  along  with 
a  study  of  the  rich  literature  upon  this  subject.  The  signs  of  the  time 
seem  to  point  so  decidedly  to  the  Berlin  pronunciation  that  it  seems  folly 
not  to  recognize  it  as  the  most  representative  form  of  the  spoken  language. 
The  author,  however,  has  not  in  Other  respects  slighted  the  South,  as  can 
be  seen  in  the  book  itself.  The  beautiful  style  of  certain  Swiss  and  Austrian 
authors  was  a  great  enticement  to  prolong  unduly  work  in  this  direction. 

The  illustrative  sentences  used  in  this  book  are  in  most  part  taken  directly 
from  the  literature  of  the  language.  In  a  number  of  cases  where  the  cited 
sentence  is  long  or  intricate,  parts  not  necessary  to  the  thought  of  the 
sentence  have  been  omitted.  Thus  sentences  sometimes  appear  as  complete 
which  in  the  original  are  only  parts  of  sentences.  It  is  hoped,  however, 
that  this  liberty  will  be  pardoned  on  pedagogical  grounds  and  for  economic 
reasons,  especially  as  otherwise  not  the  slightest  liberties  have  been  taken 
with  the  authors'  language,  and  great  care  has  been  employed  to  follow 
closely  the  text  of  the  authorized  prints,  and  wherever  possible  the  latest 
editions,  in  order  to  avoid  the  danger  of  typographical  errors  or  careless 
proof-reading.  In  a  number  of  cases  the  examples  have  been  taken  from 
well-known  grammatical  and  lexical  sources,  as  the  originals  were  not 
accessible.  In  a  number  of  very  common  idioms  no  illustrative  sentences 
could  be  found  in  the  dictionaries,  and  in  these  cases  they  have  been  taken 
directly  from  the  spoken  language.  It  was  not  thought  necessary  to  cite 
always  the  author  in  case  of  common  usage,  though  in  many  interesting 
sentences  this  is  done.  The  authors'  names  are,  however,  given  where  the 
usage  in  question  is  disputed.  In  such  cases  only  one  or  two  sentences 
are  usually  quoted,  as  it  was  impossible  in  the  given  space  to  enter  into 
elaborate  discussion.  The  conclusions,  however,  rest  usually  upon  an  ample 
collection  of  facts.  In  other  cases  the  facts  were  not  entirely  convincing, 
but  seemed  to  offer  the  proposed  solution.  In  a  number  of  instances  where 
general  misconceptions  prevail  a  fuller  presentation  of  the  facts  was  made, 
contrary  to  the  general  plan  of  the  work.  In  a  number  of  instances  also 
three  representative  authors  are  cited,  one  from  the  early  part,  one  from  the 
middle,  and  one  from  the  present  part  of  the  period,  in  order  to  show  that 
the  usage  has  not  fluctuated  throughout  the  period.  This  occurs  especially 
where  some  particular  usage  is  represented  in  grammars  and  dictionaries 
as  obsolete,  dialectic,  or  as  belonging  to  some  particular  part  of  the  period 


xii  PREFACE 

where  the  facts  of  the  language  clearly  show  that  the  word  has  been  in 
general  and  continual  use.  Also  in  a  number  of  cases  several  authors  from 
widely  different  parts  of  the  country  have  been  cited,  in  order  to  show  that 
the  form  is  not  provincial  as  stated  by  certain  scholars.  Where  usage  is 
limited  to  a  particular  style,  section  of  the  country,  or  a  part  of  the  period, 
a  short  statement  of  the  facts  is  always  made  and  a  representative  author 
cited.  In  certain  parts  of  the  book,  however,  as  in  the  treatment  of  the 
noun,  the  strong  verb,  and  portions  of  the  syntax,  no  authors  could  be  cited, 
although  these  portions  rest  upon  a  collection  of  facts  as  extensive  as  the 
others.  These  materials  can  only  be  used  in  a  dictionary. 

The  great  majority  of  quotations  have  been  taken  from  common  prose. 
The  usual  practice  among  grammarians  of  quoting  so  much  poetry  seems 
unsound  in  a  book  of  this  kind,  especially  as  the  unusual  and  exceptional 
forms  here  found  may  by  the  inexperienced  student  be  taken  for  common 
forms  of  speech.  The  author  recalls  the  smiles  of  his  German  friends  of 
years  ago  who  could  not  restrain  the  irresistible  impulse  to  twitch  the 
muscles  of  the  face  at  the  familiar-unfamiliar  sound  of  his  '  classic'  language 
in  a  modern  conversation.  Their  Goethe  and  Schiller  seemed  inexpressibly 
odd  in  the  new  environment.  The  object  of  a  grammar  should  not  only 
be  to  show  the  power  of  the  language  to  express  man's  highest  thoughts 
and  deepest  feelings,  but  also  to  show  its  manner  of  giving  expression  to 
the  needs  of  human  life  in  its  varied  aspects. 

At  the  close  of  his  labors  the  author  confesses  that  the  ideal  which 
appeared  to  him  in  his  first  youthful  conception  of  the  work — that  of  giving 
a  faithful  picture  of  the  language  as  it  is  written  and  spoken  to-day — has 
not  been  completely  realized.  The  linguistic  phenomena  presented  by  the 
language  of  a  great  people  are  too  complex  to  be  fully  comprehended  and 
faithfully  described  by  one  individual.  However,  the  author  has  allowed 
the  original  title  to  stand  upon  his  work,  as  it  represents  an  ideal  toward 
which  he  has  constantly  striven. 

Although  the  aim  throughout  was  to  build  up  this  work  out  of  the  actual 
facts  of  the  language  as  gathered  in  the  free  and  independent  study  of  its 
polite  and  colloquial  literature,  nevertheless  much  of  that  which  is  good 
in  it  is  due  directly  to  the  labors  of  many  scholars  who  have  thrown  light 
upon  the  different  phases  of  the  study,  such  as  Grimm,  Vernaleken,  Andresen, 
Heyne,  Sanders,  Paul,  Wilmanns,  Matthias,  Wunderlich,  Behaghel,  Siitterlin, 
Minor,  Victor,  Engelien,  Blatz,  Heintze,  Hempl,  Valentine,  and  others.  The 
school -grammars  of  Lyon,  Weisse,  Brandt,  Thomas,  Bierwirth,  Eve,  Aue, 
Beresford-Webb,  Fasnacht,  also  the  notes  of  Mr.  Wolstenholme  in  his 
annotated  school-texts,  have  furnished  valuable  assistance.  The  author 
feels  himself  especially  indebted  to  the  following  scholars  who  have  read 
all  of  the  manuscript  or  parts  of  it,  and  by  encouragement  or  fruitful 
criticism  have  contributed  much  toward  making  the  book  what  it  is : 
Professor  Hermann  Collitz,  of  Bryn  Mawr;  Professor  H.  C.  G.  von 
Jagemann,  of  Harvard ;  Professor  Gustav  F.  Gruener,  of  Yale ;  Professor 
George  Hempl,  of  the  University  of  Michigan  ;  Professor  C.  H.  Grandgent, 
of  Harvard ;  Professor  Camillo  von  Klenze,  of  the  University  of  Chicago ; 


PREFACE  xiii 

Professor  James  T.  Hatfield,  of  Northwestern  University ;  Professors 
Ernst  Voss  and  Edwin  Roedder,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin ;  and 
Dr.  Francis  Wood,  of  the  University  of  Chicago.  The  author  finds  it 
very  difficult  to  define  the  full  amount  of  his  indebtedness  to  his  colleague 
Mr.  Georg  Edward.  For  years  Mr.  Edward  has  by  his  accurate  knowledge 
of  his  native  language  and  literature  assisted  the  author  at  critical  points  and 
kept  him  away  from  gross  blundering.  The  author  feels  the  same  deep 
gratitude  toward  Professor  Collitz,  who  gave  encouragement  and  support 
at  a  time  of  great  discouragement,  when  it  appeared  that  the  work  could 
never  be  carried  to  a  successful  close. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  recalls  the  helpful  services  of  Mr.  William 
Klingebiehl,  of  Clutier,  Iowa,  in  the  earlier  draft  of  the  grammar,  also  the 
kindness  of  the  authorities  of  the  Public  Library  of  Chicago  and  the  Public 
Library  of  Cincinnati,  and  last  but  not  least  the  valuable  aid  rendered  by 
the  following  scholars  in  the  reading  of  the  proofs  :  his  colleagues  Professor 
James  T.  Hatfield,  Dr.  Marcus  Simpson,  and  Mr.  Georg  Edward ;  Professor 
Starr  Willard  Cutting  and  Dr.  Francis  Wood,  of  the  University  of  Chicago  ; 
Professor  William  Wirtz,  of  Parsons  College  (Fairfield,  Iowa) ;  Dr.  Fred.  C. 
Hicks,  of  Monmouth  College  ;  Professor  Charles  R.  Keyes,  of  Cornell  College 
(Mt.  Vernon,  Iowa)  ;  Professor  Elfrieda  Hochbaum,  of  Wells  College ;  the 
following  students  in  Northwestern  University :  Mr.  Walter  E.  Roloff, 
Mr.  Friedrich  Ruff,  and  Miss  Hedwig  H.  Hochbaum.  A  number  of  their 
remarks  upon  the  proofs  have  been  embodied  in  the  Grammar.  The  careful 
work  of  the  Oxford  University  Press  has  rendered  comparatively  easy  the 
efforts  to  present  a  faithful  text. 


EVANSTON,  ILLINOIS, 
April,  1904. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION i 

THE  ALPHABET 5 

PART   I 


BEST  PRONUNCIATION     . 7 

SOUNDS  OF  THE  LETTERS  AND  THEIR  CLASSIFICATION          .  7 

FORMATION  OF  SOUNDS. 13 

QUANTITY  OF  VOWELS 14 

PRONUNCIATION  OF  VOWELS  AND  DIPHTHONGS    ...  17 

MUTATION  OF  VOWELS 24 

PRONUNCIATION  OF  CONSONANTS 25 

BRIEF    HISTORY   OF   GERMAN   CONSONANTS,    THEIR   RELA- 
TION   TO    THOSE   OF   OTHER    LANGUAGES  ....  34 

SYLLABLES  IN  INDIVIDUAL  WORDS       .....  40 

SYLLABLES  IN  CONNECTED  DISCOURSE  .....  41 

SEPARATION  OF  SYLLABLES  AT  THE  END  OF  A  LINE  .         .  41 

ACCENT  .        .....        .....  42 

PITCH  OR  TONE     .........  54 

USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS 54 

APOSTROPHE 55 


PART   II 

THE   PARTS   OF   SPEECH 
THEIR   GRAMMATICAL   FORMS,  USE,   NATURE 

BRIEF  STATEMENTS  CONCERNING  NUMBER,  CASE,  GENDER     .  56 

INFLECTION  OF  THE  ARTICLES 56 

USE  OF  THE  ARTICLES 58 

INFLECTION  OF  COMMON  NOUNS 67 

DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS  ....  95 


xvi  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INFLECTION  OF  PROPER  NOUNS 99 

INFLECTION  OF  TITLES  .        . 103 

PLURAL  OF  NAMES  OF  PERSONS  AND  PLACES      .        .        .  106 

PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS     .        j        .  108 

DECLENSION  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE-SUBSTANTIVE      .        .         .  113 
PECULIARITIES  OF  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS          .        .        .        .113 

GENDER  OF  NOUNS 120 

INFLECTION  OF  ADJECTIVES 127 

INFLECTION  OF  QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES   ....  127 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  .         .        .  141 

INFLECTION  OF  LIMITING  ADJECTIVES        ....  150 

NUMERALS       .        .        . 150 

PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 157 

INFLECTION  OF  PRONOUNS 183 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.         .......  183 

REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS 193 

RECIPROCAL  PRONOUNS      .                 195 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS 195 

INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS 197 

RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  ........  200 

CONDITIONAL  RELATIVE      .......  212 

CORRELATIVE  PRONOUNS    .......  212 

STEREOTYPED  PRONOMINAL  FORMS 213 

THE  VERB 215 

CLASSIFICATION 215 

TENSES 216 

MOODS 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PRINCIPAL  TENSES  .... 
SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  HISTORICAL  TENSES 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

INDIRECT  FORM 

INDEPENDENT  FORM     ....... 

CONJUGATION 

SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  THE  WEAK  VERB        .... 

SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  THE  STRONG  VERB 

SIMPLE  FORMS  OF  fyafcen,  fcin,  reerben 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xvii 

PAGE 

GENERAL  REMARKS  RESPECTING  THE  SIMPLE  FORMS      .  257 

VERBALS      ..........  264 

GERUNDIVE 264 

PARTICIPLES    .........  266 

INFINITIVE       .                                  273 

FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  TENSES    .        .        .        .        .  285 

USE  OF  tyafcen  AND  fein    .......  289 

PASSIVE  VOICE  .........  299 

GRADATION  CLASSES 305 

IRREGULAR  CONJUGATION 323 

SPECIAL  USES  OF  THE  MODAL  AUXILIARIES    .        .        .  328 

CONJUGATION  OF  COMPOUND  VERBS 336 

SEPARABLE  COMPOUNDS  .......  336 

INSEPARABLE  COMPOUNDS 339 

COMPOUNDS  SEPARABLE  OR  INSEPARABLE     .        .         .  340 

VERBS  INDIRECTLY  COMPOUNDED    .....  342 

REFLEXIVE  VERBS 343 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS 347 

PARTICLES       ..........  352 

ADVERBS 352 

PREPOSITIONS 374 

CONJUNCTIONS     .........  418 

INTERJECTIONS 434 

PART   III 
WORD-FORMATION 

PRIMITIVES 436 

DERIVATIVE  SUBSTANTIVES  FORMED  BY  SUFFIX  .         .         .  437 

DERIVATIVE  ADJECTIVES  FORMED  BY  SUFFIX       .         .         .  452 

DERIVATIVE  VERBS  FORMED  BY  SUFFIX       ....  462 

DERIVATIVE  ADVERBS 465 

FORMATION  OF  PREPOSITIONS 467 

FORMATION   OF   NOUNS,  ADJECTIVES,  AND   PRONOUNS  BY 

MEANS  OF  PREFIX 468 

FORMATION  OF  VERBS  BY  MEANS  OF  PREFIX       .        .        .  471 

FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  WORDS       .....  479 

b 


xviii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  IV 
SYNTAX 

PAGE 

ESSENTIAL  ELEMENTS  OF  A  SENTENCE          ....  490 

SUBJECT 490 

PREDICATE 496 

AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE  .        .  501 

SUBORDINATE  ELEMENTS  OF  A  SENTENCE     ....  509 

ADJECTIVE  MODIFIERS 509 

ADJECTIVE  AND  PARTICIPLE 509 

ATTRIBUTIVE  GENITIVE 510 

APPOSITION      .........  519 

PREPOSITIONAL  PHRASE  AS  MODIFIER  OF  A  NOUN       .  522 

INFINITIVE  AS  MODIFIER  OF  A  NOUN    ....  523 

ADVERB  AS  MODIFIER  OF  A  NOUN        .        .        .        .  523 

CLAUSE  AS  MODIFIER  OF  A  NOUN         ....  523 

A  NOUN  AND  ITS  MODIFIER  REPLACED  BY  A  COMPOUND 

NOUN 524 

OBJECTIVE  MODIFIERS 524 

ACCUSATIVE  OBJECT 524 

DATIVE  OBJECT 527 

EITHER  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE 538 

GENITIVE  OBJECT 545 

PREPOSITIONAL  OBJECT  .......  554 

DOUBLE  OBJECT 555 

ACCUSATIVE  AND  DATIVE 555 

ACCUSATIVE  AND  GENITIVE 557 

DOUBLE  ACCUSATIVE 563 

SYNESIS 571 

ADVERBIAL  MODIFIERS .  577 

INDEPENDENT  ELEMENTS 577 

CLASSES  OF  SENTENCES          .......  582 

COMPOUND  SENTENCE 582 

COMPLEX  SENTENCE,  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES   .        .        .  583 

SUBJECT  CLAUSE 584 

PREDICATE  CLAUSE 586 

ADJECTIVE  CLAUSE 586 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  xix 

PAGE 

OBJECT  CLAUSE 590 

ADVERBIAL  CLAUSE         .......  593 

CLAUSE  OF  PLACE       .......  594 

CLAUSE  OF  TIME 594 

CLAUSE  OF  MANNER   .......  596 

CLAUSE  OF  DEGREE 597 

CLAUSE  OF  CAUSE       .......  599 

CLAUSE  OF  CONDITION         ......  600 

CLAUSE  OF  CONCESSION 601 

CLAUSE  OF  PURPOSE  .......  602 

CLAUSE  OF  MEANS 604 

CLAUSE  OF  MATERIAL 604 

WORD-ORDER        .........  604 

NORMAL  ORDER 606 

INVERTED  ORDER 612 

QUESTION  ORDER 615 

TRANSPOSED  ORDER  ........  617 

GENERAL  INDEX    619 

CORRECTIONS                                   .                                 .        .  662 


INTRODUCTION 

THE   GERMAN   LANGUAGE. 

THE  Germanic  family  of  languages  is  descended  from  the  same  original 
language  with  the  Indian  (i.e.  Sanskrit),  Persian,  Slavonic,  Celtic,  Greek, 
and  Latin,  from  the  last  of  which  have  come  modern  Italian,  French,  Spanish, 
and  Portuguese.  The  Germanic  languages  are  themselves  divided  into 
three  groups.  Of  the  first  group,  the  East  Germanic,  only  Gothic,  now 
extinct,  is  well  known  to  us.  The  second  group,  the  North  Germanic, 
includes  modern  Danish-Norwegian,  Swedish,  and  Icelandic.  The  third 
group,  the  West  Germanic,  embraces  High  German  and  Low  German,  to 
the  latter  of  which  belong  English,  Dutch  (the  literary  language  of  Holland 
and  a  large  part  of  Belgium),  and  Low  German  in  the  narrow  sense,  i.e. 
the  dialect  of  North  Germany.  Of  these  Germanic  languages  Gothic  has 
the  oldest  literary  documents,  reaching  back  into  the  fourth  century  A.  D., 
and  thus,  by  reason  of  its  age  and  highly  developed  grammatical  structure, 
is  much  studied  by  all  who  desire  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the  oldest  Germanic 
language  known  to  us.  High  German,  usually  for  the  sake  of  brevity  called 
German,  is  the  language  of  the  German  Empire,  a  large  part  of  Switzerland, 
and  parts  of  the  Austrian  Empire.  It  is  characterized  among  the  Germanic 
languages  by  its  richness  in  grammatical  forms.  However,  in  earlier  periods 
these  forms  were  still  richer.  Upon  the  basis  of  its  grammatical  forms 
German  is  divided  into  the  following  three  periods. 

1.  O(ld)  H(igh)  G(erman)  is  the  period  from  the  sixth  century  till  about 
I  ico.     In  this  period  Latin  was  the  language  usually  used  in  official  docu- 
ments and  all  literary  and  scientific  productions,  and  hence  comparatively 
little  in  the  way  of  literature  proper  is  found  in  the  German  of  this  period. 
From  the  early  part  of  this  period,  only  a  few  individual  words  and  a  few 
meager  fragments  are  preserved.     Further  on,  poems  and  connected  dis- 
courses appear.    The  center  of  the  literary  life  of  this  period  is  in  the  South. 

O.H.G.  was  distinguished  by  rich,  full  vowels  in  its  inflectional  endings, 
such  as  a,  0,  u  :  (pi.  of  tag  day)  N.  taga,  G.  tago,  D.  tagum,  A.  taga. 

2.  M(iddle)  H(igh)   G(erman)   is  the  period  from   1100-1350.     In   this 
period  Latin  still  prevails  as  the  leading  literary  language,  but  there  is  also 
a  rich   literature  in  German,  which  is  much   used,  especially   in   poetry. 
Between  1180  and  1250  this  literature  culminated  in  the  first  classical  period 
of  German  poetry.     German  was  used  also  to  some  extent  in  prose,  especially 
in  writings  of  a  religious  character.     Since  1238  official  documents   occa- 
sionally appear  in  German,  which  later  gradually  led  to  its  use  as  the  official 
language  of  the  empire.     The  center  of  literary  life  is  still  in  the  South,  but 
the  middle  part  of  the  empire  also  begins  to  play  an  important  role. 

M.H.G.  is  distinguished  by  the  decay  of  the  full,  rich  vowels  a,  o,  u  in  the 
inflectional  endings  to  the  monotonous  e:  (pi.  of  tag  day)  N.  tage  (O.H.G. 
taga),  G.  tage  (O.H.G.  tago),  D.  tagen  (O.H.G.  tagum),  A.  tage  (O.H.G. 
taga). 

3.  N(ew)  H(igh)  G(erman)  is  the  period  from  1350  to  the  present  time. 
In  general  the  period  of  N.H.G.  may,  from  the  standpoint  of  language,  be 
divided  into  three  parts.     The  first  part,  from  1350-1750,  which  may  be 
called  early  N.H.G. ,  is  a  period  of  considerable  change  and  growth.     The 
second  part,  from  1750-1810,  may  be  called  the  classical  period,  by  reason 


2  INTRODUCTION 

of  the  classical  beauty  and  strength  of  the  works  of  the  great  masters 
Lessing,  Goethe,  and  Schiller,  and  in  less  measure  of  other  writers  of  this 
time.  Language  questions  had  already  in  the  latter  part  of  the  early  N.H.G. 
period  been  earnestly  discussed,  and  greater  uniformity  of  usage  had 
gradually  been  coming  about.  The  great  literary  monuments  of  the  classical 
period  established  in  large  measure  a  firm  standard  of  speech.  The  third 
part,  from  1810  to  the  present,  which  may  be  called  late  N.H.G.,  has  no 
marked  peculiarity,  but  shows  everywhere  a  tendency  to  level  away  little 
inequalities,  and  bring  about  greater  simplicity  and  uniformity.  The 
language  is,  however,  still  far  from  having  a  complete  standard  of  usage 
either  in  grammar  or  pronunciation. 

The  center  of  literary  life  shifts  within  the  course  of  the  early  N.H.G. 
period  towards  the  middle  of  Germany,  and  one  man,  Martin  Luther,  plays 
a  very  important  rdle  in  the  development  of  the  language.  Latin  is  still 
much  used,  but  the  stirring  questions  of  the  Reformation  brought  the 
mother-tongue  into  prominent  use,  and  gradually  Latin  retired  to  the  rear. 
The  year  1691  was  the  last  one  in  which  more  Latin  books  appeared  than 
German.  Luther's  bold  stand  for  German  has  had  far-reaching  effects. 
His  translation  of  the  Bible  into  German  was  his  most  valuable  contribution 
in  this  direction.  This  great  and  successful  task,  however,  was  not  an  easy 
one.  Latin  had  so  long  been  the  medium  of  communication  in  the  higher 
forms  of  literature  that  the  native  language  was  left  largely  to  the  common 
people.  Thus  under  this  neglect  it  fell  more  and  more  into  dialects.  The 
books  that  were  published  in  German  before  Luther's  time  bore  strong 
dialectic  traces.  The  only  common  language  in  Germany  was  the  official 
language  of  the  government.  The  native  language,  though  neglected  by  the 
best  thinkers,  had  now  long  been  used  and  developed  by  tradesmen,  jurists, 
and  government  officials.  This  official  language  was  quite  generally  used  by 
those  who  wrote  in  German  for  a  general  public,  but  it  was  strongly  modified 
everywhere  under  local  influences.  The  confusion  was  increased  by  the 
fact  that  the  people  of  North  Germany  spoke  a  form  of  Low  German,  a  quite 
different  language  indeed.  Luther  desired  to  be  generally  understood,  and 
wrote  in  the  official  language.  He  employed  that  particular  form  of  it  used 
in  Saxony,  which  differed  from  that  of  the  imperial  chancery  in  having 
a  Middle  German  coloring.  This  language  was  also  modified  by  Luther's 
own  dialect,  another  form  of  Middle  German  speech,  and  was  probably  also 
influenced  by  the  Low  German  which  he  heard  in  his  daily  intercourse  with 
the  people  of  Wittenberg.  Thus  the  language  in  which  Luther  wrote  was 
largely  Middle  German,  and  was  accordingly  without  the  extremes  of  either 
the  South  or  the  North,  and  had  something  in  common  with  both,  although 
it  was  much  nearer  that  of  the  South.  Luther's  translation  was  in  general 
well  received,  and  became  with  respect  to  its  language  the  basis  of  modern 
German.  As  it  was  essentially  the  language  of  Protestantism  it  helped  to 
extend  the  use  of  High  German  into  the  northern  Low  German  countries, 
which  were  Protestant,  and  for  the  same  reason  was  opposed  in  the  Catholic 
South.  This  form  of  German,  although  in  large  part  a  South  German 
language,  met  in  some  sections  of  the  South,  especially  in  Switzerland,  strong 
resistance  on  account  of  its  great  divergence  from  the  native  dialect.  But 
on  account  of  the  evident  necessity  of  a  literary  standard,  and  the  leadership 
of  Middle  Germany  in  the  mental  and  literary  life  of  the  nation,  Luther's 
language  gradually  spread  over  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  Low  German 
(Plattdeutsch)  of  our  own  time  is  a  mere  dialect  or  a  group  of  dialects,  and 
though  used  by  several  talented  authors  in  their  best  works,  it  has  in  general 
relinquished  to  High  German  the  pulpit,  school,  and  press.  Low  German 
writers,  however,  who  at  present  occupy  a  commanding  place  in  literature, 
are  fond  of  interspersing  into  the  literary  language  words  of  Low  German 
origin  with  High  German  inflection,  or  rather  they  allow  their  characters  to 
do  this  in  accordance  with  actual  usage  in  everyday  life. 


THE   GERMAN   LANGUAGE  3 

In  a  part  of  the  N.H.G.  period,  especially  in  the  eighteenth  century,  High 
German  was  threatened  by  French,  which  was  much  used  at  the  different 
princely  courts  and  by  the  upper  classes  of  people  in  general.  The  pheno- 
menal achievements,  however,  of  Goethe  in  literature,  of  German  scholars 
in  science,  and  of  German  soldiers  upon  the  battlefields  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  have  at  last  given  to  all  that  is  German  a  good  name.  There  is  at 
present  a  lively  interest  manifested  by  Germans  in  the  process  of  the  purifica- 
tion of  their  native  language  from  foreign  words  which  remind  them  of  their 
former  dependence.  This  movement  is  not  merely  a  superficial  one  of  pride, 
but  a  general  and  deep  joy  in  the  development  of  the  mother-tongue  in  its 
purity  and  strength.  The  naturalistic  school  of  literature  has  also  introduced 
into  literary  speech  the  fresh  tones  of  life,  of  which  it  stood  in  such  great 
need.  The  Germans  of  Austria  and  Switzerland  are  taking  part  in  these 
movements,  and  are  contributing  their  full  share. 

N.H.G.  is  in  general  distinguished  from  M.H.G.  by  the  following  changes, 
(l)  The  most  far-reaching  change  was  the  lengthening  of  all  short  vowels  in 
open  syllables  :  M.H.G.  dtser,  N.H.G.  bicfer.  This  development  is  discussed 
in  the  grammar  in  4.  i.  b.  Note ;  4.  2.  B.  b.  Note  (i)  ;  198.  Historical  Note ; 
199.  Historical  Note.  (2)  The  change  of  the  long  M.H.G.  vowels  i,  u,  z'u 
(pro.  u)  into  the  diphthongs  et,  au,  eu:  M.H.G.  zit,  has,  hiute  have  become 
N.H.G.  3tit,  Jpaitg,  fyeute.  (3)  The_change  of  the  M.H.G.  diphthongs  ie,  uo,  He 
into  the  long  vowels  ie  (  =  t),  ii,  u  :  M.H.G.  diep,  huo/,griiene  have  become 
2)teb,  £uf,  griin.  The  old  diphthongs  ie,  uo,  He  are  still  preserved  in  S.G. 
dialect,  usually  in  altered  forms :  ie,  ue,  iie  (or  ie).  The  Bavarian  dialect 
sometimes  has  a  as  a  final  element  in  these  diphthongs :  ia,  ua,  iia  (or  id). 
These  dialect  forms  occur  of  course  in  popular  songs:  SBeljuet  (for  befjut')  bid) 
©ctt !  e£  u>dt'  ju  fd)6n  geroefen  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Lieder  Jung  Werners,  XII). 
(4)  M.H.G.  ou  has  become  an :  M.H.G.  bourn,  N.H.G.  23aum.  (5)  M.H.G.  e 
and  i  have  become  rounded  in  a  number  of  cases :  (a)  e  sometimes  becomes 
6  in  the  neighbourhood  of  sch  or  /:  fd)cpfen  (M.H.G.  schepfen),  £cl(e  (M.H.G. 
helle).  In  a  few  cases  also  elsewhere  :  crgojjm  (M.H.G.  ergetzen).  (b}  i  some- 
times becomes  ii,  especially  after  w :  2Bikbe  (M.H.G.  wirde).  Earlier  in  the 
period,  forms  with  e  and  i  are  still  found.  In  dialect  the  opposite  feature  is 
found,  i.e.  the  unrounding  of  6  and  ii;  see  12.  \.a  and  8.  \.a.  (6)  M.H.G. 
u  and  u  have  in  most  cases  become  N.H.G.  o  and  6  before  n  or  ntt,  and 
in  a  number  of  instances  before  m  or  mm:  <£ofjn  (M.H.G.  sun),  <Sonne 
(M.H.G.  sunne),  gefpounen  (M.H.G.  gespunnen),  Jtonig  (M.H.G.  kiinec) ; 
<Scmmer  (M.H.G.  sumer),  gefd)Wommeit  (M.H.G.  geswummen).  (7)  S  in  the 
beginning  of  a  word  before  1,  m,  n,  and  w,  and  sometimes  medially  after  r, 
has  become  fd) :  M.H.G.  slaf,  smerze,  sne'l,  swe'rt,  hersen,  have  become 
N.H.G.  <2d)laf,  ®d)merj,  fitted,  @d)U>evt,  f)errfd)en.  See  also  40.  z.g. 

Since  Luther's  day  many  more  or  less  important  changes  have  appeared 
in  the  literary  language  and  orthography,  as  the  language  has  been  constantly 
growing  and  developing,  and  stricter  and  more  scientific  principles  now 
obtain.  Only  a  few  of  the  points  where  Luther's  language  and  orthography 
differ  from  present  usage  are  here  given,  as  they  are  treated  more  fully  in 
the  Grammar:  (i)  The  difference  of  vowel  which  existed  between  the 
singular  and  plural  of  strong  verbs  has  been  levelled  away  and  now  only 
one  vowel  is  found  throughout  singular  and  plural.  Thus  id)  fanb,  twt  funben 
of  Luther's  day  have  become  id?  fanb,  unr  fantcit.  (2)  Remutation  (see  208. 
i.  a)  has  disappeared  in  a  few  verbs,  the  vowel  of  the  infinitive  now  standing 
in  all  the  forms  of  the  verb.  Thus  Luther's  id)  fefce,  past  id)  fafcte,  have 
become  id)  fe$e,  id)  fefcte.  (3)  Unaccented  e  has  dropped  out  in  a  multitude  of 
words.  Luther's  foretell,  forget,  have  become  Ijcrten,  forgt.  On  the  other  hand 
Luther  drops_/fwa/e  very  freely,  where  it  must  now  stand :  ber  erft(c),  bafjVlbig(e), 
&c.  (4)  A  number  of  minor  changes  have  taken  place.  Initial  u  is  now 
always  written  u,  not  »  as  formerly :  cttb,  now  unb.  We  now  write  uniformly 
au  and  cu  where  Luther  often  has  am  and  e» :  fcawm,  Irctt? ;  now  23aum,  treit. 

B  2 


4  INTRODUCTION 

We  now  write  a  where  Luther  has  e:  Jjenbe  now  Jpdnbe.  The  doubling  of 
consonants,  which  is  so  frequent  in  Luther's  writings,  is  now  limited  to  the 
one  case  that  double  consonants  are  used  to  show  shortness  of  vowel.  This 
difference  can  be  noticed  by  comparing,  in  the  present  revised  editions  of  the 
Bible,  Mark  iv.  26-27  with  the  following  from  the  edition  of  1545:  2S9tS> 
er  fyrad)  |  £>ag  reid)  @otte$  tyat  fid)  olfo  |  a(3  toenn  ein  Menfd)  famm  aup  lattb 
ttnrfft  |  »nb  fd)left  |  »nb  fteljet  auf  |  nadjt  ttnb  tag  |  S3nb  ber  Same  gefyet  auff  »nb 
toedjfet  |  ba3  er$  nidjt  tons.  It  will  also  be  noticed  in  the  preceding  passage 
that  capitals  were  not  as  now  uniformly  used  in  the  beginning  of  nouns,  and 
that  a  perpendicular  line  could  be  used  instead  of  a  comma  or  colon.  Luther 
used  to  write  especially  the  more  emphatic  nouns  with  capitals.  In  the 
learned  literature  of  our  day,  there  is  an  attempt  being  made  to  restore 
the  usage  of  a  still  older  period,  when  capitals  were  used  only  in  the  case 
of  proper  nouns  and  at  the  beginning  of  stanzas.  This  learned  literature 
usually,  however,  makes  one  exception,  namely  that  sentences  begin  with 
capitals.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  at  present  much  outlook  for  a  triumph 
of  this  usage. 

The  orthography,  which  has  gradually  developed  since  Luther's  day,  has 
had  since  1880  a  formidable  rival.  In  that  year  Prussia,  the  largest  German 
state,  issued  a  little  book  containing  rules  for  a  reform  of  the  orthography. 
Also  other  states  had  adopted  a  reformed  spelling,  but  the  Prussian  ortho- 
graphy naturally  found  the  widest  support.  School-books  followed  closely 
the  proposed  reforms ;  books,  newspapers,  and  periodicals  designed  for  the 
general  public  held  more  or  less  conservatively  to  the  old  order  of  things ; 
scholars  dissatisfied  with  the  lack  of  thoroughness  in  the  reforms  went  still 
further  in  the  direction  of  conforming  the  orthography  to  the  spoken  language. 
In  1901  a  few  additional  changes  in  the  direction  of  simplicity  were  proposed 
by  an  orthographical  conference,  which  have  been  approved  by  the  govern- 
ments of  the  German  Empire,  Austria,  and  Switzerland.  Thus  these  move- 
ments for  reform  have  culminated  in  an  official  orthography  for  the  German- 
speaking  peoples.  Although  there  is  at  present  considerable  confusion  in 
this  matter  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  the  official  orthography  will 
in  time  supersede  all  others. 

The  confusion  in  the  orthography  is  accompanied  by  a  difference  of  usage 
with  respect  to  the  style  of  the  letters.  The  so-called  German  alphabet, 
which  gradually  arose  in  early  times  among  the  monks  throughout  Europe 
as  a  modified  form  of  the  Latin  alphabet,  was  continued  after  printing  was 
invented,  but  was  later  dropped  by  other  nations,  who  returned  to  the  Latin 
letters.  In  Germany  the  love  for  the  old  German  alphabet  is  deeply  rooted, 
and  the  Latin  characters  find  favor  only  in  learned  circles  and  newspaper 
advertisements. 

In  our  time,  another  interesting  process  is  going  on.  The  North  has  at 
last  gained  the  political  and  literary  ascendency  in  Germany,  and  it  in  its 
turn,  after  South  and  Middle  Germany  have  each  in  their  turn  had  their 
day,  is  moulding  and  fashioning  the  language.  Maritime  terms  from  the 
Low  German  coasts  and  other  speech-forms  from  the  North  in  general  are 
finding  their  way  into  the  literature  and,  what  is  much  more  important,  the 
pronunciation  of  the  North  is  gradually  making  itself  felt,  and  hence  in  this 
book  is  offered  as  the  model  pronunciation  for  a  foreigner.  Thus  the  literary 
German  of  our  day  is  the  product  of  all  three  parts  of  Germany.  South  and 
Middle  Germany  created  it,  and  North  Germany  is  giving  it  its  sounds,  and 
is  enriching  its  vocabulary. 


GERMAN    ALPHABET 


GERMAN 

TYPE. 

GERMAN         GERMAN 
SCRIPT.            NAME. 

GERMAN 
TYPE. 

GERMAN 
SCRIPT. 

GFRMAN 

NAME. 

21 

a 

(/[/       sets     ah 

31      n 

^      ^^ 

enn 

23 

b 

c&       /&'       bay 

O      o 

^       ^ 

0 

I 

c 
b 

<p6         -^       tsay 

/)           QS 
x^       -r         day 

a    q 

/  r 

$    y 

pay 
coo 

(§ 

e 

/x^       ay 

91      t 

M    ^ 

airr 

8 

f 

S   /    & 

©    f,0* 

<p   /  /& 

/      sf.  ^6 
/  / 

> 
ess 

© 

9 

M/       x^x      gay 

f>^             *. 
H£/           v 

tay 

£ 

$ 

^^       ^^       hah 

U      u 

/2t-    ^z- 

oo 

3 

t 

c/          ^^        ee 

2]      » 

W        X*- 

fow 

3 

i 

//     ^*    yott 

3B     » 

S/f)// 

frrjfyS             *S&*%P 

vay 

ft 

f 

^       ^       kah 

X      r 

d/          ^ 

iks 

2 

i 

o^       ^^        ell 

9     V 

f  T 

ypsilon 

3R 

m 

v%x    st44s      emm 

3     j 

/  f 

tsett 

MODIFIED  VOWELS  f 
O      u         it     u 


au 


A       a          O       6  U      u  Au        au 

COMPOUND  CONSONANTS 


(d) 


ft        ff 


tsay-hah  tsay-kah    pay-hah    tay-hah    tay-tsett    ess-tsay-hah    ess-tay     ess-tay     ess-ess    ess-tsett 


*  6  at  the  end,  f  at  the  beginning  and  middle. 

t  In  naming  the  modified  vowels  give  their  phonetic  values,  i.  e.  e:,  /:,  y:,  or  say 
mutaied  a,  &c.  {  See  4.  2.  D. 


/ 


/ 

/ /v   ,/  /  J 

(  Cfatfa&/ 

/ 


PART  I 

PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1.  Best  Pronunciation.     In  Germany  there  is  no  standard  of 
pronunciation  that  is  acknowledged  and  absolutely  followed   by 
the  mass  of  intelligent  people.      The  so-called  standard  of  some 
people  is  the  pronunciation  of  the  stage,  which  again  is  divided 
into  the  pronunciation  of  tragedy  and  comedy.'    In  the  latter  of 
course  is  heard  the  more  natural  pronunciation  of  everyday  life. 
The  sectional  differences  in  pronunciation  are  very  marked,  but 
in  general  there  is  a  North  German  and  a  South  German  pro- 
nunciation.    The  historic  memories  of  Germany  lie  in  the  South, 
but  the  present  and  future  seem  firmly  seated  in  the  North.     For 
a  foreigner  who  is  not  interested  in  party,  it  is  only  natural  that 
he    choose    the    language    of  the    enterprising,   vigorous    North. 
A  widespread  impression  prevails  that  the  Hanoverian  pronuncia- 
tion  is   to   be   preferred   among  these    northern    pronunciations. 
There  appears  no  real  justification  of  this  general  impression  in 
the  facts  of  the  case.      Hanover  is  not  a  great  center  of  power 
that    can    now    or    in    the    future    exert    such    a    magic    charm 
over   the   development    of  things   as   to    turn   toward    itself   the 
thought  and  speech  of  Germany.     On  the  other  hand,    mighty 
centralizing  forces  are  at  work  in  the  nation's  great  capital  city 
which  sooner  or  later  will  make  themselves  felt  in  a  tangible  way. 
The  logic  of  events  seems  to  point  to  the  North  in  general,  and  to 
Berlin  in  particular,  for  the  best  pronunciation.     The  following 
short   treatise   takes  into  account  the  pronunciation  of  different 
sections,  but  deals  principally  with  colloquial  North  German  as 
spoken  by  the  mass  of  intelligent  people,  as  nearly  as  such  a 
common  standard  can  be  ascertained  under  the  existing  circum- 
stances.     Many   Germans   may   differ   in   particulars   as   to   this 
standard.    Oratorical  German,  which  is  in  general  more  conformed 
to  the  written  language,  is  only  briefly  considered  here. 

SOUNDS  OF  THE  LETTERS  AND  THEIR  CLASSIFICATION. 

2.  A.  Sounds  of  the  Letters.     The  growth  of  letters  has  not  kept 
pace  with  that  of  sounds,  hence  one  letter  may  represent  several 
sounds.     Phonetic  symbols  are  used  in  the  following  treatise  to 
distinguish  the  different  sounds  of  the  letters.     In  the  fallowing 
table  only  an  approximate  equivalent  is  given  for  each  German 
sound,  the  more  accurate  description   being  reserved   for   fuller 
treatment  in  the  succeeding  articles.     The  first  number  after  the 


8      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY     2.  A. 

phonetic  symbol  refers  to  an  article  which  gives  a  more  accurate 
description  of  the  sound.  The  second  number  refers  to  an  article 
which  gives  the  various  spellings  for  the  sound. 

PHONETIC  SYMBOLS. 

a a  (16. 2.  (a) ;  16.  2.  (b))     as  a  in  father, 

but  sharper. 

n,  aa,  nl) a:  (16.  i.  (a);  16.  i.  (£))     as  a  in  father. 

ae  =  a  (26.  A)  ;    in   Dutch 

names  =  a     (16.  i.  b. 

(7));  elsewhere  =  a  +  e : 

3Kicb/aeI,  «§erae'ber,  Qlero* 

newt'  (e  =  £•),  &c. 

ai .     at  (22) as  tin  pme. 

ai  in  French  words=ci  (13. 

x.0M4));sX(U.(*)) 

din  in  French  words  =eng 

(see  25) 
am,  on  in  French  words  = 

ang  (see  25) 

ait au  (23) as  ou  in  loud. 

ail  =  6  (18.  i.  (b).  (8));  =  a  +  u 

(23.  Note) 

att>  =  a  in  @l)arcl ;  33.  4.  (4) 
at)  =  ai ;  see  22.  (4) 

a e  (14.  0  ;  14.  £)  .     .     .     as  e  in  let. 

5,  a'J) e: (13.  i.  (a);  13.  i. (b))     a  prolonged  e. 

an 01 as  oy  in  boy. 

an  =  d  +  u  (24.  .Afote  3) 

b  or  bb 6(29;  80.4)     .     .     .     as  b  in  bat. 

b  final  or  next  a  voiceless 

consonant  =  £ 
c  before  front  vowels  (see 

8.a)  =  2(fc) 
C  in  some  French  words  = 

8  (s) ;  see  33. 2.  (8) 
£  or  5  =  3  (s). 
c  in  some  Italian  words  = 

/or(/-(33.4.(5)) 
c  elsewhere  =  f 
d>  after  au  or  a  back  vowel    #  (32.  3.  b)    .     .     .     . 

(see  6.  b) 
cf)   elsewhere   in   German     f  (32. 3.  a)     .... 

words 
e£  in  foreign  words  ;  32.  3. 

a.  Note 

^f  or  cfc§=f3;  see  80.3.  (2) 
cf  after  short  vowels  =  i 
&  or  t>& fi?  (29 ;  30. 5)    .     .     .     as  a7  in  day. 


2.  A.  PHONETIC  SYMBOLS  \ 

b  final  or  next  a  voiceless 

consonant  =  t 
e=  a 

e,  ee,  el) e:  (11. 1.  (a);  11. 1.  (6))      as  fl  in  bake. 

e  unaccented 9  (21) 

e  in  French  words  =  e 
can  in  French  words  =  o 
ee  in   English  words  =  t ; 

see  7.  i.  (b).  (7) 
et  =  at ;    in   a    number   of 

foreign   words  =  e  + 1 : 

QltfyeijY,  £>ei8'mu3,  &c. 
ciit  in  French  words  =  eng 

(e^) ;  see  25 
em,  en  in  French  words  = 

ang (ay) ;  see  25 
co  =  c  +  o  :  ifyeorie  (te:o:Ri:') 

£f)eobot  (te:'o:do:R) 
cu  =  au  ;    final    or    before 

a  single  consonant  in 

French  words  =  5  (12. 

I-  (^)-  (5));   elsewhere 

in    French   words  =  6 

(15.  (b).  (2)) ;  in  certain 

foreign    words  =  e  +  it 

(24.  Note  2) 
et)  in  proper  names  =  at; 

see  22.  (3) 
et)  final  in  3ocfety  =  e  or  at 

(see  11.  i.  (b).  (5)) 

f •.     .     .    /(82.IJ  33.i)       .     .     as/m/me. 

Q  initial g  (29;  30. 6)     .     .     .     as^in^ood. 

g  medial  after  front  vowels 

=  j ;  see  35. 3.  (2) 

9  medial  after  back  vowels    g  (34. 4 ;  35. 4) 
0  final  after  front  vowels  = 

cfy  in  id? 
g  final  after  back  vowels  = 

dj  in  ad) 

0  after  n  is  silent;  see  36.  b 
0  in  some   French  words     3  (34. 5  ;  35. 5)      .     .     as  g  in  rou^e. 

before  e  or  i 
g  in  some  English  words 

=  d$  (see  39.  4) 
00  medial  after  short  vowel 

=  g ;  see  30. 6.  (3) 
0i)  in  German  names  =  g; 

in  foreign  words  =  y 
0n  in   foreign  words  =  yn 
and  «/;  see  36.  cr.  (5) 


10 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY 


2.  A. 


*(7.i.(a);  7.  i. 


0u  before  front  vowels  in 

foreign  words  =  g;  see 

30.  6.  (4) 

ft  initial h  (28) 

ft  elsewhere  silent 

i i' (8-  L(«);  ».!.(*)) 

t,  ift 

i  unaccented  before  a  vowel 

=  j ;  see  9.  2 
if,  icft  =  I 
te  and  ie  in  foreign  words  ; 

see  7.  i .  (b).  Note  i 
ift  in  French  words  =je:  or 

t:x ;  see  7.  i.  (o).  Note  i 
ieit  =  jo  ;  =  eu  (24.  (5) ) 
il,  ill  in  French  words;  see 

39.5 
im,  in  in  French  words  = 

eng  (ey) ;  see  25 


as  h  in  hat. 


as  i  in  pin. 
as  i' in  machine. 


35.3) 


j  in  French  words  =  French 

g  before  e  or  i ;  see  34. 

5J  35.5 
j  in    English  words  =  d$  ; 

see  39.4 

? £(29;  30.3) 

I /  (37.  i)     .     . 

m m  (36.  a)  .     . 


it  except  before  c,  g,  f,  q     .     n  (36.  a, 

it  before  c,  g,f,  q;  see  36.tr. (3)    y  (36.  b;  36.  c.  (2),  (3)) 

"0  =  y  ',  see  36.  b 

o o  (17.  a ;  17.  b)  .      .     . 

o/  oft/  oo      ......     o:  (18.  i.  a;  18.  i.£)    . 

oa  in  (£oafg  (or  Jtof g)  =  o  ;  in 
Joafl  =  o  or  b:a' ;  else- 
where =  o  +  a  :  Jtloa'fe, 
&c. 

oe  =  6  (26.  A)J  in  L.G. 
names  =  o  (18.  i.  (b). 
(5)) ;  in  Dutch  words 
=u  (20.  i.  (6).  (8));  else- 


as  jv  m  jyes. 


as  k  in 
as  /  in  /et. 
as  m  in  wan. 
as  »  in  no. 
as 


as  o  in  Noah. 
as  o  in  heroic. 


oe^  =  b  n 

ot  in  L.G.  names  =  o(18.  i. 
(b).  (6)) ;  in  L.G.  words 
=  eu  (24.  (3)) ;  in  French 
words  =o:a:  or  6:a  (16. 
i .  (b).  (5)  and  2.  (b)} ;  else- 
where =  o:i:': 
&C. 


2.  A. 


PHONETIC   SYMBOLS 


om/  on  in  French  words  = 

ong  (oy]  ;  see  25 
oil  in  French  words  =  u  (20. 

i.(*).(7));=*(i».0M3)) 

otp  in  L.G.  and  Eng.  words 

=6  (18.  i.  (6).  (7));  in  Sla- 

vonic words  =  ov  medi- 

ally and  of  finally  or 

before  a  consonant 
oij  in  foreign  words  =  o:j 

(35.  3.  (5));  =  m  (24.  (4)) 
o    .........     ce  (15.  (a)  ;  15.  (oj)  .     . 

o,  i>l)  ........     0(12.  i.  a;  12.  i.  (A))  . 

^    .........    />  (  29  ;  30.  i)    .     .     .     as  p  in  />en. 

pf=p  +  f;  39.i 

M,  ppft  =  f  ;  see  33.  i.  (4). 

(5) 

qu  =  fir*  and  f  ;  see  39.  7 
r  uvular  .......     /?(34.  6)  ..... 

S/  f/  ff/  §  ;  see  33.  2  .     .     .     s  (32.  2;  33.2)      .     .     as  ss  in  moss. 
f  initial  and  medial  ;  35.  2.     z  (34.  2  ;  35.  2)      .     .     as  s  in  rose. 

(I)-  (2) 

frfj  .........    y(32.  4;  33.4)       .     .     as  sA  in  s/mve. 

flj  in  English  words  =  fd) 
fp,  ft  initial  in  stem  syllable 

=  \toft,  ftt  ;  33.  4.  (2) 
t,  tt),  tt,  bt  ......     /  (29  ;  30.  2)      .     .     .     as  /  in  fen. 

ti  =  ji(/s;');  see  39.  3.  (10) 

<*  =  5  ;  see  39.  3.  (2).  (3) 

u    .........     u  (19.  a  ;  19.  b)  .     .     .     as  u  in  pwt. 

fi/  ill)  ........     u:  (20.  i.(«);  20.  i.  (b)}   as  oo  in  booty. 

u  =  t;(36.  i.  (5).  (6).  (7).  (8)); 

in  French  words  =  it 
we  =  it  (26.  A)  ;_in  the  name 

Jto^ef  tte  =_Ft  ;  in  French 

words  =  it  (8.  i  .  (b).  (6))  ; 

elsewhere=tt  +  e:S)uctr 
ui  =  u  (8.  i.(o).(4));  =ett  (24. 

(6));  =vi:  (35.  i.  (8)); 

elsewhere  =  u  +  t:  ^tttfe 

(Iu:i:'z3\    8-u'tt^oIb  (the 

i  =  i:  or  t) 
mil,  mi  in  French  words  = 

6ni\  (ccy)  ;  see  25 
no  =  w/0V:  Jl'uoni  (name) 
ii    .........    y  (10.  a  ;  10.  b}       .     . 

",  iift  ........    jr  (8.  i.  (a);  8.1.  (b)). 

»  =  f;  seeSS.  i.(a).(3) 
v  medial  in  Low  German 

words=it>;  see35.i.(4) 


12      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY    2.  A. 

»  initial  and  medial  in  fo- 

reign words  =  rc;  see 

35.  i.  (3) 
tt)  .........     v  (34.  i  ;  35.  i)      .     .     as  v  in  very. 

5  =  f  8  ;  see  39.  2 

$  =/in  £)on  C.uirote  (don1- 

ki:fot] 
t>,  tj  =  i,  I  or  it,  it  (see  9.  i. 

(A).  (6);    10.  (b).  (3);    7. 

i.  (6).  (5,)  (6);     8.  i.  (b). 

(5).  Note) 
9  in  some  foreign  words  = 

i;  see  35.  3.  (5) 
9  in  some  Dutch  words  = 

at  ;  see  22.  5 
g  =  t8  ;  see  39.  3.  (i) 
5  =  f(0);  see  35.  2.  (3). 

B.  Classification  of  Sounds. 
I.   Vowels. 

Vowels  may  be  classified  from  different  points  of  view  The 
vowels  are  here  classified  according  to  the  horizontal  movement 
(see  3.  i.  a,  below)  of  the  tongue  in  forming  them.  The  various 
modifications  of  these  sounds  are  treated  later  under  each  vowel. 

SIMPLE  VOWELS. 

Front  Vowels. 

.  DIPHTHONGS. 

*;*  y:t  i>  y>  e:i  r:>  f:>  e>  &> 

aut  01  (eu  or  du),  at  (ei  or  ai). 
Back  Vowels. 

a:,  a,  o,  o:,  u,  u:. 
The  Mixed  Vowel  d  (see  21). 

II.  Consonants. 

The  aspirate  h  (a  voiceless  vowel,  but  in  function  always  a  con- 
sonant with  the  acoustic  effect  of  a  voiceless  spirant). 

Consonant-  Vowels. 


Stops  (explosives)                     Spirants. 

Nasals.     Liquids. 

Voiceless. 

Voiced.       Voiceless. 

Voiced. 

Voiced.     Voiced. 

Labials    .     . 

P 

b 

f 

V 

m 

Linguals 

t 

d 

s,/(32.4) 

z,5(3±5) 

n       l,r  (37.  2) 

Palatals   .     . 

k 

9 

{$2:!$ 

V 
<£-(34.4)    i 

\  R(a4._f>\ 

y(36.b) 

Glottal  stop  .      ?  (see  38) 

Note.  The  sounds  have  here  been  divided  into  the  two  usual  classes  of  vowels  and 
consonants  upon  the  basis  of  the  function  usually  performed  by  the  various  sounds. 
A  vowel  can  form  of  itself  a  syllable.  A  consonant  does  not  of  itself  form  a  syllable, 


3.2.  CLASSIFICATION   OF   SOUNDS  13 

but  is  only  used  in  conjunction  with  vowels  to  form  syllables.  Hence  the  above 
classification  does  not  always  hold  good.  The  consonants  I,  m,  It,  rj,  r,  are  sometimes 
used  as  vowels ;  see  41.  4.  The  vowels  found  as  the  less  sonorous  element  of 
diphthongs  are  in  fact  consonants.  The  vowel  i  often  becomes  a  consonant  in  certain 
positions ;  see  35.  3.  (4).  The  classification  of  sounds  upon  the  basis  of  function  does 
not  always  help  us  in  gaining  a  correct  conception  of  the  nature  or  formation  of  the 
various  sounds.  Thus  I,  tit,  n,  and  lingual  r  (r)  do  not  differ  in  any  essential  point 
from  vowels  in  their  formation,  though  upon  the  basis  of  function  they  must  in  most 
cases  be  classified  as  consonants.  Thus  also  I)  does  not  materially  differ  in  formation 
from  the  simple  vowels  a,  0,  U,  &c.,  except  that  the  vocal  chords  do  not  vibrate,  but 
it  is  here  classified  as  a  consonant,  as  it  always  has  the  function  of  a  consonant ;  see 
28,  Note. 

FORMATION  OF  SOUNDS. 

3.  i.  In  forming  a  vowel  the  mouth  remains  more  or  less  open, 
and  the  vocal  chords  vibrate.  Each  new  position  of  the  tongue 
produces  a  new  vowel,  which  may  again  be  modified  in  various 
ways.  The  tongue  movements  and  various  modifications  can  only 
be  briefly  treated  here. 

a.  Tongue  Movements.      The   tongue  moves  horizontally  and 
vertically — backwards   and   forwards,   upwards    and    downwards. 
The   horizontal  movement  results    in    three    general   classes   of 
sounds,  back  vowels  formed  by  the  back  part  of  the  tongue,  front 
vowels  formed  by  the  front  part  of  the  tongue,  mixed  vowels  formed 
by  allowing  the  tongue  to  drop  into  a  neutral  position,  in  which 
neither  articulation  predominates.     The  vertical  movement  of  the 
tongue  results  in  three  general  classes,  high  vowels  formed  by 
raising  the  tongue  close  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  mid  vowels 
by  raising  the  tongue  moderately,  low  vowels  by  lowering  the 
tongue.     These  positions  will  be  discussed  later  with  each  vowel. 

b.  Rounding.    Vowels  are  rounded  by  protruding  the  lips  as  in 
whistling.     Thus  by  rounding,  r,  /',  e:,  e,  become  y:,  y,  <f>,  &}  see 
8,  10,  12,  15. 

c.  Narrowness,  Wideness.    A  sound  is  said  to  be  '  narrow '  when 
the  muscles  of  the  tongue  become  tense  and  bulge  up,  and  thus 
narrow  the  resonance  chamber.     When  a  sound  is  formed  without 
this  tenseness  it  is  said  to  be  'wide/     The  difference  between 
e:  and  e.'  is  that  the  former  is  narrow  and  _the  latter  wide.     In 
North  German  all  long  vowels  except  a  and  a  (e:)  are  narrow  and 
all  short_  ones  wide.     This  explains  the  strong  tendency  to  pro- 
nounce d  as  e:  instead  of  e:.     These  modifications  will  be  given 
later  in  connection  with  each  vowel. 

d.  Nasality.     In  forming  nasal  vowels  the  breath  passes  through 
the  nose  as  well  as  the  mouth.      Nasality  is  the  characteristic  of 
vowels  in  many  words  from  the  French ;  see  25. 

2.  In  forming  consonants  the  mouth  is  either  closed  as  in  the  case 
of  stops  and  nasals,  or  narrowed  as  in  the  case  of  spirants.  The 
distinguishing  feature  of  a  consonant  is  the  friction,  or  stopping  of 
the  breath  in  some  part  of  the  mouth  or  throat.  If  voice  enters 
into  the  formation  of  a  consonant,  that  is,  if  the  vocal  chords 
vibrate  in  producing  it,  it  is  said  to  be  voiced,  otherwise  it  is 
voiceless.  The  formation  of  the  different  consonants  is  described 
later. 


H      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY  -   4.  i. 


QUANTITY  OF  VOWELS. 

4.  i.  General  rules. 

a.  Accented  vowels  are  long  when  final,  or  before  a  vowel  or 
one  consonant  :  bci,  <£e=en,  2)ia(,  ntaWen.  Notice  that,  if  a  vowel 
follows  the  stem,  the  final  consonant  is  always  carried  over,  and 
the  stem  syllable  becomes  open,  i.  e.  terminates  with  a  vowel. 

The  quantity  of  the  vowel  must  be  ascertained  from  the  simple 
stem  of  the  word,  the  inflectional  endings  that  may  be  added  not 
counting  :  ber  «§ftt,  be3  <£utS  ;  loben,  bu  166ft,  gelo&t. 

Note.  To  the,  in  general,  very  reliable  rule  that  the  vowel  of  the  simple  stem  gives 
the  quantity  to  the  derivative  forms,  there  are  exceptions  :  (i)  Exceptions  among 
weak  verbs  are  limited  to  the  following  cases  :  id?  babe,  bu  fyaft,  er  fiat,  er  batte,  gefyabt, 
id)  friege  (kniyy)  I  get,  bu  friegji  (ksifst),  er  friegt  (ksift),  friegte  (kjafto),  gefriegt 
(gsksift),  the  isolated  participial  adjective  berebt  (also  berebt)  eloquent,  from  reten. 
(2)  A  difference  of  vowel  or  consonant  sometimes  makes  the  quantity  irregular  in 
strong  or  irregular  verbs  :  id)  ItefJBte,  bu  mmmft.  The  special  cases  are  noted  under 
the  strong  verbs.  (3)  The  monosyllabic  form  of  the  nouns  ending  in  b,  b,  f,  g,  d  are 
often  in  N.G.  short  instead  of  long,  since  the  difference  in  the  pronunciation  of  these 
consonants  finally  and  medially  has  prevented  the  spreading  of  the  long  vowel  from 
the  open  lengthened  forms  to  the  closed  monosyllabic  forms  :  ber  !£ag  or  £ag,  but 
always  beg  £5;ge3.  See  2.  B.  b.  Note  (i)  below.  (4)  The  adverbs  toeg  (vtf  or  vtk)  and 
flug3  (fluks]  have  retained  the  old  short  vowel,  as  they  are  always  in  a  closed 
syllable,  while  in  2Beg  and  $[llQ  it  has  become  long  after  the  analogy  of  the 
lengthened  forms  2Be;ge$  and  glu^ged.  See  2.  B.  b.  Note  (i)  below.  (5)  A  difference 
may  arise  from  the  absence  of  the  feeling  of  the  original  connection  of  the  words  : 
4>eer,  but  ^erjpg;  Quljrt,  but  ferttg,  &c. 


b.  An  accented  vowel  standing  before  two  or  more  consonants 
is  usually  short  and  the  syllable  is  closed,  i.  e.  terminates  in 
a  consonant,  but  it  is  long  in  the  special  cases  (see  2.  A.  d.  (2), 
(3),  be_low),  where  the  syllable  is  open  :  SBatt,  «§alt,  fln=fen,  faf=ten, 
but  -§jj=bra.  Thus  a  vowel  in  an  accented  open  syllable  is  always 
long,  whether  it  stands  before  one  consonant  or  more  :  ma4en, 
2Ke-trif,  &c.  A  vowel  is  short  in  a  few  words  before  one  consonant, 
and  the  syllable  is  closed  :  %Ww  (also  Si'afer),  ©rammat'tf,  gram* 
martfa,  £oter,  tfcunt'el,  SWeta^'er  (p$  =  f),  Otelief, 


Note.  The  great  majority  of  the  long  vowels  of  the  language  have  corresponding 
short  ones  in  M.H.G.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  period  all  short  vowels  became 
long  in  open  syllables,  i.  e.  where  the  final  consonant  of  the  stem  was  carried  over  to 
the  next  syllable.  Thus  M.H.G.  banen,  geben,  honec,  gibel,  became  bafcnett,  ge~;ben, 
Jp&ntg,  ©ie;bel.  Before  one  consonant  the  syllable  was  usually  open  and  the  vowel 
became  long.  Before  a  combination  of  consonants  and  before  the  heavy  simple 
consonantal  sounds,  d),  f  (only,  however,  the  new  f  developed  from  Germanic  p  ;  see 
4.0.  !.<:),  f},  usually  t,  and  sometimes  m,  the  syllable  was  closed  and  the  vowel 
remained  short:  M.H.G.  halten,  lachen,  geschlifen,  ezzen,  geriten,  vromen,  remain 
short,  batten,  ladjen,  gefdju'ffen,  effen,  geritten,  frommen.  In  foreign  words,  however, 
a  syllable  is  often  open  and  the  vowel  long  before  a  combination  of  consonants  ;  see 
i.K.d.  (3),  below. 

Wherever  a  vowel  became  long  in  an  open  syllable  the  same  quantity  was  later 
extended  for  the  sake  of  uniformity  to  the  closed  syllables  of  the  same  inflectional 
system.  See  2.  B.  b.  Note  (i),  below. 

The  above  described  lengthening  of  short  vowels  in  open  syllables  did  not  take 
place  in  parts  of  the  S.  W.,  which  still  preserve  here  the  old  historic  short  sound. 

c.   Unaccented   simple  vowels   are  short,   except  when  final  : 


4.2.  B.  b*  QUANTITY   OF  VOWELS  15 

glcwfcen,  5urfl?n,  Stuffing,  &c.     Unaccented  final  vowels  except  e  are 
long.     See  2.  B.  c.  and  Note  thereunder. 
2.   Rules  for  Quantity  in  Detail. 

A.  The  following  are  long : — 

a.  A  diphthong :  @aul,  ©aule. 

b.  Doubled  vowels  and  te :  $aar,  >§eer,  SBoot,  Bieten.     Only  a,  e,  o 
can  be  doubled.     They  must,  however,  be  written   single  when 
mutated  :  $aar,  but  $ard;en. 

c.  Simple  accented  vowels  when  final,  or  before  a  vowel  or  one 
consonant :  ta,  Seen,  taben,  SWifroffop'.     Exceptions  :  Qtprtr,  Qrob  (but 
long  in  open  syllables,  as  in   grower,  &c.),  Jlaptt'el,  £iit£)er,  Sitfyv, 
&c. 

The  length  of  the  vowel  may  also  be  indicated  by  a  silent  § : 
l,  ijjm,  ityn,  &c. 

d.  Simple  accented  vowels  are  sometimes  long  before  more  than 
one  consonant : 

(1)  The  vowels  n,  e,  and  less  frequently  other  vowels,  are  long 
before  r  +  a  dental  (b,  t,  g,  f,  fcfy) :  irerben,  ©cfyrcert,  Dtiaq,  &c.     Thus 
these  vowels  are  long,  although  they  stand  in  closed  syllables  ; 
see  B.  b.  Note  (2)  below.     This   pronunciation   is  a  new   develop- 
ment, and  is  not  yet  universally  recognized. 

(2)  Vowels  are  sometimes  long  before  ft,  6)1,  £fl,  tftfj,  and  in  still 
other  cases.     The  words  will  be  given  later  under  the  respective 
vowels.     In  all  these  cases  the  consonants  should  be  carried  over 
to  the  next  syllable  wherever  it  is  possible,  so  that  the  accented 
syllable  may  be  open  :  D=ftern,  busier,  &c. 

Note.  These  vowels  were  long  or  were  diphthongs  in  earlier  periods  of  the 
language,  and  hence  their  length  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  process  of  lengthening 
explained  in  i .  b.  Note,  above.  In  general,  long  vowels  have  come  down  to  us  long, 
whatever  their  position  may  have  been.  There  is,  however,  in  our  own  period 
a  tendency  to  shorten  a  long  vowel  before  a  combination  of  consonants,  especially 
before  §i  and  n  +  consonant,  and  also  before  the  simple  consonantal  sound  fd)  (/). 
In  some  words  the  vowels  have  already  become  short,  as  in  btdjt  (M.H.G.  dihte), 
ftllttb  (M.H.G.  stuont),  ging,  futg,  tying  for  older  gteng,  fiettg,  fytettg,  &c.  In_othersthe 
quantity  is  at  present  doubtful :  brafcfy  or  brafdj,  toud)3  or  h)lld)^,  ttrnfff)  or  uJufdj,  &c. 

(3)  In  many  words  from  the  Latin  or  Greek,  the  consonants 
between  vowels,  especially  a  stop  (p,  t,  f,  6,  b,  g)  +  r  or  I,  are  carried 
over  to  the  next  syllable,  as  in  the  original.     This  leaves  the  pre- 
ceding syllable  open,  which  according  to  German  usage  (see  i.  b. 
above)   becomes   long:   SWutra,   *8ie=tnm\,  &c.,    also  in  words  with 
secondary  stress,  as  in  2Jir*fros(fov//  &c. 

B.  Short:— 

a.  Simple  vowels  before   double  consonants,  or  two  or  more 
different  consonants  :  ©atter,  4?unbe. 

b.  Simple   vowels   before   one   consonant  in   some   uninflected 
forms,  and  in  a  few  inflected  monosyllables  that  do  not  form  open 
syllables  in  the  course  of  inflection  :  an,  in,  a£>,  urn,  if  eg,  utit,  Son,  06, 
fctS,  baS,  bafj,  rcag,  bin,  bift,  iff,  the  article  ber,  beS,  &c.  (pronounced  <&/?, 
afcs,  &c.  in  careful  speaking  or  declaiming,  but  ordinarily  d^R,  das, 
&c.,  with  weak  stress).     Such  monosyllables  are,  however,  always 
long  if  they  contain  a  ty,  final  r  (except  in  the  article),  or  accented 


16      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY  4.2.B.6. 

sem,  sen  :  ttym,  ttyn,  rcer  (ve:R\  fcor,  empor',  the  demonstrative  and  rela- 
tive ber  (de:R\  bem  (de:m),  ben  (de:n\  &c. 

Note,  (i)  The  reason  that  the  vowel  of  most  of  the  above  words  is  short  is  that  it 
always  stands  in  a  closed  syllable.  Formerly  the  vowel  of  monosyllabic  nouns  ending 
in  a  single  consonant  could  also  be  short,  as  in  ©ram,  @ttt.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
present  period  these  same  vowels  became  long  in  all  lengthened  forms  in  accordance 
with  the  new  law  that  lengthened  all  short  vowels  in  open  syllables:  ©rentes, 
@tte4e3.  See  I.  b.  above  and  Note  thereunder.  The  long  vowel  of  the  lengthened 
forms,  following  the  general  trend  toward  uniformity  throughout  the  same  inflectional 
system,  spread  later  to  the  closed  syllables.  Thus  ©ram,  @ttt  became  ©ram,  <Stiel. 
For  several  little  irregularities  see  i.a.  Note  (3),  above.  As  the  above-mentioned 
short  closed  forms  were  never  inflected,  or  never  became  open  in  the  course  of  their 
inflection,  they  remained  short. 

(2)  Final  r  had  an  effect  upon  a  preceding  accented  vowel  differing  from  that 
of  other  final  consonants.  It  usually  lengthened  the  vowel,  although  it  closed  the 
syllable,  as  in  »6r,  ft>er,  &c.  It  also  had  the  same  effect  medially  in  certain  cases  ; 
see  A.  d.  (i)  above. 

In  S.G.  vowels  become  long  in  closed  syllables  also  before  other  consonants  :  Jlopf, 


c.  Unaccented    simple  vowels    are    short    except  when    final  : 
Hjalten,  ®efana,'nt3,  <§errtn,  &c.     Unaccented  final  vowels  except  e  are 
long.     Long  unaccented  final  vowels  occur  in  a  few  isolated  words, 
as  ll'fyft,  (Scfyu'lju,  and  in  a  number  of  names,  as  Dt'to,  SBru'no,  8'ri'fca, 
<§er'ta,  &c.     Aside  from  these  words  and  suffixes,  such  as  =licfc,  =tn, 
*lin$,  &c.,  which  have  secondary  accent,  weak  e  (9)  is  now  the  only 
German  vowel  found  outside  the  accented  r6ot  syllable,  as  the 
various  fuller  vowels  of  earlier  periods  have,  under  the  effect  of 
weak  stress,  been  all  reduced  to  this  one  form.     Of  course  com- 
pounds may  deviate  from  this  rule,  as  the  components  retain  the 
quantity   which    they   have   as   independent   words  :    <2cfyltttfdjuf>, 
©cfyiffafyrt,  &c.     Also  the  heavy  suffixes  at,  jan,  fear,  fa  I,  tiim,  fit, 
usually  also  fam,  which  were  in  part  once  independent  words,  form 
exceptions  to  the  rule  :  4?ei'rat,  ^or/fear,  &c. 

Note.  Other  vowels  than  e  are,  however,  often  found  in  unaccented  syllables  in 
foreign  words,  and  it  should  be  noted  that  they  do  not,  except  in  final  syllables, 
conform  to  the  German  rule  for  quantity.  Foreign  vowels  except  e  are  long  when 
final  :  Sln'tta,  (Sa'lomo,  STtibl,  &c.  Also  final  e  is  long  in  a  -few  words  :  Stthe'ne, 
ftafft'mile,  ge'the,  &c.  Elsewhere  unaccented  a,  a,  e,  i,  o,  6,  u,  it,  which  stand  in  an 
open  syllable  before  a  single  consonant  or  a  combination  of  consonants,  vary  from 
half  long  to  short.  Except  in  final  syllables  they  are,  however,  unlike  the  usual  short 
vowels  in  quality,  but  in  this  respect  are  exactly  like  the  usual  long  vowels,  only 
pronounced  a  little  more  quickly,  and  hence  to  distinguish  them  from  the  usual  short 
sounds  they  will  hereafter  be  marked  by  the  breve  w  over  the  usual  character  for  the 
long  sound:  2JJigrdne  (nii:gnt:'n3\  SDtfret  (deiskRe:?).  In  long  words  the  vowel  that 
has  secondary  accent  is  often  really  long  :  @tt)tttologte  (e:^ty:mH:l3:gi:r).  In  a  number 
of  common  words,  however,  the  c,  sometimes  also  e,  is  pronounced  as  short  German  o 
or  e  and  the  syllable  becomes  closed  :  Jlotonie  (kolfcni:'},  Jtolonabe  (kolona:'  da\ 
Jlolonne  (kolon'y],  &olo$  (£?//r),  fotojfal  (Mosa:!1),  Jtomttee  (komt:te:'\  Jlrcfobil 
(kEokS:di:l'),  ©djofolabe  (faU:iafat\  Xropljae  (tBofc'i),  dje»alete$f  (ftv&:bR*stT).  In 
unaccented  final  syllables  terminating  in  a  consonant  they  have  uniformly  the  usual 
pronunciation  of  the  corresponding  short  German  vowels  :  35cftor  (dok'tOB),  SKetrilOT 
(me:'tRuni),  Sober  (ko:'dtks),  3flt)fhf  (mys'tik},  &c.,  but  £fieobor  (te:'S:do:s'}t  &c. 

In  many  common  words  c  becomes  s  instead  of  /:  or  €  if  it  follows  an  accent  and 
sometimes  even  a  secondary  accent  :  Sljolera  (ko'hsa:),  Slvattcement  (avay'symay'),  &c. 

d.  Long  vowels  become  short  in  words  which  by  reason  of  their 


5.  QUANTITY  OF  VOWELS  17 

lack  of  logical  importance  in  the  sentence  remain  entirely  without 
accent,  but  such  vowels  retain  the  quality  they  originally  had  as 
long  vowels,  and  to  distinguish  them  from  the  usual  short  vowels 
they  are  marked  by  a  breve  w  over  the  usual  character  for  the  long 
sound :  3»ir  i'ft,  a!3  o'b  id)  bie  (d!:)  £a'nbe  |  Qlufg  £a'upt  bit  le'gen  fo'ttt'. 
3d?  fya'b  bid?  geli'ebet  fo  (zo:)  ma'ndjeg  3a'fyr. 

C.  Rules  for  doubling  to  show  that  the  vowel  is  short.    A  single 
consonant  must  be  doubled  after  a  short  vowel,  but  in  the  following 
cases  variations  occur : — 

a.  The  final  consonant  in  the  suffixes  nig,  in,  ag,  eg,  ig,  og,  and  ug 
remains  single  when  no  inflectional  ending  follows,  but  when  an 
additional  syllable  is  added,  the  g  and  n  are  doubled  :  bag  ©efdngntg, 
but  teg  ©efdngmffeg,  pi.  bie  ©efdngmffe ;  bie  .ftomgin,  pi.  bie  Jtonigtnnen. 

b.  Instead  of  double  3  the  combination  £  is  used  :  bie  Jta£e. 

c.  Instead  of  double  f  the  combination  rf  is  used :  fcfyreden,  but 
erfdpraf  with  only  one  f  as  the  vowel  is  long. 

d.  The  combinations  ng,  jd?,  $  are  never  doubled  after  a  short 
vowel  like  the  other  characters  representing  simple  consonantal 
sounds.     Doubling  does  not  take  place  here  from  an  aversion  to 
heaping  up  too  many  unsightly  letters.     Before  ng  and  fcfy  a  simple 
vowel  is  quite  uniformly  short.     Before  d?  the  vowel  is  sometimes 
short,  sometimes  long,  as  will  be  noted  below  under  the  different 
vowels. 

e.  When   from   a  verbal   stem  containing  a  double  consonant 
a  derivative  word  is  formed  by  means  of  the  suffixes  b,  t,  or  jl,  the 
double  consonant  becomes  single :   ©efatnft  from  ftrinnen ;   ©ercinft 
from  genrinnen ;  ©efdjdft  from  fdjaffen ;  funb  from  fennen ;  ©eflalt  from 
Men,  &c. 

/.  When  a  vowel  in  the  suffix  is  dropped,  bringing  doubled 
consonants  and  a  following  consonant  together,  one  of  the  doubled 
consonants  is  dropped,  as  there  will  still  be  two  consonants  left  to 
show  that  the  preceding  vowel  is  short :  ®rumt,  .Rumt,  <£amt,  Soft, 
&c.,  for  ©rummet,  Jtummet,  <2ammet,  Saffet,  &c.  Similarly  in  com- 
pounds :  (Sfyiffatyrt,  &c.,  for  @d)ifffo^rt,  &c. 

D.  Quantity  Unascertainable  from  Position: 

a.  Before  ff  the  vowel  is  always  short :  effen,  &c.     Before  $  the 
vowel  is  long,  if  a  vowel  follows  fj :  afjen.    Double  g  is  always  written 
9  at  the  end  of  a  word  or  before  a  consonant,  so  that  in  these 
positions  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  cannot  be  ascertained  :  fci§,  apt, 
Shifj,  B'u§.     The  quantity  can  be  ascertained  when  a  vowel  Jbllows 
in  the  jnflectional  ending:  beg  fttuffeg,  beg  ftiijjeg;  id;  f>ijj,  bit  biffefl;  ityr 
5§t,  fte  apen. 

b.  Before   d?   the  vowel  is  sometimes  short,  sometimes  long : 
bred?en,  brad),  gebrocfyen. 

PRONUNCIATION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  VOWELS. 

5.  The  following  description  of  the  vowels  is  only  approximately 
correct.     Even  the  most  scientific  analysis  cannot  take  the  place 

c 


PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY      5. 

of  viva  voce  pronunciation  of  sounds.     The  pronunciation  given  is 
for  accented  vowels  unless  otherwise  stated. 

6.  (a).  The  front  vowels,  so  called  because  in  their  formation  the 
tongue  is  advanced  to  the  front  part  of  the  mouth,  are  t,  in,  \,  u,  I,  o, 
d  (e),  o  in  the  order  of  the  positions  of  the  tongue,  beginning  in  the 
front  of  the  mouth  and  moving  backward. 

(b).  The  back  vowels  in  the  order  of  the  positions  of  the  tongue, 
beginning  a  little  behind  the  middle  of  the  mouth  and  moving  back- 
ward, are  a,  5,  o,  u,  u. 

(c).  There  is  a  vowel  in  which  neither  front  nor  back  articulation 
prevails.  This  is  unaccented  e  (2),  which  from  its  manner  of  articu- 
lation is  called  mixed  e.  See  21. 

FRONT  VOWELS. 
The  sounds  of  the  front  vowels  follow  in  their  order : 

7.  i.  (a),    i:  (t),  the  high-front-narrow  vowel  (see  3.  i.a  and  c),  is 
pronounced  like  *  in  machine.     It  is  found   in    accented  open 
syllables  and  in  closed  ones  before  ty  and  r  :  £ie=6e,  tfym,  mir ;  also  in 
other  closed  syllables  which  become  open  when  an  inflectional 
ending  follows :  @ttel,  beg  <Stie=Ie3;  see  4. 2.  B.  b.  Note(i). 

(b).  i:  is  written :  (i)  ie  (or  let))  in  all  German  words  except 
mir,  btr,  nrir,  i^m,  ityn,  i^nen,  il)r,  if)rer,  ityrig,  Sget,  3fegrtm,  ffii&er,  Sib,  rciber ; 
(2)  ie  also  in  foreign  words  that  have  become  thoroughly  naturalized, 
as  in  SBrief,  $J}arabte8,  &c.;  (3)  i  or  ie  in  accented  syllables  before  one 
consonant,  or  finally  in  many  foreign  words,  written  i  or  ie  accord- 
ing as  they  were  spelled  in  the  language  from  which  they  were 
taken,  as  in  3)?afd?ine,  5trtitterie,  &c.,  but  written  ie  uniformly  in 
foreign  verbs,  as  in  ftubieren ;  (4)  ty  (representing  ii  =  t  in  an  older 
orthography,  and  hence  different  in  origin  and  sound  from  the  i)  in 
8.  i.  b.  (5) )  before  one  consonant  in  S.G.  and  Swiss  proper  names, 
as  @c^ro«| ;  (5)  ty  before  one  consonant  in  words  from  the  Greek,  as 
in  Qtnaltyfe,  &c.,  where,  however,  the  pronunciation  y:  is  also  heard, 
as  explained  in  8.  i.  b.  (5)  and  the  Note  thereunder ;  (6)  i)  final  in 
other  foreign  words,  as  in  3url),  SBtUty,  &c. ;  (7)  ee  in  a  few  words 
from  the  English,  as  in  (Spleen,  Q)anfee  (jty'ki:). 

Note  i.  Foreign  words  in  ie  present  many  difficulties :  (i)  Words  in  ier  fall  into 
two  groups,  which  have  been  introduced  into  the  language  at  different  periods  and 
have  developed  a  different  pronunciation.  The  older  group  is  pronounced  i:R,  the 
younger  groupy'^: :  £5ffijiet  (ofl:tsi:s1'),  9ttlttiet  (Rtntje:'}.  No  safe  rule  can  be  given 
to  distinguish  these  groups  except  that  the  verbs  uniformly  have  the  pronunciation  »:B. 
Elsewhere  the  dictionary  must  be  consulted.  (2)  Accented  ie  =  i:  in  SWarte,  @opfjie, 
Jtotonte,  &c.,  but  =  t':p  in  lengthened  forms  as  maRi:'ftis,  kol3:ni:'yn,  &c.  Also  notice 
the  difference  between  the  French  QRarie  (mast:'),  @opfiie  (?#$:'}  and  the  Latin  forms 
2Karte  (masi:'y),  @t.  Wane  (maRt:'s},  &c.  (3)  French  ti  =j't:  or  after  German 
mannerye:,  as  in  Satrtete  or  now  ^arttete  (kazjti'ita  or  kaRJe?R9),  &c.  (4)  ie  in  some 
words  —je:  before  one  consonant  and/c  before  more  than  one :  $|$iebejlal  (pje:dtsta.r), 
but  ©erfliette  (ztmy'tfi).  (5)  ie  -=  1:9  in  4>i«ogI>)'lJfien ;  •=  f:e:  in  Qtopufat.  (6) 
Unaccented  ie  =_/>,  but  =  tV  if  it  has  secondary  stress,  ©totie  (glo:'RJ9),  but  <£et(erie 
(zffyRi:*"). 

Note  3.  In  German  words  ie  was  originally  a  diphthong,  and  hence  both  vowels 
were  pronounced.  Later  ie  became  merely  long  t,  the  e  serving  as  a  sign  of  the  length 
of  the  preceding  vowel,  and  words  which  originally  had  no  t  after  the  t  took  it  to  show 
that  the  i  was  long.  For  example  see  4.  2.  B.  b.  Note  (i).  In  the  S.G.  dialects  ie  is 
still  pronounced  as  a  diphthong  in  words  that  had  it  originally. 


10.  a.  FRONT  VOWELS 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables  i  (also  !))  has  the  same 
sound,  only  pronounced  a  little  more  quickly  and  must  not  be 
confounded  with  i  in  closed  syllables  described  in  9.  i.  (a):  2ttititar 
(mi:li:tt:R'}.  See  4.  2.  B.  c.  Note. 

8.  i.  (a),  y:  (ii),  the  high-front-narrow-round  vowel,  does  not  exist 
in  English  speech.  It  is  formed  by  placing  the  tongue  into  the 
position  for  i:  (or,  more  accurately,  by  lowering  somewhat  the  back 
part  of  the  tongue  ano?  drawing  in  the  tip  slightly  more  than  in  the 
position  for  i:,  at  the  same  time  hollowing  it  so  as  to  enlarge  the 
resonance-chamber  back  of  the  teeth),  and  then  pronouncing  with 
lips  protruded  and  rounded  as  for  u:.  Instead  of  this  sound  we 
often  hear  i:  in  Middle  and  South  Germany,  and  in  parts  of  the 
North,  especially  among  the  lower  classes. 

(b).  This  y:  is  written  :  (i)  it  before  one  consonant,  as  in  fciiten  ; 
also  in  iMfctje,  the  plurals  33ucfyfr,  ^litcfye,  Jitter  ;  (2)  u  before  more 
than  one  consonant  in  biifier,  n?uft,  and  usually  in  iKitfter,  Otttfter,  also 
in  Sftitbfen,  and  the  proper  names  llljen,  Urf)tri£;  (3)  itf),  as  in  ^fufyl, 
&c.  ;  (4)  ui  in  a  few  proper  names,  as  S)wSf>urg  ;  (5)  9  in  Greek  words 
(see  Note)  before  one  consonant,  as  in  Qtfyt  ;  (6)  u  in  open  syllables, 
sometimes  followed  by  a  silent  e,  in  words  from  the  French  : 


Note.  In  the  more  common  words  and  in  general  in  a  natural  unaffected  pronuncia- 
tion l)  is  commonly  pronounced  /':,  as  in  (Jenifer.  Many,  however,  prefer  to 
pronounce  ty  as  y:,  as  they  have  become  accustomed  to  this  pronunciation  in  their 
study  of  Greek. 

2.  In  unaccented  open  syllables  u  and  ty  have  this  same  sound, 
only  pronounced  a  little  quicker  :  SBureau  (by:Ro:\  See  4.  2.  B.  c. 
Note. 

9.  i.  (a),    i  (t),  the  high-front-wide  vowel,  is  pronounced  much  as 
i  in  pin.     It  is  found  only  in  closed  syllables,  as  in  ntit,  Srrtitm,  &c. 

(b).  It  is  written  :  (i)  usually  i  before  two  or  more  consonants  : 
bitter  ;  (2)  i  in  monosyllabic  words  which  never  form  open  syllables  : 
tin,  in,  &c.,  see  4.  2.  B.  b  ;  (3)  i  in  suffixes,  as  ig,  ni3,  in,  &c.  ; 
(4)  i  also  in  ^pril',  Clique  (klik'9),  Jlaptt'et,  S^er;  (5)  ie  often  in 
oiefleicfyt,  QSicrtel,  oierjefjn,  fcterjig,  friegji,  friegt,  friegte,  gefriegt  (but  only  in 
the  meaning  to  get)  ;  (6)  $  before  two  or  more  consonants  in  native 
German  names,  as  in  <§tyrtl,  and  also  usually  before  two  or  more 
consonants  in  foreign  words  (where,  however,  many  prefer  y  ;  see 
8.  i.  b.  Note),  as  in  %^p'ten,  ©tjmpattjie7,  &c. 

2.  Unaccented  i  followed  by  a  vowel  becomes  unsyllabic,  i.e. 
does  not  form  a  syllable.  According  to  North  German  usage  it  is 
pronounced  almost  as  j,  and  is  therefore  in  this  treatise  indicated 
by  j  :  iMUe  (hYfo).  See  also  35.  3.  (4). 

10.  (a),   y  (u),  the  high-front-wide-round  vowel,  is  not  heard  in 
English.     It  is  formed  by  placing  the  tongue  into  the  position 
for  i  (or,  more  accurately,  by  lowering  somewhat  the  back  part  of 
the  tongue  and  drawing  in  the  tip  slightly  more  than  in  the  position 
for  i,  at  the  same  time  hollowing  it  so  as  to  enlarge  the  resonance- 
chamber  back  of  the  teeth),  and  then  pronouncing  with  lips  pro- 
truded and  rounded  as  for  u.     It  is  found  only  in  closed  syllables, 

C  2 


20      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY    10.  a. 

as  in  $iitte.  Instead  of  this  sound  we  often  hear  t  in  Middle  and 
South  Germany,  especially  among  the  lower  classes.  We  also 
hear  i  in  the  popular  German  of  the  North. 

(b).  This  y  is  written :  (i)  ii  before  more  than  one  consonant  or 
a  double  consonant,  as  in  Sitrft,  «§ittte,  &c. ;  (2)  u  also  before  cfy  in 
briicfytg,  .ft itcfye,  (gpritctye  (pi.  of  ©prucfy),  and  the  proper  name  SBlucfyer ; 

(3)  $  before  more  than  one  consonant  in  Greek  words,  as  in  2Jh)r'te, 
&c.,  where,  however,  many  pronounce  the  $  as  t,  see  8.  i.  b,  Note; 

(4)  it  in  closed  syllables  in  French  words,  as  in  <3urtout  (syRtuf). 

11.  i.  (a),    e:  (e),  the  mid-front-narrow  vowel,  is  much  like  a  in 
bake.     In  English,  especially  in   England,  a  in  bake  is  often  a 
diphthong,   beginning  with   e:,  and   running   over   into  a  sound 
approaching  to  /'.-.     Be  careful  to  keep  the  e:  a  simple  vowel. 

(b).  e:  is  written  :  (i)  e  before  a  vowel  or  single  consonant,  also 
in  some  foreign  words  when  final :  Sfyeobor,  Oiebe,  &af  ji'mtle ;  (2) 
e  also  before  more  than  one  consonant  in  certain  words :  before  rb 
in  Sefcfyu'erbe,  @rbe,  <§erb,-<§erbe,  ^ferb,  rcerben,  and  in  proper  names,  as 
in  QSerben,  ^Berber ;  before  rt(fy)  in  €>cfyir>ert,  SBert,  and  in  proper  names, 
as  in  ^aiferSircrt^ ;  also  in  erft,  SBre^el  (also  $ve$el),  Jtebgtreife,  ^trebg 
(also  kRtps),  nebji,  ftetg,  and  in  the  proper  names  2)relben,  <Scfyire£, 
(Scfyirebt,  4ebrmg  (also  ^emrig) ;  (3)  ee,  as  in  Seet,  SBeere,  &c. ;  (4)  efy,  as  in 
3Rel),  ftefybe,  &c. ;  (5)  ety  in  Socfety  (also  Socfei ;  cf.  39.  4) ;  (6)  e'  in  French 
words,  as  in  Safe';  (7)  Ijee  in  Styee,  also  now  written  £ee;  (8)  er  in 
some  French  words,  as  SSanfter  (baykje:'), 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables,  e  has  the  same  sound, 
only  pronounced  a  little  quicker :  <Sefretdr  (ze:kRe:te:Rf).  See  4.  2. 
B.  c.  Note. 

12.  i.  (a).      0  (6),    the    mid-front-narrow-round   vowel,    is    not 
found  in  English  speech.     It  is  formed   by  placing  the  tongue 
into  the  position  for  e:  (or,  more  accurately,  by  lowering  somewhat 
the  back  part  of  the  tongue  and  drawing  in  the  tip  slightly  more 
than  in  the  position  for  e:,  at  the  same  time  hollowing  it,  so  as  to 
enlarge  the  resonance-chamber  back  of  the  teeth),  and  then  pro- 
nouncing with   lips  protruded   and   rounded  as  for  o:.     The  lip 
aperture  is  thus  larger  than  in  y:.     It  is  usually  found  in  accented 
open  syllables :  >§i%le,  $o=ne.    Instead  of  this  sound  we  often  hear  e: 
in  Middle  and  South  Germany  and  in  parts  of  the  North,  especially 
among  the  lower  classes. 

(b).  This  5  is  written :  (i)  5  when  final,  or  before  a  vowel  or 
a  single  consonant,  as  in  S36,  dvopo'e,  tonen ;  (2)  6  also  before  more 
than  one  consonant  in  9Be^6rbe,  SSorbe,  and  in  proper  names  in  sfotbe, 
sporbe;  also  in  336rfe,  fyocfyfl,  and  the  three  proper  names  £o§en, 
£)ft(et)retcfy,  SBiirtf);  (3)  ol},  as  in  <§6f)Ie,  -^^e,  &c. ;  (4)  oety  in  the  Low 
German  proper  name  Oetyntyaufen  ;  (5)  eu  in  words  from  the  French 
when  final  or  before  one  consonant,  as  in  abieu  (adj<fi)\  (6)  oeu  in 
French  words  when  final  or  before  one  consonant,  as  in  95oeuf,  &c. 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables  o  has  the  same  sound, 
only  pronounced  a  little  quicker :  Sootten  (b<f:o:'4sJ9n\  See  4. 2. 
B.  c.  Note. 

13.  i.  (a).     €:  (d),  a  prolongued   c  (see  14.  a).     It  sounds  very 


16.1.6.  FRONT  VOWELS  21 

much  like  ei  in  their.  Instead  of  e:  we  often  hear  e:t  and  this  pro- 
nunciation seems  to  be  gaining  ground  in  accordance  with  the 
natural  tendency  in  German  to  make  long  sounds  narrow  and 
short  ones  wide;  see  3.  i.  c. 

(b).  c:  is  written  :  (i)  a  when  final,  or  before  a  vowel  or  a  single 
consonant,  as  in  tyqti,  fden,  rcdre ;  also  before  $  in  brdcfye  (past  subj.), 
fardcfye  (past  subj.),  ©eftirdd) ;  in  gemdf?;  before  bt  in  the  plural 
(Stable  (also  stttz}\  (2)  a  also  before  more  than  one  consonant  in 
certain  words  :  before  tfcfy  in  grdtfcfyen,  tydtfcfyeln,  ^arbd'tfdje,  J?artd'tfd}e ; 
before  cbft  in  ndcfojl ;  before  £  (ts)  in  proper  names,  as  in  Jtoniggrd| ; 
frequently  in  Latin  and  Greek  words,  as  in  ^Ifd^luS,  4?e*>J)d'fhi3,  &c. ; 
(3)  dfy,  as  in  mdfyen,  &c. ;  (4)  ai  in  French  words  in  open  syllables, 
as  in  Calais  (pak:'}\  (5)  e  before  r  (not  silent  r,  but  only  when 
pronounced)  in  French  words,  as  in  2)effert  (</ese.v?'). 

2.  d  in  unaccented,  open  syllables  has  the  same  sound,  but  is 
pronounced  a  little  quicker :  ^tdbieren  (plt:di:'Rdri).  See  4. 2.  B.  c. 
Note. 

14.  (a),     e  (?  or  5),  the  short  mid-front-wide  vowel,  is  the  same 
sound  as  e  in  let.     This  sound  is  only  found  in  closed  syllables : 
fett,  £dnbe,  SBtflett'  (also  SBittet'),  ber  (4.2.  B.  b.\  £otel'  (4.  i.  b). 

(b}.  e  is  written :  e,  as  in  9ie| ;  d,  as  in  fydntmern ;  ai  in  some 
French  words,  as  in  terrain  (ttRfg',  S.G.  te/?e/). 

15.  (a),     02  (o),  the  mid-front-wide-round  vowel,  is  the  rounded 
form  of  6,  produced  by  placing  the  tongue  in  the  position  for  e  (or, 
more  accurately,  by  lowering  the  back  part  of  the  tongue  and 
drawing  in  the  tip  slightly  more  than  in  the  position  for  f,  at  the 
same  time  hollowing  it,  so  as  to  enlarge  the  resonance-chamber 
back  of  the  teeth),  and  then  pronouncing  with  lips  protruded  and 
rounded  as  for  o.     Thus  the  lip  aperture  is  larger  than  for  y. 
Instead   of  this  sound  we   often   hear  e   in    Middle   and   South 
Germany  and  in  parts  of  the  North,  especially  among  the  lower 
classes. 

(b).  os  is  written :  (i)  6  in  German  words  before  a  double  conso- 
nant, or  two  or  more  consonants,  as  in  4?6fle,  «§6l$er;  (2)  eu  in 
French  words  before  a  double  consonant,  or  two  or  more  conso- 
nants, or  the  combination  iK  or  il :  33eurre,  ^euilleton  (fajztoy'), 
ftauteuil  (fb:tcei'\ 

BACK  VOWELS. 

16.  i.  (a),   a:  (a),  the  long  mid-back-wide  vowel,  is  pronounced  as 
a  in  father,  which,  however,  must  not  be  rounded  (see  3.  i.  b.)  as  in 
the  pronunciation  of  sections  of  our  own  country,  especially  in  the 
South.     In  Middle  and  South  Germany,  and  also  in  parts  of  the 
North,  it  is  lowered  and  rounded. 

(b).  a:  is  written :  (i)  a  when  final  (except  in  ba,  jo",  navin  excla- 
mations), or  before  a  vowel  or  a  single  consonant,  as  in  $nna,  3?aal 
(ba:'al),  babcn  ;  before  cfy  in  brad?  (adj.  and  past  tense  of  fcrecfcen),  3?rad?e, 
i8ci)maci),  fpracfy,  ©pracfye,  ftacfy ;  before  fcfy  in  brafd)  (also  dRaf) ;  (2)  or 
before  more  than  one  consonant  in  certain  words :  before  r  + 
consonant  in  Wit,  5lr$t,  23ar(cfy,  Start,  £arj,  Oitarj,  <&tart,  2Bar$e  (also 


22      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY  16.  i.  b. 

short),  jart ;  also  in  Stfagb,  $apft,  Slbler ;  (3)  aa,  as  in  5IaI ;  (4)  at),  as 
in  Qlfyle ;  (5)  accented  i  (except  when  final  sound)  after  o  in  French 
words,  as  in  SBouboir  (bu:do:a:R'} ;  (6)  arc  in  the  English  word  <8f)arel 
(fa:l),  better  @d?al ;  (7)  ae  in  Dutch  proper  names,  as  in  £aefen. 

2.  (a),  a  (a)  is  also  like  a  in  father.  It  is  the  same  sound  as  a:, 
only  shortened,  pronounced  more  sharply.  It  is  heard  in  accented 
closed  syllables,  also  in  unaccented  syllables :  33afl,  alt,  an  (4. 2.  B.  b), 
Biafer  (4.  i.b);  papier',  ©i'bam,  91'rafier. 

(6).  It  is  always  written  a  except  as  the  second  element  of  the 
diphthong  ot  in  some  French  words  when  it  is  the  final  sound,  or 
is  unaccented  :  Octroi  (oktRo:a'),  toilette  (to:akt'z>). 

17.  (a),   o  (o),  the  mid-back-wide-round  vowel,  is  somewhat  like  o 
in  Noah,  as  usually  heard  in  American  English.    The  short  o  heard 
in  New  England  in  such  words  as  'coat," road/  &c.,  is  still  nearer 
the  German  sound.     The  German  o  must  not  be  pronounced  as  o 
in  English  not,  which  is  a  low-back  vowel,  and  hence  has  a  lower 
position  of  the  tongue  than  the  German  vowel.     Be  careful  to  give 
it  its  full  sound  in  final  unaccented  syllables,  and  not  to  slur  it  as 
in  unaccented  syllables  in  English  in  such  words  as  cannon. 

(b).  It  is  written  o  :  (i)  before  a  double  consonant,  or  two  or  more 
consonants,  as  in  ®rott,  @orte ;  (2)  before  a  single  consonant  in 
33rombeere,  2)on,  groB  (in  uninfl.  form),  ®rog,  -^ocf^eit,  Sot,  £orfceer,  con, 
33ortetl,  and  in  final  unaccented  syllables,  as  in  Softer. 

18.  i.  (a),     o:,  the  mid-back-narrow-round  vowel,  is  like  the  o  in 
heroic,  as  heard  in  American  English,  but  the  lips  are  more  dis- 
tinctly rounded.     In   the   English  of  England  o  is  not  a  simple 
sound,  but  a  diphthong.     The  German  sound  is  pure  o:. 

(b).  It  is  written :  (i)  o  when  final  or  before  a  single  consonant, 
as  in  fo,  9loaf),  Otofe;  o  before  cfy  in  fyocfy,  but  short  in  <§o(^jjeit;  (2)  also 
o  before  more  than  one  consonant  in  certain  words :  before  ft  in 
Softer,  Dfiern,  Sroft,  and  the  name  3ojl;  before  fcfl,  £ft  in  Dfcfl, 
$ropfi,  also  in  3Sogt,  £otfe,  Sftonb ;  before  rt  (silent  t)  in  words  from 
the  French,  as  in  ftort,  Oleffort';  in  JtofS  (or  (£oaf3);  (3)  co,  as  in 
*-Boot,  &c.;  (4)  01:),  as  in  rof);  (5)  oe  in  Low  German  names,  as 
@oeft;  (6)  also  as  oi  in  Low  German  names,  as  £roi§borf,  &c., 
except  3Boi£entwrg,  where  ot  is  pronounced  as  oi;  (7)  ore  in  many 
Low  German  names  and  some  English  nouns :  SBreborc,  33oicle ; 
(8)  ait  in  French  words,  as  in  @auce  (zo/s?);  (9)  eau  in  French 
words,  as  in  plateau';  (10)  oa  in  English  words,  as  in  £oaji  (also 
to:ast'}. 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables  it  has  the  same  sound, 
only  pronounced  a  little  quicker ;  see  4.  2.  B.  c.  Note. 

19.  (a),     u  (u),  the  high-back-wide-round  vowel,  is  like  u  in  put, 
but  in  German  u  the  lips  are  more  rounded.     It  is  only  found  in 
closed  syllables  :  bunt,  J?unfh 

(b.)  It  is  written  :  (i)  u  before  a  double  consonant,  or  two  or  more 
consonants,  as  in  SOhitter,  ©ruft ;  (2)  also  u  before  one  consonant  in 
r,  uin,  jum,  and  often  ^ur,  and  in  Latin  suffixes,  as  in  -Dietrinn, 
;  (3)  ou  in  French  words  in  closed  syllables,  as  in  3fteffoitrce 


25.  BACK  VOWELS  23 

20.  i.  (a),     u:  (it),  the  high-back-narrow-round  vowel,  is  much 
as  oo  in  booby,  as  heard  in  American  English  spoken  in  the  North. 
In  the  English  of  England  oo  is  not  a  simple  sound,  but  a  diph- 
thong. 

(b}.  u:  is  written :  (i)  u  when  final,  or  before  a  single  vowel  or 
consonant,  as  in  bu,  2>ito  (but  pronounced  u  in  fyui,  pfui),  25ube; 
(2)  u  in  the  suffixes  turn  and  ut,  as  in  Oleicfytum,  5lrmut ;  (3)  u  before 
cfy  in  SBucfy,  29u$e,  Sutcfy,  Jtucfyen,  fucfyen,  $ucfy,  SOBucfyer;  (4)  it  before  a 
combination  of  consonants  in  SOBucfyg,  itucfyg  (both  also  pronounced 
vuks),  fyuften,  puflen,  ©cfyufier,  2Bitft,  ©e&itrt,  Sitbreig,  £rucfyfe§,  and  proper 
names  in  ttj,  n£,  as  ^ung  (also  short) ;  (5)  uf),  as  in  Jhtfy,  &c. ;  (6)  ue 
in  the  name  jfo^ebue;  (7)  oit  before  a  single  consonant  or  when 
final  in  French  words,  as  in  £our,  9tenbqt>ou3  (Rayde:vu:f) ;  (8)  oe  in 
Dutch  words,  as  in  33oer  (more  commonly  written  3Bur),  £c. 

2.  In  unaccented  open  non-final  syllables,  u  has  the  same  sound, 
only  pronounced  a  little  more  quickly :  SKitlatte  (mu'.lat'z).  See 
4. 2.  B.  c.  Note. 

THE  MIXED  VOWEL  t  (9). 

21.  9  (unaccented  e),  the  mid-mixed-narrow  vowel,  is  a  sound 
somewhat  like  the  a  in  sofa.    It  is  only  found  in  unaccented  syllables, 
as  in  lie'Sen,  ge'fce,  ©pin'fcet,  fceltebt';  in  the  enclitics  (see  57.  B  and  C) 
ber,  beg,  bent,  ben,  eg,  &c.     In  the  final  unaccented  syllables  el,  em,  en, 
er,  the  e  often  naturally  drops  out  in  ordinary  language :  rtttn  for 
rttten,  &c. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

22.  ei  is  pronounced  much  as  i  in  mine.     It  is  written :  (i)  ei,  as 
in  (Si,  (Stein;   (2)  at,  as  in  SKat;   (3)  ety  in  proper  names,  as  in  SKetyer; 
(4)  aty  in  proper  names,  as  in  SBatyern ;   (5)  ij  (19)  in  Dutch  names,  as 
in  3ifiel  (S)f[el). 

23.  au  is  pronounced    much    as    ou   in   loud.     It    is    always 
written  au. 

Note.  In  some  foreign  words  au  represents  two  vowels  each  forming  a  syllable : 
Jlaper'naum,  SKenela'uS,  &c. 

24.  ett  is  pronounced  much  as  oy  in  boy.    It  is  written  :  (i)  ett,  as 
in  «§eu,  but  for  exceptions  see  Note  2,  below ;  (2)  tin,  as  in  glaufcig, 
but  see  Note  3  for  exceptions ;  (3)  ot  in  a  few  Low  German  words, 
as  3Boi,  afyoi,  'JSotfcenhtrg,  &c.,  and  the  foreign  word  ^eofoi'e  (or  more 
commonly  £et>foje  hfko:'J3] ;  (4)  09  in  Low  German  names  and  a  few 
foreign  words,  as  |>ot)er.3>cerba,  SD^igDtoi) ;  Xrotygeretcfyt,  ©asoty'en  ;  (5)  iett 
in  Cteutenant   (loitnanf),    better   SJeutnant ;    (6)   ui   in    Dutch   words, 
as  in  3»iberfee. 

Note  i.    (Ju  and  dlt  are  variously  pronounced  in  the  different  dialects. 

Note  2.  In  some  words  eu  represents  two  vowels  each  forming  a  syllable  :  S^ebi'ltBt, 
33accalau'rcu$,  &c. 

Note  3.  In  some  foreign  words  dlt  represents  two  vowels  each  forming  a  syllable : 
Subild'ttm,  2Rattf)d'u<3,  &c. 

NASAL  VOWELS. 

25.  In  many  of  the  later  loan-words  from  the  French,  nasal  vowels, 
which  are  indicated  by  a  following  m  or  n,  are  pronounced  as  in  the 


24      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY    26.  A. 

original :  am,  an,  em,  en  =  a,  i.  e.  nasal  a ;  ain,  etn,  im,  in  =  e ;  om  and 
on=  3 ;  urn  and  un  =&,  when  the  m  or  n  is  not  doubled  or  followed 
by  a  vowel.  This  pronunciation,  however,  prevails  only  in  the 
South  and  parts  of  the  Midland.  In  the  North  a,  e,  o,  &,  are  quite 
generally  replaced  by  the  nearest  native  sounds,  ay,  cy,  oy,  ay,  i.  e. 
a,  f,  o,  &  followed  by  y  (see  36.  b):  Chance,  @ntm,  93afftn,  Nation,  ^erbun, 
$arfum,  pronounce  fay'sa,  aytRe:',  basey',  baloy',  vtRdcey',  paR/oey' 
(more  commonly  Sparfum pa,Rfy:m'\  In  a  few  thoroughly  naturalized 
words  these  endings  are  pronounced  as  in  German  :  33atiuUon  (batal- 
jo:ri\  23atfou  (balko:nf  or  balkoy'),  ©arnifon  (gaRrii:zo:ri\  &c. 

MUTATION  (Umlaut)  OF  VOWELS. 

26.  A.  Mutation  of  the  Back  Vowels.  The  vowels  a,  o,  u,  and  the  diphthong 
au,  are  modified  or  mutated,  as  it  may  be  called,  when  an  i  or  j  follows 
in  the  next  syllable,  or  in  the  second  succeeding  syllable :  <5tunbe,  fliinbltd) ; 
SJhtttcr,  mutterUd) ;  Sftaum,  raumlid) ;  but  there  are  some  exceptions,  as  gebufbtg, 
fcfyulbio,,  &c.  The  cause  of  mutation  cannot  usually  be  seen  in  the  present 
period  of  the  language,  as  the  i  or  j  which  formerly  stood  in  the  following 
syllable  has  disappeared  or  decayed  to  the  form  of  e :  ®dfie  (pi.  of  ©aft),  but 
O.H.G.  gesti;  ndtjren,  but  O.H.G.  nerian.  The  mutation  of  a  was  in  earlier 
times  written  e,  which  is  in  part  still  preserved:  brennen,  brannte,  &c.  The 
mutated  vowels  have  in  different  periods  been  designated  in  different  ways. 
In  earlier  N.H.G.  it  was  common  to  write  an  e  over  or  alongside  of  the  vowels, 
but  at  present  the  usual  sign  of  mutation  is  two  dots  above  the  vowels,  which 
are  the  remnants  of  the  e  of  former  times.  Older  usage  survives  in  a_  few 
names:  ©oetlje,  &c.  Also  sometimes  after  capitals :  9le,  De,  Ue;  usually  Si,  D,  li. 

The  pronunciation  of  these  mutated  sounds  has  been  treated  above. 
When  the  i  or  j,  which  are  pronounced  in  the  front  part  of  the  mouth, 
followed  the  back  vowels  a,  o,  it,  and  the  diphthong  ait,  the  result  was  that 
the  back  sounds  were  modified,  the  tongue  shifting  more  to  the  front  in 
unconscious  anticipation  of  the  following  i  or  j. 

Note.  Mutation  is  still  an  active  force,  but  its  spread  is  brought  about  by  quite 
a  different  cause.  The  cause  of  mutation  in  former  times  was  the  physiological  one 
mentioned  above,  the  present  cause  of  mutation  is  the  psychological  one  of  analogy. 
Thus  certain  grammatical  groups  which  from  physiological  reasons  suffered  mutation 
in  former  periods  have  so  influenced  other  groups  that  they  too  have  assumed  mutated 
form.  For  an  example  of  mutation  by  analogy  see  66.  a. 

B.  A-Mutation.    This  is  also  a  change  of  sound  in  the  stem  under  the 
influence  of  the  following  vowel.     The  vowels  i  and  u  were  in  earlier  periods 
changed  to  e  and  o  respectively,  when  an  a,  e,  or  o  followed  in  the  next 
syllable.      This   change   is   called  a-mutation  from  the  frequency  of  the 
mutation  under  the  influence  of  a  following  a.    The  change  of  /  to  e,  while  not 
an  extensive  one,  took  place  in  a  number  of  cases.     Illustrative  examples  are 
given  in  198,  I.  Division,  d\  2.  Division,  d\  199, 1.  Division,  </.     In  English 
the  older  /  may  still  be  preserved :  £eber,  but  liver,  &c.    The  u  mutated  to 
o  here  quite  regularly  except  before  a  nasal  +  consonant,  or  before/.      Thus 
the  perf.  participle  gefyctfeu  (O.H.G.  giholfan)  has  the  mutated  o,  while  in 
gebunbcn,  perf.  participle  of  binben,  a  word  belonging  to  the  same  gradation 
class,  the  mutation  did  not  take  place,  as  it  was  hindered  by  the  nb  following 
the  vowel  of  the  stem.     Thus  also  giide  (O.H.G.  fulll),  fuden  (Gothic  fulljan), 
but  veil  (original  stem  folia).     Later  unmutated  u  became  ft  according  to 
A,  above,  when  an  i  or  j  followed,  as  in  the  examples  5»f(e  and  fufl.'n. 

C.  Mutation  of  e.     The  vowel  c  is  changed  to  i  before  a  nasal  +  a  con- 
sonant, or  if  an  i,  j,  or  it  follows  in  the  next  syllable.     Thus  the  stem  vowel 
in  binben  is  i,  while  in  some  other  verbs  belonging  to  the  same  class  it  is  e, 


28.  MUTATION  (UMLAUT)  OF  VOWELS  25 

as  in  fyelfen.  Thus  also  the  e  of  (Srbe  has  become  i  in  irbtfd),  as  it  is  followed 
by  i.  Thus  also  SBerf  becomes  ttnrflicfy,  &c.  Sometimes  the  force  at  work 
can  only  be  seen  in  its  effects,  as  the  following  i  or  u  has  become  e,  or  has 
dropped  out:  S3erg,  but  ©ebirge  (O.H.G.  gibirgi) ;  re<$t,  but  ©mdjt  (O.H.G. 
girihti) ;  Latin  septem,  but  ftebm  (O.H.G.  sibun).  See  also  197.  C.  The 
different  forces  at  work  in  these  changes  are  no  longer  felt,  but  they  have 
played  an  important  part  in  shaping  the  present  forms  of  the  language. 

D.  Vowel  Gradation  (Ablaut).  A  difference  of  accent  in  different  forms 
of  the  same  word  developed  in  early  times  vowel  gradation,  that  is,  a 
difference  of  vowel :  compare  X«'jr&>,  but  eAiTrov.  In  English  vowel  grada- 
tion often  exists,  although  it  is  not  indicated  by  the  orthography  :  historian 
(histo:'rt3n),  history  (his'tart).  As  can  be  seen  from  the  examples,  loss  of 
accent  is  accompanied  by  a  reduction  of  the  vowel  element.  This  force  can 
now  often  be  seen  only  in  its  effects,  as  the  difference  of  accent  has  in  most 
part  disappeared  :  ca'pio,  acci'pio  (formerly  ac'cipio,  hence  reduction  of  stem 
vowel).  Vowel  gradation  is  now  most  clearly  to  be  observed  in  strong 
verbs,  and  for  practical  reasons  this  subject  is  discussed  under  that  head ; 
see  187.  A. 

CONSONANTS. 

27.  General  Rule.     Unlike  vowels,  which  do  not  change  their 
quantity  and  pronunciation  from  the  addition  of  inflectional  endings, 
consonants  may  change  considerably  their  sound  in  certain  posi- 
tions,   as    noted   below    (in    articles   29-37)   under   the  different 
consonants :   lefen  to  read,  bit  Iteft ;  lie^en  to  lie,  bu  liegft ;   here  the 
f  and  g  in  the  different  words  have  different  sounds. 

THE  ASPIRATE  $. 

28.  «£>  is  pronounced  like  //  in  hand,  only  more  forcibly.    Only  the 
initial  f)  of  a  stem  syllable,  be  it  a  simple  word,  a  compound,  or 
a  suffix,  has  this  pronunciation :   £alt,  Ulntyalt,  SBetSfyett.     The  fy  is 
pronounced  medially  in  Dt;cim  and  Qlfjorn,  as  they  are  compounds, 
or  are  felt  as  compounds.     The  fy  is  still  sounded  in  5Bill)elm,  &c., 
but  in  some  compound  names,  as  9Baltfyer  (now  also  written  ^Baiter), 
SJiatfjilbe  (also  written  SKatilbe),  &c.,  it  is  silent,  as  the  names  are  not 
vividly  felt  as  compounds.     The  medial  fy  is  naturally  pronounced 
in  the  onomatopoetic  forms  ltf)u,  <8cfyut)u,  also  the  exclamations  afya', 
of)o'.    Medial  t)  is  also  pronounced  in  foreign  words  :  3efeo»a^,  9ttfofyol, 
(Sahara,  fontrnt)ieren,  &c.     In  all  German  words  medial  and  final  f) 
have  elsewhere  become  silent  except  in  the  South-west  (especially 
in  Baden,  Switzerland,  Tyrol),  where  it  can  still  be  heard  medially 
between  vowels,   as   in   fcfyen.     It  must,   indeed,   have  thus   been 
pronounced  medially  throughout  a  large  part  of  Germany  up  to 
a  comparatively  recent  date,  or  it  would  not  have  come  down  to  us 
so  well  preserved  here  in  the  orthography.     Since  the  fifteenth 
century,  however,  t)  does  not  possess  exclusively  an  etymological 
value,  as  many  new  unhistorical  fy's  have  been  inserted  merely  as 
a  sign  to  show  that  the  preceding  vowel  is  long.     As  it  often  stands 
where   the   preceding  vowel   would   be   clearly  marked   as   long 
without  its  assistance,  the  new  official  rules  require  here  its  omission 
in  many  cases,  as  Otat  instead  of  Otatfy,  while  in  others  they  incon- 


26      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY     28. 

sistently  allow  it  to  stand.  This  inconsistency  is  easily  justified  in 
those  cases  where  the  fy  is  not  a  mere  sign  to  show  the  length  of 
the  preceding  vowel,  but  is  an  etymological  part  of  the  stem  which 
has  in  course  of  time  become  silent,  although  in  other  words  of  the 
same  origin  the  f)  appears  in  the  older  form  of  a  pronounced  cfy : 
fefjen  (pro.  ze:~9ri)  to  see,  but  <2id?t  sight.  The  silent  ty  has  been 
allowed  to  stand,  especially  in  words  with  a  stem  ending  in  I,  m,  n,  r, 
where,  however,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  good  reason  for 
using  it :  5lt)Ie,  ritfjmen,  fitfynen,  futyren,  &c. 

An  h  is  in  N.G.  often  pronounced  after  £,  t,  f  (as  also  in  English), 
although  no  printed  character  here  represents  it ;  see  29.  a. 

Note.  According  to  its  formation  ^  is  a  vowel,  differing,  however,  from  other 
vowels  in  that  it  is  voiceless.  It  always  has  the  mouth  position  of  the  following 
vowel.  Thus  lju  is  a  voiceless  it  followed  by  a  voiced  it,  and  Jja  is  a  voiceless  o 
followed  by  a  voiced  a,  &c.  The  one  character  1}  stands  thus,  not  for  one  sound,  but 
for  a  number  of  different  voiceless  vowels.  Jp  is  classed  here  as  a  consonant  because 
it  is  invariably  used  as  a  consonant  and  also  has  the  acoustic  effect  of  a  consonant, 
namely,  that  of  a  voiceless  spirant. 

STOPS  :  voiceless  £,  t,  f ;  voiced  B,  b,  g. 

29.  The  voiceless  stops  p,  t,  f  are  pronounced  much  as  in  English. 
The  voiced  stops  6,  b,  g  are,  according  to  the  standard  of  the  stage, 
pronounced  as  in  English,  when  they  stand  at  the  beginning  of 
a  word,  or  elsewhere  before  a  vowel  or  voiced  consonant,  but  when 
final  (end  of  word  or  syllable)  or  next  to  a  voiceless  consonant  they 
become  voiceless  £,  t,  i  :  (voiced)  bteten,  bag,  gut ;  but  final  6,  b,  g  in 
ob,  >§un&,  £ag,  and  «£>e&irig  to  be  pronounced  voiceless,  as  op,  hunt, 
ta:k,  and  he:tvif,  also  B,  b,  g  in  5l6t,  [beg]  (SibS,  Itegt  to  be  pronounced 
voiceless,  as  apt,  aits,  li:kt.  This  change  of  sound  from  fc  to  })  and 
b  to  t  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  or  next  to  a  voiceless  consonant,  is 
well  established  in  the  North,  but  that  of  g  to  f  has,  although 
supported  by  the  stage  and  many  scholars,  not  yet  become  general 
usage.  The  g  in  these  positions  is  in  the  North  still  usually  a 
spirant  and  is  pronounced  as  the  voiceless  spirants  cfy  in  idj  and  ad? 
(see  32. 3.  a  and  b).  Good  usage  in  the  North  has,  however, 
decided  for  the  stage  pronunciation  g  initially,  and  there  is  a 
tendency  to  it  medially,  especially  strong  in  foreign  words,  but  the 
general  pronunciation  of  medial  g  is  still  j  or  g  as  described  in  34. 
3  and  4  and  35.  3  and  4.  In  the  South  the  g  in  all  these  positions 
is  pronounced  as  k  ;  see  a.  After  the  palatal  nasal  n,  g  is  usually 
entirely  silent :  jtng,  ftngen ;  see  36.  b. 

a.  In  Middle  and  South  Germany  b,  b,  g  lack  voice  element,  and  hence 
it  is  often  difficult  for  us  to  distinguish  in  these  sections  between  b  and  \\ 
b  and  t,  g  and  f.  There  is  sometimes,  however,  a  real  difference  between 
M.G.  and  S.G.  voiceless  b,  b,  g  and  v,  t,  f,  namely,  the  explosion  of  the  latter 
is  more  sudden  and  is  followed  by  an  h  sound.  Thus  a  German  from  Prague 
pronounces  2)u  bifi  ein  guteg  ^inb  as  tu:  pist  afot  kuitas  khint.  North  Germans 
usually  pronounce  (as  we  do  also  in  English)  the  1)  after  £,  t,  f,  but  Middle 
and  South  Germans  only  initially  at  the  most,  and  some  only  after  initial 
f  before  vowels,  and  some  do  not  distinguish  at  all  between  b,  t»,  g  and  p,  t,  f. 
As  differing  from  the  above,  it  should,  however,  be  noted  that  in  M.G.  and 


30. 6.  STOPS  27 

in  part  in  S.G.  (large  part  of  S.E.)  medial  b  between  vowels,  or  after  I  or 
r  before  a  vowel,  is  pronounced  as  the  voiced  v  spoken  in  M.G.  and  S.G. : 
Siebe,  Sarbe,  pro.  U:v3,faKvs.  In  sections  of  the  South- West  it  is  voiceless  v. 
In  the  North  the  popular  pronunciation  of  g  is  that  of  a  spirant :  initially 
j,  f ,  g,  or  x ;  medially  and  finally  according  to  the  general  usage  described 
above,  with  the  exception  that  it  often  becomes  voiceless  medially  in  the 
Midland. 

b.  In  derivatives  and  compounds  these  stops  are  pronounced  voiceless  if 
they  stand  at  the  end  of  either  component:  9Jbatt  (dpattt).  In  that  case 
(see  41. 3.  a),  however,  where  the  final  stop  is  carried  over  to  the  next  syllable, 
it  is  pronounced  voiced :  be;0;foad}ten. 


HOW   THE    STOPS   ARE   WRITTEN. 

30.  i.  The  p  sound  is  written  £  or  ^  (after  a  short  vowel),  as  in 
,  OJappe  ;  b  finally  and  also  medially  before  a  consonant  except 
sometimes  before  the  suffixes  lein,  lid),  ling,  where  b  is  pronounced  p 
or  b  :  ab  (ap),  ob  (op),  Qlbt  (apt),  ^ndblein  (kne.-p'lam  or  kncb'lain). 

2.  The  /  sound  is  written  t  or  tt  (after  a  short  vowel),  as  in 
fctt;    t^  in  German  names,  as  ©oetfye,  but  Christian  names 
rather  than  «§ert^a,  &c.  ;  4  in  many  foreign  words,  as  in  Sterna, 
Sfyemfe,  &c.  ;  b  finally  and  also  medially  before  a  consonant,  except 
sometimes  before  the  suffixes  lein,  licfy,  ling,  where  b  is  pronounced 
/  or  d,  as  in  2>hmb  (munt\  tfubttig  (lu:tvif),  Jtinfclein  (kintlain  or  kind- 
lain}  ;  bt  in  a  few  words,  as  in  @tabt,  fanbte,  ferebt,  &c. 

3.  The  k  sound  is  written  :  (i)  f  or  cf  (after  a  short  vowel),  as  in 
faljl,  bicf  ;  (2)  d;  in  a  number  of  words  where  it  is  followed  by  an  f 
or  8  which  forms  a  part  of  the  stem,  as  in  Dd?3,  Dcfyfen,  but  not  in 
(be3)  5?ud?8,  icacfysfam,  &c.  ;  (3)  d)  also  in  many  foreign  words,  as  in 
Gt)or,  see  32.  3.  a.  Note.  (2);  (4)  q  before  it,  as  in  Giiette  (kveh]  ;  (5)  in 
parts  of  the  North,  g  after  n  when  final  or  before  voiceless  con- 
sonant, as  in  ging  (gt'yk),  brtngft  (bRiyksf)',   (6)  g  also   elsewhere  in 
a  few  isolated  words,  as  flugS,  Augsburg,   ©rog  ;  (7)  gg  finally,  or 
medially  before  a  consonant,  as  in  SBrigg,  flaggt  ;  (8)  c  in  many  foreign 
words,  as  in  dognac  (kon'jak],  or  now  better  in  German  spelling 
Jtognaf  ;  (9)  also  cc  in  some  foreign  words,  as  in  QlccorY,  now  better 
in  German  spelling  5tfforb. 

4.  The  b  sound  is  written  only  b  or  bb  (after  a  short  vowel)  :  2Bat)n, 


5.  The  d  sound  is  written  only  b  or  bb  (after  a  short  vowel)  :  bit, 
•Rlabbe. 


Note.    The  b  is  silent  in  a  few  words  from  the  French  :  JJonbS  (foy), 
),  &c. 


6.  The  g  (voiced  stop  as  in  English  g  in  go)  sound  is  written  : 
(i)  g  initially,  as  in  gut  ;  (2)  also  medially  in  many  foreign  words, 
especially  those  in  which  g  stands  before  a  consonant  or  an  accented 
vowel,  as  in  Agraffe,  (Suange'ltitm  ;  (3)  gg  medially  after  a  short  vowel 
when  followed  by  a  vowel,  as  in  frlagge;  (4)  gu  before  a  front  vowel 
in  foreign  words,  as  in  ©mtar're,  or  now  better  in  German  spelling 
©itarre  ;  (5)  gt)  in  foreign  words,  as  in  ©fytbefline,  ©fyetto  (or  ©etto). 


20  PHONOLOGY  AND   ORTHOGRAPHY  31. 

SPIRANTS. 

31.  Voiceless  f,  8  (f,  ff,  $),  <$,  g,  fd> ;  voiced  n,  f,  \,  g,  t. 

Spirants  like  stops  vary  in  part  in  pronunciation  according  to 
their  position,  as  will  be  noted  in  the  following  articles. 

32.  Voiceless  spirants — f,  8  (f,  ff,  f ),  d),  g,  fd?. 

1.  f  is  pronounced  as/  in  fine:  fitnf,  &c. 

2.  8  (s)  sounds  nearly  like  ss  in  moss,  but  is   narrower   in   its 
tongue  articulation,  that  is,  has  a  somewhat  smaller  air-channel 
between  the  tongue  and  the  teeth-roots,  which  gives  the  hiss  a 
higher  pitch  :  £aug,  @i§,  &c. 

3.  The  spirants  d?  and  g  are  not  found  in  English.    Their  pro- 
nunciation depends  upon  their  position  : 

a.  Medially  and  finally  after  a  front  vowel  (see  6.  a,  above)  or 
any  consonant,  initially  in  some  foreign  words  (see  Note,  below), 
and  always  in  the  diminutive  suffix  d?en,  d?  has  a  sound  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  English  y  in  yes  pronounced  without  voice  (see 
art.  3.  2),  but  it  is  much  stronger,  the  tongue  is  also  brought  closer 
to  the  front  part  of  the  hard  palate :  ftecfyen,  id?,  £erd?e,  Qfyirurg,  2ftat>d)en. 
Also  g  final  or  before  a  consonant  has  the  same  sound  when  it 
follows  a  front  vowel   or  any  consonant :    @teg,  legt,  93crg.     The 
phonetic  symbol  for  this  sound  is  f. 

Note.  In  foreign  words  i)  can  also  form  the  initial  sound  of  a  syllable.  Its 
pronunciation  in  this  position  depends  in  part  upon  the  origin  of  the  word :  (i)  In 
Greek  words  it  is  pronounced  f  before  a  front  vowel  and  sometimes  before  a  consonant : 
(Shemte,  (Sfyrie  (fBt:'y),  &c.  (2)  In  Greek  words  before  a  back  vowel  and  usually 
also  before  a  consonant  it  is  pronounced  k:  (£fjaraf'ter,  dljctfra,  (Sfjor,  Gftrifi,  &c. 
(3)  In  Greek  words  between  vowels  &)  is  pronounced  as  in  German  words,  i.e.  f  after 
front  vowels  and  all  consonants,  and  x  after  back  vowels :  SKedjanif  (me:fa:'nik}, 
3lrd)e,  Drdje'fter  (also  oskts'tes),  ^typodjonbrie  (hy:p8:xondni?\  (4)  In  French  words 
it  is  pronounced  f  initially  and  medially :  (Sfytca'ne  (now  better  written  (£cfyifane), 
(SfiofoU'be  (Span,  but  with  French  pronunciation  of  dj ;  better  @<f)ofclate),  SBrandjf, 
&c.  (5)  In  English  words  =-/(French)  or  t/(Eng.~)  :  (5f)rrf  (now  <5d)ecf)x  pattern,  &c. 

b.  After  back  vowels  (see  6.  b,    above)  d)  becomes  a  guttural 
spirant,  as  in  nd?.     It  is  heard  from  Scotchmen  for  ch  in  loch.     It  is 
formed  by  raising  the  back  part  of  the  tongue  towards  the  middle 
of  the  soft  palate,  a  little  higher  than  in  the  position  for  short  \\,  and 
then  forcing  through  this  space  between  the   tongue   and   palate 
a  broad  current  of  air,  which  produces  a  rough  rasping  sound.     In 
a   few  foreign  words  cd?  has  this  same  sound  :    $Bacd)u3,  &c.     In 
North  Germany  g  is  also  thus  pronounced,  when  it  stands  after 
a  back  vowel   and   is   not  followed  by  a  vowel :  $ag,  tagt.     The 
phonetic  symbol  for  this  sound  is  x. 

4.  fd)  something   like  sh  in  shy,  but   in  German  the   lips   are 
protruded  more,  and  the  point  of  the  tongue  is  less  raised  :  fd)arf, 
@d?iff,  &c.     Though  usually  represented  by  three  letters  (fd?),  this 
sound  is  a  simple  one,  the  phonetic  symbol  of  which  isf, 

How  VOICELESS  SPIRANTS  ARE  WRITTEN. 

33.  i.  The/"  sound  is  written  :  (i)  f  or  ff  (after  short  vowel),  as  in 
,  €>d)tff,  &c. ;  (2)  &  in  a  few  German  words,  as  in  Q3ater,  letter, 


33.4.*  SPIRANTS  29 

©eoatter,  93efyne  (better  fteme),  &Cr*,  93telj,  trie!,  trier,  23Iie3  (93Itefi),  93ogef, 
23olf,  »oU,  »om,  con,  cor,  t>orr>er,  jitoorberfi,  ttorn,  gre&el,  and  in  a  few 
proper  names,  as  3Silmar,  SSircfyoro,  23o£,  QSifcfyer,  &c.  ;  4?a&el,  $elt>ecfe 
(town),  &c. ;  (3)  »  finally  in  all  foreign  words,  as  in  £affit>,  medially  in 
Jiaroe,  sometimes  in  bratte  (Jterle),  Oietoen,  $ul»er  (often),  <Sfla»e,  and 
regularly  before  a  consonant,  as  in  £e»foje,  initially  in  SBeit,  93er3, 
33ogt,  Q3etld?en;  (4)  pf)  in  foreign  words,  as  in  ^ilofovfy,  2)ip§tl)ong,  £c. ; 

(5)  £pf)  in  the  Greek  name  (ga^o. 

2.  The  s  sound  is  written  :  (i)  8  at  the  end  of  a  word,  as  in  2ftoo3 ; 
(2)  ]  medially  before  consonants,  as  in  £ifte,  also  before  vowels  if  it 
is  preceded  by  a  consonant  other  than  I,  in,  n,  r  :   (£rbfe  ((Rp's9),  but 
the  f  is  voiced  in  £tnfe  as  it  follows  n  ;  (3)  @  or  f  initially  in  foreign 
words  before  a  consonant,  as  in  <8f i^jc,  (Smaragb,  S^cne  (stse:'na) ;  (4) 
@  initially  before  a  vowel  in  some  nouns  from  the  French,  as  in 
(Sergeant,  @eroice,  which  are,  however,  also  pronounced  after  German 
fashion  with  voiced  f ;  (5)  ff  between  vowels  when  a  short  vowel, 
and  §  when  a  long  vowel  precedes,  as  in  ftluffe,  ^ujje  •  £  at  the  end,  or 
medially  before  a  consonant  in  all  words  which  require  ff  or  f  between 
vowels,  as  in  ftluf ,  G.  SluffeS,  &u§,  G.  ftufjeS,  muffen,bu  mufjt,  flofjen,  bu  ftijpt ; 

(6)  heard  as  the  latter  element  in  the  double  sound  ts  (written  j,  fc,  t 
before  i,  c  before  front  vowels  ;  see  39.  3)  even  before  vowels,  as  in 
Jta^e,  tyetjen,  patient,  afjetifcfy  (astse:tif,  also  written  ag^etifc^  or  a^cetifcfy  ;  or 
affettf^  when  pronounced  with  a  t) ;  (7)  9  in  words  from  the  French, 
as  in  ^a^on  (fasoy') ;  (8)  c  in  some  French  words,  especially  before  9, 
as  in  5lnncmce  (anoy'sa);  (9)  j  in  Sron^e  (also  pronounced  with  z), 
and  in  the  Spanish  words  G^imbora^o,  (labij,  Sortej,  but  in  other 
Spanish  words  pronounced  as  ts,  as  in  5ilca$ar. 

3.  f  is  written  cfy  in  some  words  and  g  in  others,  as  described  in 
32.  3.  a. 

Also  x  is  written  dj  in  some  words  and  g  in  others ;  see  32.  3.  b. 

4.  /  is  written  :  (i)  fcfy  as  in  fcfyarf ;  (2)  f  initially  before  p  or  t  in 
all    stem  syllables :    fprecfyen,   fle^en,  fcerpetjen,  3i«^tf«i« ;    (3)   ^  in 
French  and  other  foreign  words;  see  32. 3. a.  Note(^}.($) ;  (4)  ffy 
in  English  words,  as  in  (Sfyairl,  better  (Scfyat ;  (5)  c  in  Italian  words, 
as  (Seflo,  i>toloncctt  (vi:o:lonftlr)  •  c  here  better  =  ^except  in  (licerone 
(tsl:t&Ro:'n9)}    (6)  x  in  2)on  .Ouirote  (day' kifof) ;   (7)  contained  in  d? 
in  English  words  (see  32. 3.  a.  Note  (5))  and  also  in  ©uttapercfya 
(gutaptR'tfa:,  also  gutapexfa:);   (8)  contained   in   the  Slavonic  tfcfy 
or  CJ  ( =  {f)t  as  m  £f<tyed;e  or  Sjec^e  (tfff?). 

a.  In  foreign  words  f  before  \>  and  t  is  usually  pronounced  as  in  German 
words,  but  in  a  few  cases,  especially  compounds  where  the  origin  of  the  word 
is  not  vividly  felt,  and  hence  fp  or  \i  are  not  felt  as  the  initial  part  of  a  stem 
syllable,  there  is  some  fluctuation  in  usage  :  SnjUnft  (inftiykt'  or  instiykf),  &.C. 

b.  In  Hanover,  Holstein,  Friesland,  and  Mecklenburg,  initial  f  before  \> 
and  t  is  pronounced  as  voiceless  s  instead  of/:  stain  instead  offfafn  (Stein). 

c.  In  the  Southwest  ft,  fp  are  pronounced]//1,  fp  also  finally  and  medially ; 
not  only  so  in  dialect,  but  often  also  by  the  educated  classes  :  kunft,  bynfe?, 
hafpsl  instead  of  .Runfi,  QJurflc,  £afpd.     In  some  M.G.  dialects  f  is  heard 
for  z  after  r :  bjitfe  instead  of  SBcrfe.     In  the  dialect  of  Berlin  f  is  heard  after 
r  for  s  and  3  for  z:  SDurft  (duRft),  £itfe  (htsy). 


30      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY    34.  i. 

VOICED  SPIRANTS  —  n,  f,  j,  g,  j  or  g  (both  =  5),  r. 

34.  i.  w  (v)  is  much  like  v  in  wry.  It  is  formed  with  the  lips 
and  teeth  in  much  the  same  way,  but  is  not  quite  as  distinctly 
buzzed  as  the  English  v.  It  is  pronounced  in  South  and  Middle 
Germany  as  v,  a  bilabial  sound,  pronounced  with  both  lips,  some- 
what like  our  English  w,  but  with  the  important  exception  that  it 
lacks  the  rounding  of  the  lips  and  does  not  raise  the  tongue  to  the 
position  of  u  as  in  English.  The  S.G.  m  is  not  accompanied  by 
a  buzz  as  in  the  North.  N.G.  ic  is  sometimes  bilabial  after  a  con- 
sonant, or  when  written  it  after  q,  as  in  <Sd?rcefier,  jioet,  Ouettc.  It  is 
here  more  commonly  the  usual  labio-dental  (i.  e.  v),  which,  however, 
is  sometimes  almost  or  quite  voiceless. 

2.  Voiced  s  (z)  is  pronounced  like  s  in  rose  :  fenben, 


a.  In  all  the  positions  (see  35.  2)  where  f  in  N.G.  is  voiced,  it  is  in  S.G. 
voiceless. 

3.  j  (/)  has  much  the  same  sound  asy  in^s:  fa,  jagen,  &c.     The 
articulation  is  closer  in  German  than  in  English^,  and  hence  in 
German  there  is  a  gentle  buzz,  caused  by  the  friction  of  the  air  in 
passing  through  the  narrowed  space.    This  friction  is  more  marked 
in  the  North  than  in  the  South. 

4.  g  is  a  voiced  spirant  after  back  vowels,  when  also  followed  by 
a  vowel  :   rcagen,  nagen,  S'ugen.     The  English  g  is  here  an  explodent 
or  stop,  but  this  German  sound  is  a  continuant  or  spirant,  the  voice 
continuing  and  not  suddenly  stopped  as  in  English.     Germans  in 
the  South  pronounce  this  g  as  in  English,  except  that  it  is  voice- 
less.    If  the  g  of  the  stage  is  not  given  the  precedence  the  spirant 
g  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  the  voiceless  stop,  as  it  is  the  common 
pronunciation  of  North  and  a  large  part  of  Middle  Germany.    The 
phonetic  symbol  for  this  sound  is  g. 

5.  3,  the  voiced  sound  corresponding  to  voiceless  fcfy,  not  found 
in  German  words  but  in  many  foreign  ones,  is  somewhat  like  s  in 
pleasure  :  Sournalift,  &c.     For  spellings  see  35.  5.     This  sound  is 
replaced  in  S.G.  and  M.G.  by/". 

6.  German  r,  or  rather  French  r,  as  it  was  first  introduced  into 
the  language  from  the  French,  has  an  entirely  different  sound  and 
is  formed  differently  from  the  English.      German  r  is  produced  by 
the  uvula,  the  little  fleshy  conical  body  suspended  from  the  middle 
of  the  lower  border  of  the  soft  palate.    The  uvula  is  set  in  vibration 
by  the  current  of  escaping  air  pushing  against  it.      To  form  this  r 
the  root  of  the  tongue  must  be  quite  tightly  closed  in  around  the 
uvula,  forming  a  little  groove  in  which  it  hangs,  so  that  the  escaping 
air  must  of  necessity  push  it  out  to  pass  beyond.     The  tongue  is 
kept  drawn  back  and  remains  motionless.     This  r  is  not  usually 
trilled,  but  is  pronounced  quite  softly,  and  often  passes  over  into  a 
or  9  in  final  syllables.     On  the  other  hand  it  is  often  pronounced 
as  a  harsh  cfy  (as  in  acfy).     There  is  also  another  r  which  prevailed 
in  earlier  periods  of  the  language  and  is  still  heard  in  certain 
localities  ;  see  37.  2. 


35.  4-  SPIRANTS  31 

How  VOICED  SPIRANTS  ARE  WRITTEN. 

35.  i.  The  v  sound  is  usually  written  :  (i)  rc>,  as  in  rcofyf  ;  (2)  f  in 
a  large  section  of  the  North  when  the  f  stands  before  a  vowel  of  an 
inflectional  ending,  in  case  of  nouns  and  adjectives  whose  simple 
stem  ends  in  f,  as  in  (teS)  SSrtefeS  (bRi.-'vas),  fleifer  (ftai'vaR),  but  the/ 
sound  should  be  preferred  here,  as  the  v  sound,  although  supported 
by  historic  considerations,  is  now  generally  considered  dialectic, 
and  does  not  seem  likely  to  spread  ;  (3)  0  initially  and  medially  in 
foreign  words,  as  in  93a(e,  ^affi'oa,  but  never  when  final,  as  in  pciffto 
(past:/'};  (4)  o  medially  in  Low  German  words,  as  in  lufcen  ;  (5)  u  after 
q,  as  in  Dual  (kva:l);  (6)  it  after  f  in  SiSfuif;  (7)  u  after  9  in  £inguift', 
$tnguin,  fangui'nifd)  ;  (8)  u  after  z,  as  in  <Suabe,  <Sutte,  &c. 

Note.  In  Middle  and  South  Germany  »  is  pronounced  throughout  as  German  », 
i.  e.  as/  Also  in  the  North,  familiar  words  as  9Rer»ett,  5JJul»er,  &c.,  are  sometimes 
pronounced  with/ 

2.  The  z  sound  is  represented  in  print  by  the  following  characters  : 
(i)  f  initially  before  vowels,  as  in  ftefcen  ;  (2)  f  also  medially  before 
vowels  (expressed  or  understood),  when  it  itself  is  preceded  by 
a  vowel  or  consonantal  vowel  (I,  m,  n,  r),  as  in  Icife,  tretf(e)re,  Sinfe, 
pronounced  with  voiced  f,  but  the  f  is  voiceless  in  (Jrfcfe,  fcfynapfen,  as 
it  is  preceded  by  a  consonant  other  than  I,  m,  n,  r  ;  (3)  5  initially  in 
Low  German  and  Dutch  proper  names,  as  in  3efenaar,  3uit>erfee,  also 
in  a  few  other  foreign  words,  as  ®aje,  >£ajatb',  99a$ar',  SSejiet',  &c.,  now 
better  written  •Oafarb,  93afar,  SBeftr. 

a.  In  a  final  syllable,  e  is  often  dropped,  and  the  omission  expressed  by  an 
apostrophe,  or  left  unexpressed.  In  these  cases  an  f  before  the  suppressed 
vowel  is  pronounced  voiced  or  voiceless  according  as  the  force  of  the  omitted 
vowel  is  felt  or  the  consonant  is  felt  as  a  final  one:  blafe  (2nd  person  imper.) 
or  blaf  (voiced)  or  blag  (voiceless).  If  in  a  contracted  word  voiced  f  comes  to 
stand  before  a  suffix,  it  is  pronounced  and  written  as  a  voiceless  &  :  £afe,  but 


b.  In  all  the  above  positions  f  is  voiceless  in  the  South,  as  can  be  seen  in 
the  rhymes  of  the  poets  from  this  section:  Unb  ttrie  mit  be3  fernen  3)onner« 
©etofe  |  entjliirjt  ts  bruflenb  bent  fxnftetn  ©djojje  (Schiller). 

3.  j  is  written  :  (i)  i  only  as  initial  letter,  as  in  j;a  ;  (2)  g  medially 
when  followed  by  a  vowel  and  preceded  by  a  front  vowel  or  by 
a  consonant,  as  in  @iege,  93er$e  ;  (3)  g  medially  also  when  followed  by 
I,  m,  n,  or  r  in  the  stem,  but  if  these  consonants  do  not  form  a  part 
of  the  stem,  the  pronunciation  of  g  here  is  f,  as  in  regnen  Re.-jnm 
(stem  regen),  QSbgletu  ftjtjlain  (stem  93ogd),  inoglid?  mfatif  (stem  mog)  ; 
medial  g  in  all  of  the  cases  given  in  (2)  and  (3)  is  also  pronounced 
g  ;  (4)  i  unaccented  between  a  consonant  and  a  vowel,  as  in  8'cumlte 
fami:'lJ3,  Nation  natsjo:n'  (the  j  more  or  less  voiceless  after  the 
voiceless  consonant);  (5)  ij  in  some  foreign  words,  as  in  Q)anfcc 
(jey'ki:},   lotyal   (lo:jaf)t   Ototyaltjl'  (Rojalistf]  ;    (6)  also    contained    in 
the  combinations  U,  ifl,  and  gn  in  French  (and  in  the  last  case 
also  Italian)  words:   93outettte  (bfcttl'ja),  3)itgnon  (tninjoy'),  Sampagne 
(kampan'p\  see  also  39.  5. 

4.  There  is  but  one  way  of  writing  g,  namely,  g  after  back  vowels 
when  followed  by  a  vowel,  as  in  iBflgen.     The  pronunciation  g  is 
also  heard  here. 


82      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY    35.5. 

5.  3  (voiced  fd?)  is  written  :   j  in  French  words,  as  in  Journal7;   g 
(before  e  or  i)  in  French  or  Italian  words,  as  in  geniereu,  8ogt§  (ld:$i/) ; 
ge  in  French  words,  as  in  €>ergeant  (eenjanf);  jor  g  in  some  English 
words,  as  in  3ocfety  (ety  =  e:  or  of),  ©entleman,  also  pronounced  d$  (see 
30.  4)  in  accordance  with  the  English,  or  in  S.G.  and  M.G./or  tf. 

6.  The  R  sound  is  written  :  r,  as  in  rot ;  rr  after  a  short  vowel,  as 
in  Barren ;   rf)  in  German  proper  names  and  in  Greek  words,  as  in 
jRfjetn,  Sftfyavfo'be ;  trf)  in  Greek  words,  as  in  Jtatarrfy'. 

NASALS. 

36.  a.  The  labial  and  lingual  nasals  m  and  n  are  pronounced  as 
English  m  and  n  in  mad  and  nag:   -Kagb,  £anb.     They  are  always 
written  m,  n,  or  after  a  short  vowel  mm,  nn. 

b.  The  palatal  nasal  n  is  pronounced  as  ng  in  English  singer. 
The  character  n  that  represents  this  palatal  nasal  is  the  same  as 
the  one   that   represents   the  lingual  n,  but  they  can  easily  be 
distinguished  from  each  other,  as  the  palatal  n  is  always  followed 
by  another  palatal  (g,  f,  c,  cf) :  in  <§<mb  the  lingual  nasal,  but  in  ®ang 
and  ftnfen  the  palatal.      Phonetists  often  indicate  the  palatal  nasal 
by  y.     The  g  that  follows  this  palatal  nasal  has  become  in  native 
German  words  entirely  silent  except  when  final  or  before  8,  t,  ft, 
where  it  is  pronounced  in  parts  of  the  North  as  k :  gingen  (gtyan), 
but  often  in  N.G.  ging  (giyk],  langg  (k:yks),  fcrtngt  (briykf),  5lngfl  (aykst). 
Provincially  the  g  that  follows  y  is  pronounced  g  in  the  North 
when  followed   by  a  vowel :  be3  ®ange§  (gay'gas  instead  of  gay'as). 
In  M.G.  and  S.G.,  prevailingly  in  N.G.,  and  also  upon  the  stage, 
the  g  after  y  is  always  silent.     Be  careful  in  speaking  German  not 
to   follow   the    English  practice    of  pronouncing  the  g  after  this 
palatal  nasal  when  the  g  is  followed  by  the  vowel  e :   say  5ing=er 
(fiy-^r,  not  fiy*gzr}.     In  foreign  words,  however,  the  g  is  usually 
pronounced  :  ©angeS  (river),  lingual.      The  n  at  the  end  of  a  prefix 
does  not  in  a  choice  pronunciation  become  y  before  f  or  g :  anf  omnten 
(an'komzri),  angretfen  (an'gRaifsri), 

c.  y  is  written :  (i)  usually  ng,  as  in  fingen;  (2)  n  in  native  words  before 
f  or  cf,  as  in  irinfen,  QSincfe  (name) ;   (3)  n  medially  and  finally  before 
c,  g,  I,  q  in  foreign  words,  as  in  @alamanca  (zalamay' ka:\  ^Ubalonga 
(albaloyga:),  &c.     However,  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  prefixes  en,  in, 
ton,  f$n  the  n  is  also  pronounced  n  :  enflittfd?  (eykli/tif  or  tnkli:'tif\ 
3nqutfttton/,  &c. ;  (4)  n  or  m  in  French  words  in  the  combinations  an 
or  en,  in,  on,  un  or  urn,  &c. ;   see  25 ;  (5)  g  before  n  in  foreign  words, 
however,  only  in  foreign  words  other  than  French  and  Italian,  as 
in  -2(gne8  (ay'tnas),  Signal  (ziy*na:l').    Instead  of  the  y  sound,  x  and  f 
are  often  heard  here  :    ax'^nds,  zif--na:l'.      In  French  and  Italian 
words  gn  is  pronounced  nj,  as  in  (Efyampagn'er,  Sampagn'a. 

LIQUIDS. 

37.  The  liquids  I  and  r  are  sounds  differing  somewhat  from  the 
English  I  and  r. 

i.  In  forming  German  I  the  back  part  of  the  tongue  is  not  raised 


39.2.  LIQUIDS  33 

as  in  making  English  1,  but  is  lowered,  while  the  front  part  of  the 
tongue  assumes  a  convex  form,  so  that  the  space  between  its  surface 
and  the  roof  of  the  mouth  is  more  narrow  than  in  the  position  for 
English  1,  and  hence  the  resultant  sound  is  clearer  and  lighter. 

2.  The  old  r  (r)  is  pronounced  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  with 
a  distinct  trill.  It  is  now,  on  the  one  hand,  confined  to  provinces 
and  small  towns,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  elevated  to  use  upon  the 
stage  on  account  of  its  forcible  sound.  It  is  disappearing  despite 
its  adoption  by  the  stage  and  certain  enthusiasts.  The  more 
common  r  is  the  uvular ;  see  34.  6. 

GLOTTAL  STOP. 

38.  There  is  in  German  a  consonant  that  is  not  represented  by  any 
sign  in  the  written  language,  namely,  the  glottal  stop.     Phonetists 
represent  this  sound  by  ?.     It  resembles  a  very  faint  cough.     The 
glottis  is  closed  and  then  suddenly  opened,  the  air  thus  escaping 
with  a  slight  explosion.      It  is  usually  found  before  all  strongly 
accented  initial  vowels,  but  is  not  found  at  all  in  some  sections, 
especially  in  the  South.    Thus  Germans  who  speak  the  glottal  stop 
do  not  run  words  together,  as  we  often  do  in  those  cases  where 
a  word  ending  in  a  consonant  precedes  one  beginning  with  a 
vowel,  since  there  is  really  in  the  German  a  consonant  between  the 
words.    Thus  we  say  notatall,  but  the  Germans  say  ein  ?5lpfet.    This 
glottal  stop  is  most  clearly  perceptible  in  strongly  accented  syllables, 
and  hence  often  entirely  disappears  in  rapid  conversation  in  words 
beginning  with  an  unaccented  syllable  and   in   enclitics,  also  in 
general  in  singing :  afletn'  but  ?al  le,  roenn  er  (=  reeu'ner),  mu'f  eg,  &c. 
As  a  rule  it  is  heard  in  the  second  element  of  compounds,  if  that 
element  begins  with  a  vowel :  2Binbe8?etIe.     It  is  not,  however,  heard 
in  the  second  element  of  the  following  classes  of  compounds,  as  the 
separate  elements  are  not  distinctly  felt  and  thus  blend  together : 
(i)  in   compound   particles,    as  tyerein,  bat>on,  &c. ;    (2)   in   Dfcacfyt, 
be ofcacfyten,  einanber,  fcollenben,  &oftenb8,  &c. ;  (3)  in  foreign  compounds, 
as  ©tynobe,  Sntereffe,  &c. 

The  glottal  stop  is  not  especially  indicated  in  this  treatise. 

CONSONANTAL  COMBINATIONS. 

39.  The  following  consonantal  combinations  are  discussed  here, 
as  they  may  present  some  difficulties. 

1.  pf  represents  a  compound  of  the  simple  sounds  p  and  f,  the 
p  passing  over  into  f  before  the  closure  is  completed.     The  pho- 
netists  and  grammarians  still    hold   to   this   compound,    but   the 
people  in  a  large  part  of  the  North  and  Midland  pronounce  only 
f,  especially  in  the  initial  position :    Serb  (fe:Rt)  instead  of  $ferb 
(pfe:Rt),  &c. 

2.  x  represents  a  compound  of  the  two  simple  consonants  f  and 
3.     ks  is  written  :  (i)  t,  as  in  5lrt ;  (2)  d)8  and  cfyf,  as  in  Dd?8,  Defy  fen ; 
(3)  U,  as  in  (i>e8)  SlBerf  8 ;  (4)  tf  f  or  cf 8,  as  in  I tecffen,  Jtlecf8 ;  (5)  98,  as 
in  ffogg,  Sagfl  (Salt),  QlugSfcurg. 


34      PHONOLOGY  AND  ORTHOGRAPHY    39.3. 

3.  g  represents  a  compound  of  the  simple  consonants  t  and  8.    ts 
is  written :    (i)  $  initially,  or  elsewhere  after  a  long  or  half  long 
vowel,  as  in  $et)n,  bujen,  infyijterett  (infpl-tsi:' wri) ;  (2)  $  after  a  long 
vowel  in  a  few  proper  names,  as  @ra§  (now  usually  ©raj),  &c.  ; 
(3)  I  regularly  after  a  short  vowel,  as  in  Jtafce ;  (4)  tf,  t«,  as  in  iHatfel, 
(w8)  £od?mut§  ;  (5)  tt8,  as  in  (be8)  Stitta ;  (6)  bt«,  as  in  93obenj*ebt8  (gen. 
of  a  proper  name);  (7)  tfeg,  as  in  Breiligratfyg  (gen.  of  a  proper  name); 
(8)  b8,  as  in  (beg)  SBabg ;  (9)  c  or  often   better  3  in   foreign   words 
before  front  vowels,  as  in  Accent'  or  ${f$ent  (akisenf);  (10)  t  before 
an  i  that  stands  before  a  vowel,  as  in  patient  (patsjtntf),  but  not  in 
French  words  where  t'e=t:f  as  in  ^artie  (paRti:');  (n)  33  in  words 
from  the  Italian  :  ©ranbe^jci,  (Sftjje,  &c. 

4.  The  compound  sound  d^,  which  is  like  g   in  gentleman,   is 
represented  in  print  by  j  or  g  in  words  taken  from  the  English : 
SocfeS)  (d$oke:),  ©entlenum.     However,  these  letters  are  often  pro- 
nounced as  3  (34.  5) :  $oke;  or  %okai.     See  also  35.  5. 

5.  In  the  popular  language  of  the  North  fl  after  i,  and  it  and  tfl 
after  another  vowel  not  initial,  are  pronounced  Ij  medially  and  /f 
in  the  final  position  in  all  words  taken  from  the  French  :  SBiflet 
{biljut})  SKebaitte  (me:datJ3\  ^auteuil  (fo:tcel$'\    The  pronunciation  of 
the  medial  Ij  has  become  established  also  in  the  language  of  the 
educated  in  a  number  of  common  words,  as  SfebatU'e,   SBoutUon', 
Sfteoeitt'e,   SBiflef,  ^ofltnon',  &c.,  but  the  final  If  finds   little  favor. 
Aside  from  the  list  just  mentioned,  educated  people  prefer  to  pro- 
nounce these  sounds  more  in  accordance  with  the  French,  j  in  the 
medial,  *'(as  the  second  element  in  the  diphthong  at)  in  the  final 
position  :  ^eutfleton  (fcejatoy'),  ^cwteittl  (fo:toeif),  detail  (de:tai'\  &c. 

6.  In  French  and  Italian  words  gn  is  pronounced  nj:  Gfyampagner 
(famparijzR),  (Jam^agne,  &c.     For  gn  in  other  foreign  words  see  36. 

ft  (5)- 

7.  qu  is  pronounced  in  the  North  more  commonly  kv  than  £v 
(see  34.  i),   both  in  German  and   foreign  words  :    Ouette   (kvdf3\ 
Ouabrat  (kva:dRa:t\  &c.     In  a  number  of  words  from  the  French, 
however,  qu  is  pronounced  k  :  Ouarantcine  (kaRayte: 'n9],  Oueue  (k</>:\ 
SSouquet  or  better  SSufett',  2)?arqui6  (maRkt:'),  S^carqut'fe,  &c.     These 
words  are   still   felt   as   French  words  and  follow   more   or  less 
closely  the  French  pronunciation,  but  in  case  of  older  loan-words 
the  pronunciation  has  become  German,  as  in  Duitt  (kvit). 


BRIEF  HISTORY  OF   GERMAN   CONSONANTS. 
THEIR  RELATION  TO  THOSE  OF  OTHER  LANGUAGES. 

4O.  i.  Consonants  form  in  every  language  the  strong  enduring  trunks  of 
linguistic  growth,  and  thus  remain  tolerably  constant  throughout  the  centuries, 
both  in  the  original  language  and  in  related  tongues,  also  in  words  which 
have  passed  from  one  people  to  another.  Thus  the  consonants  in  German 
and  English  are  much  the  same.  Although  consonants  in  general  have  thus 


40.  i.  a.    HISTORY   OF   GERMAN   CONSONANTS          35 

not  changed  radically  their  nature  as  have  vowels,  a  number  of  them  have 
nevertheless  a  clearly  marked  development,  which  furnishes  important  data 
for  determining  the  relation  of  languages  to  each  other.  There  are  three 
distinct  periods  of  development.  The  first  period,  which  represents  the 
original  order  of  things,  is  found  in  a  large  measure  preserved  in  Latin, 
Greek,  and  other  older  languages,  and  their  modern  forms  such  as  modern 
Greek,  Italian,  French,  Russian,  &c.  The  second  period  appears  in  Gothic, 
Scandinavian,  Low  German,  and  hence  also  in  English,  which  in  its  original 
stock  of  words  is  Low  German.  This  first  change,  or  shifting,  took  place  in 
prehistoric  Germanic.  The  third  period  appears  in  High  German.  This 
second  shifting  began  in  the  fifth,  and  is  clearly  marked  in  the  seventh 
century.  It  did  not,  however,  take  place  with  the  same  completeness  in  the 
different  dialects,  the  shifting  in  the  case  of  certain  consonants  being  defec- 
tive or  entirely  wanting  in  large  sections  of  the  country.  After  the  second 
great  shift  had  taken  place  certain  other  consonants  manifested  in  certain 
parts  of  the  country  new  peculiarities.  These  new  sounds  spread  to  other 
sections,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  certain  districts  preserved  faithfully  the 
older  forms.  At  the  present  there  is  a  great  variety  of  dialects  in  the 
German-speaking  territory,  differing  in  grammatical  form  and  phonetical 
elements,  but  in  the  midst  of  them  all  the  literary  language  flourishes, 
drawing  from  them  strength  and  beauty.  It  would  greatly  impoverish  this 
language  if  all  the  purely  dialectic  words  which  have  been  embodied  in  it 
should  be  withdrawn. 

A  brief  history  of  the  more  difficult  and  characteristic  consonantal  changes 
and  their  relations  to  the  different  dialects  and  kindred  languages  is  here 
given  in  the  hope  that  it  may  prove  helpful  to  the  student  in  increasing  his 
appreciation  of  the  language. 

a.  Where  we  have  in  the  parent  language  (Indo-European)  bh,  dh,  gh, 
which  in  Latin  and  Greek  developed  into  f  (in  Latin  also  b),  th  (Q  in  Greek, 
but  f,  d,  or  b  in  Latin),  \  (m  Greek  x  ?  in  Latin  h  or  g),  we  have  in  Gothic, 
Low  German  and  English  b  (in  English,  however,  appearing  as  b  initially, 
v  medially,  and  f  finally),  d,  g  (in  English  also  written  w,  y,  i,  medially  or 
finally),  and  in  High  German  b,  t  (sometimes  written  tf)),  3.  In  passing  from 
the  second  to  the  third  period,  bb  (now  written  b  in  English)  and  gg  (often 
appearing  as  dg  in  English)  usually  become  pp,  (f. 

Examples : 

First  Period,  Second  Period,  Third  Period, 

Latin  and  Greek.          English  (First  Shifting).  German  (Second Shifting). 

/rater,  lu^et  brother,  love,  grave,          SSruber,  Itebcn,  gtaben, 

cal/  r\b  (O.E.  ribb)  Jtalb,  Oiippe. 

6vpa,  fores  floor  Siir  (£f)iir). 

\opros ,  Coitus  ;  orei'xo)}     garden  ;  to  sty  or  stey  ;     ©arteit,  ftcifjen ; 
ve-sti^ium  ;  ve^o,  way  (O.E.  weg),  borrow,    SBeg,  borfjni, 

ha/1 ;  we</fe.  ^aflft,  ®ecf. 

Note  i .  We  often  find  in  literary  German  bb,  gg  instead  of  $\>,  df :  Jtrabbe  (Eng. 
crab),  flugge  (Eng.  fledge).  Such  words  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Low  German, 
which  in  general  has  much  influenced  the  literary  language. 

Note  2.  Within  the  third  period  the  t  that  had  developed  from  Germanic  d  became 
voiced  after  nasals,  and  thus  regained  its  former  sound:  (O.H.G.)  bintan,  hunt,  &c. ; 
(N.H.G.)  btnben,  -§unt),  &c.  In  a  few  words,  however,  the  t  remained  :  fytnter, 
tyinten,  untcr,  unten,  inunter,  also  in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  as  riamite,  fonnte,  &c., 
after  the  analogy  of  Uebte,  &c. 

Note  3.  The  characters  b,  d,  g  do  not  represent  the  same  sounds  in  different 
periods  and  different  parts  of  the  same  territory.  At  the  commencement  of  the  first 
shifting  they  were  voiced  spirants,  and  later  developed  quite  generally  into  stops  in  S.G. 
In  English  they  became  stops  initially,  and  d  also  elsewhere  (for  exception  see  Note  4) , 
and  also  Q  sometimes  elsewhere,  especially  after  a  nasal  and  in  a  number  of  cases 

D  2 


36          HISTORY   OF   GERMAN   CONSONANTS    40.  i.a. 

when  doubled  :  guest,  longer,  wag  (O.E.  *waggian).  In  N.G.  and  M.G.,  however, 
g  is  still  in  most  positions  a  spirant.  For  full  explanation  see  29  and  also  a  there- 
under. Also  in  English,  g  remained  a  spirant  medially  and  finally.  Later  it 
developed  into  a  w,  y,  or  i,  and  still  later  after  variously  influencing  the  preceding 
vowel  became  entirely  silent  :  borgian  (O.E.),  borrow  (N.E.)  ;  weg  (O.E.),  way 
(N.E.)  ;  hagol  (O.E.),  hail  (N.E.).  In  M.G.  and  a  part  of  S.G.,  also  medial  b  has 
remained  a  spirant,  as  explained  in  29.  a.  In  English  we  have  the  survivals  of 
Germanic  spirant  b  in  medial  v  and  final  f,  as  calves,  calf.  For  another  group  of  b's, 
d's,  g's  which  has  joined  this  one,  and  had  the  same  development,  see  2.  a,  below. 

Note  4.  In  a  number  of  English  words,  Germanic  d  (including  the  tfs  which 
resulted  from  th  in  accordance  with  Vemer's  Law ;  see  2.  a,  below)  has  in  com- 
paratively recent  times  developed  into  a  voiced  th  before  (e)r,  and  found  a  corresponding 
expression  in  the  orthography :  father  (O.E.  feeder),  SSatet ;  mother  (O.E.  modor), 
2Rutter;  weather,  Sktter,  &c. 

b.  Where  in  Greek  and  Latin  we  have  the  voiceless  stops  p,  t,  k  (c,  q),  we 
find  in  Gothic,  Low  German,  and  English  the  voiceless  spirants  f,  th  (d  in 
modern  L.G.),  h  (in  English  also  written  gh),  and  in  High  German  f,  b, I)  ($)• 
The  character  h  does  not  represent  the  same  sound  in  the  different  periods. 
Early  in  the  second  period,  immediately  after  the  first  shifting,  it  was  pro- 
nounced as  (f).  Even  as  early  as  the  Gothic  period  it  had  become  h,  at  least 
initially.  It  is  in  the  German  of  our  time  always  pronounced  as  h  initially, 
and  elsewhere  is  silent,  except  when  final  or  before  a  t,  where  the  older  pro- 
nunciation is  still  sometimes  preserved,  and  is  indicated  by  the  character  d) : 
footer,  but  fyodj ;  feljen,  but  ®efid)t.  Also  in  English,  h  has  become  h  initially, 
elsewhere  it  has  disappeared,  or  is  represented  by  gh,  which  is  now  silent  or 
pronounced  as  f. 

The  various  changes  of  p,  t,  k  (c,  q)  in  the  different  periods  are  illustrated 
by  the  following  examples  : 

First  Period,  Second  Period,  Third  Period, 

Latin.  English  (First  Shifting).  German  (Second  Shifting). 

jZtes  /oot  %fr$ 

/res  />5ree  bvei 

COT,  se^uor  (enu> ;  see  ^eart,  si^/Jt  and  see,  ^perg,  ©cjt4>t  and  fefyen, 

2.  b,  below)  hi^/%,  rough  fyof|),  tauj). 

Note  i.  The  sounds  p,  t,  k  did  not  shift  in  the  combinations  sp,  st,  sk,  ft,  ht  (d)t), 
but  remained  here  unchanged  throughout  the  two  shiftings :  spuo  (L.),  spew  (E.), 
fpeieu  (G.)  ;  hostis(L.).gasts  (Gothic),  guest  (E.),  ©aft  (G.) ;  piscis  (L.),  fisc  (O.E.), 
rise  (O.H.G.).  Later  sk  developed  into  f  (written  sh  in  English,  fd)  in  German)  : 
fisc  (O.E.),  but  fish  (N.E.)  ;  fisc  (O.H.G.),  but  ftifdj  (N.H.G.).  For  the  change  of 
sound  in  case  of  f  in  fp  and  fl  in  initial  position  see  2.  g,  below. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  above  examples,  the  combinations  sp,  st,  sk  existed  in  the 
first  period  and  survived  two  shiftings.  The  Germanic  combinations  ft  and  ht,  however, 
resulted  from  Indo-European  pt  and  kt,  the  first  sound  in  each  combination  shifting 
regularly  in  the  first  shifting,  the  second  sound  remaining  unchanged.  The  resulting  ft 
and  ht  (djt)  have  since  remained  intact  with  the  exception  that  the  h  (<Jj)  in  ht  has 
become  silent  in  modern  English :  captus  (L.),  hseft  (O.E.),  (bie)  §oft  (G.)  ;  octo 
(L.),  eahta  (O.E.),  eight  (N.E.),  ad)t  (G.). 

The  ft's  and  ht's  have  been  increased  from  another  source.  In  Germanic  before  a  t 
all  labials  appear  as  f,  and  gutturals  as  h  (  =  dj) :  give,  gift ;  gebett,  ©ift ;  may  (O.E. 
mseg),  might  (O.E.  miht) ;  mcgen,  SRadjt ;  think,  thought  (O.E.  Sohte) ;  benfm,  badjte. 
This  movement  began  in  pre-Germanic,  and  is  so  complicated  that  it  cannot  be  ex- 
plained here. 

Note  2.  In  the  earliest  history  of  English,  Germanic  th  developed  into  d  after  /,  so  that 
we  here  find  d  in  both  English  and  German  :  wild,  toilb  ;  gold,  @olt>  ;  needle,  9iabc{,  &c. 

While  Germanic  th  developed  into  German  b,  Germanic  thth  became  tt :  the,  bcr ;  lath 
(M.E.  la]>J>e),  gatte  ;  moth  (O.E.  mo)>)>e),  2»otte ;  feather,  gittid)  (O.H.G.  fethdhah). 

Note  3.  Indo-European  p,  t,  k  have  been  seemingly  preserved  in  Germanic  where 
they  stood  before  an  accented  syllable  with  initial  n.  The  Indo-European  p,  t,  k 
became,  according  to  rule,  f,  th,  h  (dj),  which  according  to  Verner's  Law  (see  2.  a, 


40.  i.e.       RELATION   TO   OTHER   LANGUAGES          37 

below)  developed  into  b,  d,  g,  as  the  preceding  vowel  was  unaccented.  By  assimila- 
tion the  bn,  dn,  gn  became  bb,  dd,  gg.  Simple  b,  d,  g  were  spirants,  but  bb,  dd,  gg 
developed  into  stops,  and  later  became  voiceless  pp,  tt,  ck,  perhaps  at  the  same  time 
that  Indo-European  b,  d,  g  became  p,  t,  k,  as  described  in  c  below.  In  the  second 
shifting  pp,  tt,  ck  became,  according  to  c,  below,  pf,  £,  cf,  so  that  in  case  of  k  there  is 
no  difference  of  sound  in  the  three  periods  :  du^o  (L.),  tuc&  (Eng.),  jucf  en.  Related 
words  will  have  different  sounds  here,  according  as  the  p,  t,  k  were  originally  simple 
sounds  or  were  followed  by  an  accented  n  :  tie  (O.E.  lifan,  the  regular  h  having 
developed  into  g  according  to  Verner's  Law)  and  tuc£  ;  jpg  Qiefyen),  jUCfen. 

c.  Where  in  Greek  and  Latin  we  find  the  voiced  stops  b,  d,  g,  we  find  in 
Gothic,  Low  German,  and  English  p,  t,  k  (c,  q,  in  English  also  ch,  tch),  and 
in  High  German  two  different  groups,  according  to  their  position  in  the  word 
—  pf,  j,  f,  on  the  one  hand,  and  f,  &  (ft,  fj),  $  on  the  other.  In  passing  from  the 
second  to  the  third  period,  p  became  pf  initially,  also  after  nt,  and  when 
derived  from  pp,  but  elsewhere  f  ;  t  became  g  (£)  initially,  also  after  a  con- 
sonant, and  when  derived  from  tt,  but  elsewhere  became  $,  ff,  or  jj  ;  k 
became  d)  only  medially  and  finally  after  a  vowel,  elsewhere  remaining  f  ;  kk 
(now  written  ck),  however,  did  not  shift  in  any  position.  These  changes 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  examples  : 

First  Period,                    Second  Period,  Third  Period, 

Latin.  English  (First  Shifting).   German  (Second  Shifting). 

b  (rare)  (i)  pool,  (2)  stum/,  (3)     (i)  «Pfitfi(,  (2)   ©tumpf 

la&um    (corresponding        hy//en  (Middle  Eng.  ;  (3)  lju&fen,  (4)8efje,  (5) 

to  4)                                    now  prov.  Eng.  hip  =  tief,  (6)  ftelfen. 
hop),  (4)  li/,  (5)  dee/, 
(6)  he!/ 

Secern,  cor  (confls)           /en,  hear/,  si//an  (O.E.  ;  jefin,  £erj,  ftfcen,  effen,  e$. 

now  sit),  ea/,  i/ 

yo/£e,  ba£e,  cold,  drin/£,  Sort),    barfjen    or    bacf  fit 

,  \\ck  (Note  4)  ;  (A^/^5),fatt,trtnfen,me^ 

,  stretch  ?  en,  lecfett  ;  33anf,flrerfen. 


Note  i  .  As  Germanic  p  became  either  pf  or  f,  we  would  not  expect  to  find  any  p's  in 
German  except  those  that  came  from  Germanic  bb  and  sp  according  to  a  and  b  (Note  i), 
above,  but  in  fact  we  find  a  considerable  number  of  other  p's  and  pp's.  They  are  not 
exceptions  to  the  rule,  but  are  loan-words  in  large  part  from  the  Low  German  : 
picfen,  pllffen,  ^IWlpe,  fyumpeln,  JJnuppet,  &c.  Also  from  other  languages  :  *)3aft  (L.), 
5|>avate  (Fr.),  &c.  There  is  another  list  of  words  containing  p  from  another  source. 
As  explained  in  29.  a,  South  Germans  pronounce  b  as  an  unaspirated  p.  In  earlier 
periods,  when  the  orthography  conformed  more  closely  to  the  spoken  language  without 
regard  for  historical  considerations,  these  South  Germans  often  wrote  p  instead  of  the 
historical  b.  They  also  introduced  into  the  language  many  foreign  words  in  which 
the  original  b's  appeared  as  p's.  A  number  of  these  remained  :  Banter  (Fr.  banniere), 
*£ebe((  (M.L.  bidellus),  $ofal  (Ital.  boccale),  &c.  On  the  other'  hand,  these  same 
South  Germans  had  lost  their  original  aspirated  p  through  its  shifting  to  pf  and  f,  and 
they  were  no  longer  familiar  with  this  sound.  They  had  difficulty  in  reproducing  and 
representing  the  aspirated  p's  of  other  languages.  Thus  p  appears  in  a  number  of 
words  as  b,  the  character  often  used  by  South  Germans  interchangeably  with  p  as  the 
designation  of  their  own  unaspirated  p,  for  this  was  the  nearest  sound  and  most 
appropriate  character  available  in  their  language  and  alphabet  :  33tnt6  (L.  pumex),  &c. 

Note  2.  Tt  (or  t)  before  (e)r  (older  r)  did  not  shift  in  the  change  from  the  second 
to  the  third  period  :  baitrs  (Gothic),  bitter  (Eng.),  bitter  (G.)  ;  wintrus  (Gothic), 
winter  (Eng.),  SB  inter  (G.)  ;  otter  (Eng.),  Otter  (G.)  ;  true  (Eng.),  tretl  (G.). 

Note  3.  The  student  might  naturally  think  there  would  be  no  double  t  s  in  German 
aside  from  those  in  the  words  given  in  Note  2,  as  the  others  shifted  to  fc..  There  are, 
however,  a  number  of  tt's,  not  exceptions  to  the  rule  but  mere  orthographical  forms. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  N.H.G.  period  all  simple  consonantal  sounds  except  x,  f,  y 
were  written  with  a  double  character  after  a  short  vowel.  Hence  in  this  way 
Germanic  d  often  became  tt  in  H.G.  :  sled,  ©djlitten  J  stead,  jiatt,  &c. 


38          HISTORY   OF   GERMAN   CONSONANTS    4O.  i.e. 

Note  4.  English  lick  and  German  (edf en  are  related  to  Latin  lingere  and  Greek  \d\nv 
to  lick,  and  it  would  seem  at  the  first  glance  that  Latin  g  and  Greek  x,  which  came 
from  Indo-European  gh  (see  a,  above),  belonged  to  group  a,  and  that  ck  of  the 
English  and  German  words  belonged  here.  An  intermediate  change,  however,  is 
hidden  from  view.  From  the  Greek  and  Latin  words  we  see  that  the  original  word 
actually  belonged  to  group  a,  and  the  Gothic  laigon  to  lick,  which  is  the  corre- 
sponding Germanic  form  of  the  second  period,  confirms  this  view.  The  Germanic 
stem  lig-,  however,  had  another  form,  lign-,  which  was  formed  by  adding  the  accented 
suffix  n.  Later  this  form  became  ligg-  by  assimilation.  Double  b,  d,  g  did  not 
remain  spirant  b,  d,  g  throughout  the  early  Germanic  period  as  did  the  simple  sounds, 
but  developed  along  with  the  bb,  dd,  gg  described  in  b.  Note  3,  above,  and  the 
original  Indo-European  voiced  stops  b,  d,  g  into  voiceless  stops,  i.  e.  pp,  tt,  kk  (ck). 
In  this  way  *liggon  became  lecken,  and  passed  out  of  the  group  a  and  joined  the 
words  in  this  group  (c),  which  had  developed  a  k  out  of  Indo-European  g. 

Note  5.  As  the  simple  and  double  sounds  had  a  different  development,  we  find 
different  consonants  in  related  words  or  related  languages,  according  as  the  sounds 
were  simple  or  double :  tvadjen,  hKcfett ;  bake,  batch ;  bddjett  (early  N.H.G.  and 
still  in  S.G. ;  see  203.  i),  bacfett  (literary  word). 

2.  The  above  consonantal  changes,  the  main  points  of  which  were  dis- 
covered and  made  known  to  the  world  by  Jacob  Grimm  in  1822,  have  been 
sketched  only  in  their  roughest  outlines.  There  are  many  exceptions  and 
also  additional  changes.  Attention  is  here  called  to  a  few  of  the  more 
important : 

a.  Venter's  Law.  In  1877  the  Danish  scholar,  K.  Verner,  discovered 
that  the  cause  of  the  deviation  of  a  certain  group  of  words  from  the  laws 
given  in  the  preceding  articles  lay  in  a  difference  of  accent  in  the  prehistoric 
period,  when  the  accent  must  have  been  in  general  the  same  as  that  originally 
found  in  the  Indo-European  family  of  languages  and  still  preserved  in  part 
in  Sanskrit  and  Greek.  In  this  prehistoric  period,  as  can  be  later  seen  in 
Gothic  and  less  perfectly  in  Old  English  and  other  Germanic  languages,  the 
voiceless  consonants  f,  th  (pronounced  as  in  English),  h  (=  d)),  s,  remained 
voiceless  only  initially  and  after  an  accented  vowel,  but  after  an  unaccented 
vowel  became  voiced  b,  d,  g,  z :  kle^'to  (Greek),  hli/an  (Gothic)  to  steal,  but 
he^ta'  (Greek),  si^un  (Gothic)  seven;  fra'/er  (Latin),  broMar  (Gothic),  but 
pa/er'  (Greek),  fadar  (Gothic)  father;  deVem  (Latin),  tai^un  (Gothic)  ten, 
but  de>£u'  (pre-Germanic),  ti^us  (Gothic)  decade ;  qui.y  (Latin)  some  one  or 
other,  hwas'uh  (Gothic)  any  one  at  all,  every  one.  English  should  also  in 
general  show  the  same  consonants  here  as  the  Gothic,  but  in  the  course  of 
their  development  b,  d,  g  have  changed  considerably  or  disappeared 
altogether,  as  described  for  the  b's,  d's,  g's  in  i.  a,  above,  and  also  Notes  3 
and  4  thereunder,  for  both  of  these  groups  which  had  come  from  originally 
quite  different  sources  had  merged  into  one  in  prehistoric  Germanic.  From 
then  on,  the  b's,  d's,  g's  from  both  of  these  sources  had  the  same  develop- 
ment. Germanic  z  became  r  in  English,  and  all  the  other  members  of  the 
German  family  before  the  period  of  the  second  shifting :  Eng.  was,  were. 

After  the  second  shifting  of  the  consonants  had  taken  place  in  High 
German,  the  b,  d,  g,  which  resulted  from  f,  th,  h  (d))  according  to  Verner's 
Law,  appear  as  b,  t,  g,  while  the  f,  th,  h  (dj)  which  followed  the  accented 
vowel  appear  as  f,  b,  fy  (d}).  Germanic  z  had  already  become  r  previous  to 
this  shifting,  while  Germanic  s  remained  s.  Hence  different  consonants 
may  still  be  found  in  the  different  grammatical  forms  of  the  same  word  or  in 
related  words,  owing  to  the  original  difference  of  accent.  Thus  we  find  an 
occasional  change  of  f  to  b,  b  to  t,  I)  to  g,  f  to  r :  Jpcf  and  fyubfd?,  fdjnei&en  and 
(djnitt,  jieben  and  $eg,  jefon  and  ^caujig,  Sroft  and  fricrni.  The  English  con- 
sonants here  as  elsewhere  did  not  participate  in  the  second  shift.  Low 
German  differing  from  English  suffered  also  the  change  of  th  to  d,  but  the 
change  took  place  much  later  than  in  High  German. 

b.  The  labialized  gutturals  gvh,  kv,  gy  of  the  parent  Indo-European 
language  shifted  irregularly  in  different  languages,  although  they  in  general 


40. 2.g.     RELATION   TO   OTHER   LANGUAGES  30 

followed  the  laws  described  in  the  preceding  articles.  They  consisted  of 
a  guttural  and  a  labial  element.  In  the  course  of  their  development  they 
lost  sometimes  one  of  these  elements,  sometimes  another,  and  were  other- 
wise variously  affected.  The  following  table  presents  a  general  view  of 
these  changes : 

I.-E.  gvh     Gr.  (/>,  6,  x    Lat.  f,  gu,  v,  g         Germanic  gw,  g,  w  ;  b. 
„     kv       „    IT,  T,  <       „     qu,  c  „         hw,  h,  gw,  g,  w ;  f,  b. 

„     gv        »    ft  8,  7       ,,     g",  v>  g  »          q  (kw),  k  (c) ;  p. 

The  Germanic  g's  in  the  second  line  are  the  result  of  the  operation  of 
Verner's  Law  (see  a,  above)  and  hence  once  followed  an  unaccented  vowel. 
Also  the  change  here  from  f  to  b  shows  the  effects  of  the  same  law.  Only 
a  few  examples  can  be  given  here :  angustus  (L.),  aggwus  (Goth.),  eng  (G.) ; 
rt'j,  quis  (L.),  who  (Eng.),  toet  (G.) ;  Xenrw,  linquo  (L.),  leihwan  (Goth.),  loan 
<Eng.),  teu)en  (G.) ;  tran^uillus  (L.),  hweila  (Goth.),  while  (Eng.),  ffiette  (G.) ; 
nitre,  quinque  (L.  for  *pinque),  five  (Eng.),  funf  (G.) ;  (3ios  life,  vivus  (L.),  quick 
(Eng.),  Guecffilbet  (G.),  erqutrfen  (G.).  It  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  the  table 
that  it  does  not  contain  consonants  that  were  usually  affected  by  the  second 
shifting,  so  that  in  general  we  find  the  Germanic  consonants  still  surviving 
in  both  English  and  German.  In  the  individual  life  of  the  two  languages, 
however,  these  consonants  have  here  developed  somewhat  differently,  as  can 
be  seen  by  the  examples. 

c.  Germanic  thw  has  developed  peculiarly.     It  went  over  regularly  into 
dw  in  O.H.G.,  and  later  in  M.H.G.  developed  into  tw,  and  still  later  in  that 
period  into  zw:  thwingan  (Old  Saxon),  dwingan  (O.H.G.),  twingen  (M.H.G.), 
zwingen  (late  M.H.G.  and  N.H.G.),  twinge  (N.E.). 

Germanic  dw  has  had  a  similar  development :  dwarf  (Eng.),  twerg 
(O.H.G.),  twerc  (M.H.G.),  Swevg  (N.H.G.). 

High  German  tw,  whether  derived  from  Germanic  thw  or  dw,  has  developed 
into  ju?  or  qu.  A  number  of  words  fluctuate  between  the  two  forms,  and  in 
other  cases  independent  differentiated  forms  have  become  established  :  3tt»erg 
(literary  German),  Cluevg  (E.M.G.) ;  jwdugen  to  force,  squeeze,  queitgeln  to  find 
fault  with,  stick  at  trifles  ;  3rce*djfe((  diaphragm,  quer  across. 

d.  In  the  M.H.G.  period,  m  in  an  unaccented  syllable  developed  into  n : 
Sufelt  bosom,  ^afceit  fathow,  &c. 

e.  In  the  literary  language  n  has  disappeared  in  the  combination  ing  in 
those  words  the  stems  of  which  ended  in  an  n :  ^onig  for  older  Zoning,  &c. 
The  form  pfenning  was  still  in  limited  use  in  the  classical  period. 

In  dialect  final  n  has  disappeared  in  large  parts  of  the  Midland  and  South, 
especially  in  unaccented  syllables.  Occasionally  such  forms  appear  in  books 
which  reflect  colloquial  usage :  Swufott,  we  gefddt  e$  31)ne  (for  Sfjnen)  benn  in 
<Sdjwaben?  (Raabe's  Pechlin,  chap.  12). 

The  opposite  tendency,  the  insertion  of  an  n,  appears  occasionally  in  the 
literary  language  as  well  as  in  dialect:  gcnung  (Goethe,  Schiller,  &c.)  for 
gemtg,  &c. 

Notice  that  the  m  and  n  which  preceded  Germanic  f,  th,  s  have  dis- 
appeared in  English,  while  they  still  remain  in  German  in  the  form  of  n : 
soft  (O.E.  s6fte),  but  fanft  (O.H.G.  semfti  adj.,  samfto  adv.);  other,  but 
anber;  tooth,  but  3af)n  (O.H.G.  zand  and  zan) ;  goose,  but  ©an$;  us,  but 
un3;  &c. 

f.  The  older  tongue  r  has  been  replaced  by  a  uvular  sound  ;  see  34.  6  and 
37.2. 

g.  The  s  (s]  of  earlier  times  has  within  the  present  period  become./ (  =  fdj) 
initially  before  I,  m,  n,  \v,  \>,  t.     The  present  orthography  reflects  this  change 
of  sound  in  case  of  fdjl,  fd;m,  fdjn,  fdju>,  but  not  in  case  of  initial  fp  ( =fp)  and 
ft  (=//):  sleht  (O.H.G.),  but  fdjtecfyt  (N.H.G.) ;  smuz  (O.H.G.),  but  ©gmuft 
(N.H.G.) ;  sprehhan  (O.H.G.)  and  fpredjm  (N.H.G.).    The  beginning  of  this 


40         HISTORY   OF   GERMAN   CONSONANTS    40.2.^. 

change  cannot  be  accurately  assigned  to  any  definite  time.  It  was  a  gradual 
development.  It  began  in  the  South  and  then  spread.  The  orthography 
was  slow  to  recognize  these  changes.  As  late  as  the  sixteenth  century  we 
still  find  instances  of  ft,  fm,  &c.,  even  in  the  South.  This  movement  has  not 
yet  come  to  a  close,  for  fp  and  fi  are  still  pronounced  sp  and  st  in  Hanover, 
Holstein,  Friesland,  and  Mecklenburg,  and  the  general  pronunciation^  and 
ft  has  not  yet  found  expression  in  the  orthography. 

Medial  and  final  s  became  fdj  in  a  number  of  cases  after  r  :  SButfcfje  (M.H.G. 
burse),  Ijertfcfym  (M.H.G.  hersen),  &c.,  but  SDurji,  Serfe,  &c.  In  dialect  the/ 
sound  has  spread  further  still  ;  see  33.  4.  c. 

The  old  voiceless  s  has  also  elsewhere  changed  its  character.  It  has 
become  voiced  in  the  North  in  certain  positions.  In  35.  2  the  exact  state- 
ment with  regard  to  the  present  voiced  sound  is  given.  The  old  pronuncia- 
tion of  s  only  remains  in  the  cases  stated  in  33.  2. 

h.  Foreign  words  of  course  form  exceptions  to  the  general  rules  for  the 
development  of  German  consonants  and  their  relation  to  kindred  languages. 
Recently  adopted  loan-words  usually  have  the  same  form  as  they  have  in 
the  language  from  which  they  were  taken,  sometimes,  however,  conforming 
to  German  orthography:  (Sfyaujfee  (Fr.  chausse"e),  ftabtit  (Fr.  fabrique),  &c. 
The  older  the  words  the  more  of  course  they  have  changed  and  taken  on 
German  form.  If  the  words  were  borrowed  before  the  period  of  the  second 
shifting  they  developed  in  the  same  manner  as  German  words  :  ^flaume 
(L.  prunum),  ,f?eldj  (O.H.G.  kelich,  from  the  L.  calicem),  Jlerfer  (from  L.  car- 
cerem  ;  Jtorjer,  derived  from  the  same  word,  was  introduced  into  the  language 
later  by  those  acquainted  with  the  form  of  the  Latin  but  employing  the 
modern  pronunciation  of  it),  Jtreuj  (from  the  L.  crucem  ;  a  later  introduction 
than  Jferfer,  as  can  be  seen  by  the  modern  pronunciation  of  the  c^.  &c. 

SYLLABLES  IN  INDIVIDUAL  WORDS. 

41.  A  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  contains  separate  vowels 
or  diphthongs  :  <2>e=en,  6au=en.  In  dividing  words  into  syllables 
when  there  are  consonants  at  the  close  of  the  syllable,  the  division 
is  based  upon  the  following  principles  : 

1.  A  single   consonantal  sound  between  vowels  belongs  after 
a  long  vowel  or  diphthong  to  the  following  syllable  :  f)6«Ien,  @pra=d}e, 
fjeUIig.    After  a  short  vowel  it  is  divided  equally  between  the  two 
syllables  :  fyaffen,  nl'le,  lad)en  (Iax9n\  ftngen  (ziy'^ri).     Such  divided 
consonantal  sounds  are  usually  represented  by  double  consonants 
except  in  case  of  cfy  and  ng. 

2.  Two  or  more  consonantal  sounds  between  vowels  are  after 
a  short  vowel  divided  up  conveniently  between  the  two  syllables  : 
fasten,  (Sanction,  furcfMen.     After  a  lojig  vowel  they  are  carried  over 
to  the  following  syllable  :   fciUflen,  Dsftern.     In  words  of  Latin  or 
Greek  origin,  any  combination  of  consonants  that  can  begin  a  word 
is  carried  over  to  the   following   syllable  :    2Ee*trwn,  &c.      See 
4.  2.  A.  d.  (3).     In  both  native  and  foreign  words,   however,   they 
must,  without  regard  to  the  quantity  of  the  vowel,  be  divided  up 
between  the  syllables,  if  it  is  difficult  to  carry  them  over  :  $fer=bc, 


3.  Compound  words  form  exceptions  to  the  above  rules,  as  the 
syllabic  division  is  made  on  etymological  principles,  and  hence 
falls  between  the  components  :  Qaufctur,  ent*dufjern. 

a.  Exceptions  are  fcor,  tear,  f)er,  Ijin,  when  they  stand  before  a  vowel  in 


43.  6.  a.     SYLLABLES   IN    INDIVIDUAL   WORDS          41 

compounds  :  ba^ru'ber,  nxuru'nt,  Ijejtu'm,  fyunei'n.  In  the  careless  pronunciation 
of  ordinary  conversation  other  exceptions  occur,  as  the  distinct  etymological 
elements  are  not  always  in  the  consciousness  of  the  speaker  :  btto'  tb&fytm, 
aitsfetjftcf^en,  £c. 

4.  In  unaccented  el,  em,  en,  er,  the  e  in  rapid  talking  often  drops 
entirely  out,  and  the  consonants  I,  m,  n,  r  form  of  themselves 
syllables,  which  is  indicated  by  phonetists  by  the  sign  0  under 
the  letter.  «£mgel,  liebent,  liefcen,  pro.  hu:gl,  li:bm,  li:bn.  In  careless 
speech  the  syllabic  lingual  nasal  n  often  becomes  the  labial  nasal  m 
after  the  labials  6,  £,  m,  and  becomes  the  palatal  nasal  y  after 
a  palatal  (y,  kt  R]  :  li:bm,  lipm,  namm  instead  of  Iteben,  £u;pen,  iftamen  • 
ztyy,  dayky,  vaRy  instead  of  ftngen,  banfen,  iraren. 

All  syllabic  consonants  fill  out  about  the  full  time  required  to 
pronounce  an  unaccented  syllable,  and  hence  words  containing 
them  cannot  form  good  rhymes  with  words  containing  unsyllabic 
consonants  :  thus  barren  (karn)  should  not  rhyme  with  ($arn. 

SYLLABLES  IN  CONNECTED  DISCOURSE. 

42.  In  ordinary  language,  words  often  lose  their  etymological 
identity  in  our  consciousness  and  different  words  blend  together, 
and  are  often  treated  in  actual  practice  as  one  word  with  different 
syllables,  in  which  case  the  rules  given  above  for  separating 
syllables  apply  also  here  :  $eute  uafjm  er  bag  23ud)  nut  is  pronounced 
«£eute  im=mcr  bag  SSiicfy  tnit. 


SEPARATION  OF  SYLLABLES  AT  THE  END  OF  A  LINE. 

43.  The  separation  of  long  words  at  the  end  of  a  line  usually 
takes  place  according  to  the  natural  laws  of  separation  in  the 
spoken  language  as  given  above,  but  a  few  variations  occur,  and 
hence  the  complete  rules  are  given  as  follows  : 

1.  A  consonant  between  two  vowels  belongs  to  the  following 
syllable  :  l)u-ten,  £e*fcen,  &c. 

2.  If  several  consonants  stand  between  vowels  usually  only  the 
last  one  is  carried  over  :  Otit=ter,  €>V>erlin=ge  (pro.^e/?'/;^,  i.e.  y  being 
pronounced  as  any  double  consonant  with  both  syllables),  fltr=ren, 


3.  £  ,  cfy,  fcfy,  vty,  ft  t    are  never  separated  :  33u=|je,  S3e*d?er, 
(but  4a'"§sd;en  ;  see  6,  below),  ©co^ra=p^ie,  £a*ften,  &io*fter,  2 

4.  (f  is  separated  into  1*1  :  5)ef*fel. 

5.  In  foreign  words  all  combinations  of  6,  p,  b,  t,  g,  f  with  I  or  r 
are  carried  over  :  $u=blifum,  2tte*trum,  ^i)=brant. 

6.  Compound  words  are  separated  first  into  the  different  elements 
of  which  the  compound  consists,  and  within  each  element  the  rules 
given   above   are   observed  :    S'urjten*fcl)lofj,   £itr=an=gel   (pro.    ay'0l), 
«£>du6-cben.     Notice  <2cfyiffa6rt,  &c.,  but  @d;iff»fa^rt,  &c. 


a.  This  separation  at  the  end  of  the  line  of  compound  words  into  their 
component  elements  will  not  always  be  the  same  us  the  pronunciation  :  baritm 
(=bar  +  um)  is  separated  barium,  but  pronounced  bcunttn;  3nter;ejfe  (  =  L.  inter 
+  esse),  but  pronounced  3nte;rejje. 


42  ACCENT  44. 

ACCENT. 
'  GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

44.  Particular  syllables   in  a  word   or   particular  words   in  a 
sentence  may  be  made  prominent  above  others  and  distinguished 
by  especial  stress.     Thus  there   is  a  word  accent  and  a  sentence 
accent. 

I.    WORD  ACCENT. 

45.  In  polysyllabic  words  there  may  be  not  only  the  principal 
accent,  but  also  a  secondary  accent,  and  even  a  third,  besides  the 
unaccented  syllables.    The  principal  accent  in  the  following  articles 
will  be  marked  by  ',  or,  if  there  are  three  accents,  by  ",  the  secondary 
by  \  or,  if  there  are  three,  by  ',  the  third  accent  by  v,  the  unaccented 
syllable  by  - :  QSot'itrteir,  Un'Vbmfyeit'. 

Accent  must  not  be  confounded  with  quantity.  A  syllable  may 
be  long,  i.e.  contain  a  long  vowel,  or  diphthong,  or  a  short  vowel 
followed  by  two  or  more  consonants,  and  yet  have  weaker  accent 
than  a  short  syllable,  as  in  5lb'grunb\  A  long  heavy  syllable, 
however,  has  a  tendency  to  attract  force  to  itself  from  the  principal 
accent,  and  in  cases  even  becomes  more  strongly  accented  than  the 
syllable  that  should  logically  have  the  chief  stress,  as  in  SBacfyol'ber 
instead  of  QBad/otber. 

The  placing  of  the  accent  in  German  is  regulated  by  the  following 
principles  : 

1.  Logical  accent.     Some  particular  syllable  in  a  word,  usually 
the  root  syllable  in  a  simple  word  and  the  modifying  component 
element  (see  248)  in  a  compound,  contains  that  part  of  the  word 
which   is   logically  the   most  important,  and  hence   receives   the 
principal  accent :  fmoj'en,  ©efancj",  @d?ul'(?au3. 

The  next  important  syllable  after  the  principal  one  receives 
secondary  accent,  and,  if  a  compound,  that  syllable  in  the  basal 
compound  element  receives  secondary  accent,  which  would  have 
principal  accent  if  the  component  element  were  an  independent 
word  :  2)urd/me(vfer,  B'afyr'ttaf  fer,  £aue'(;etvren. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  these  examples  that  this  logical  accent 
usually  brings  the  chief  stress  upon  the  first  syllable.  This  logical 
principle  of  accenting  words  is  the  leading  one,  but  the  following 
deviations  occur  : 

2.  Emphatic  Accent.   The  speaker  may  for  some  emotional  reason 
place  unusual  stress  upon  some  particular  word,  but  he  is  then  not 
content  with  accenting  the  logically  important  syllable,  but  also  puts 
equal  or  perhaps  a  little  stronger  stress  upon  some  other  syllable, 
even  though  it  be  an  unimportant  one,  and  thus  arises  a  double 
accent :    im'banf  ba'reS   Jtinb !    eine    ausVfprocl/ene   @d?6nl)ett,   enb'ii/fer 
©rant,  imm'berlid/er  ©ebanfe,  fle'red/ter  4?tmmcl!     In  a  number  of  words 
this  emphatic  accent  which  does  not  rest  upon  the  logically  most 
important  syllable  has  become  permanent,   and  then  in  common 
unemphatic  language  becomes  the  principal  accent  of  the  word : 

,  cwfjeror'fcentUdj,  &c. 


47.2.  WORD  ACCENT  43 

3.  Rhythmical  Accent.     For  physiological  reasons  it  is  difficult  to 
pronounce  two  strongly  accented  syllables  in  succession.     There- 
fore in   such   a  case  the  accent  is  divided  so  that  there  will  be 
a  rhythmical  succession  of  strong  and  weak  syllables.     This  rhyth- 
mical principle  is  quite  an  important  one  in  German  and  often 
disturbs  the  logical  accent.     Thus  it  is  more  common  to-day  to  say 
(Jnb'nrteir,  <5ci)immm'anftaltv  than  Cmb'nr'teU,  <Scfyimmm'cm'fklt.     As  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  accent  a  long  and   heavy  compound  upon 
the  first  syllable  as  required  so  often  by  the  logical  force  of  that 
syllable,  the  principal  accent  is  sometimes  placed  upon  the  first 
syllable  of  the  second  component  element  :   <§ofmunb'jcfyenf,  ^fingfts 
fonn'tafl. 

4.  Foreign  Accent.    In  many  foreign  words  the  German  principle 
of  accenting  is  entirely  abandoned  in  favour  of  the  original  accent 
of  the  foreign  word,  and  hence  in  many  words  from  the  French 
and  Latin  the  chief  stress  is  found  upon  the  last,  or  less  frequently 
upon  the  next  to  the  last,  syllable  :  ©lefcmt',  Snitiati'fce.     The  accent 
upon  the  last  syllable  is,  however,  for  rhythmical  reasons  removed 
to   the    first  when   the   final  syllable  is  followed  by  an  accented 
syllable   in  the  next  word:    ©e'neral   23Iucfy'er   instead  of  ©eneral' 


The  secondary  accent  in  these  foreign  words  is  usually  upon  the 
first  syllable  :  5lf  ttoitdt',  ac'comvagnie'ren.  Here  again  the  rhythmical 
tendency  to  distribute  the  accented  syllables  so  as  to  make  a  suc- 
cession of  strong  and  weak  syllables  sometimes  disturbs  the  usual 
position  of  the  secondary  accent  :  afcom^agnte'ren  instead  of  ac'compags 
nie'ren. 

II.   SENTENCE  ACCENT. 

46.  Logical  and  emphatic  stress  prevail  in  sentence  accent.  All 
that  seems  to  the  speaker  logically  more  important  or  as  weightier 
from  the  standpoint  of  his  own  feeling  is  made  prominent  by 
accent.  The  number  of  shades  in  stress  is  here  much  greater  than 
in  word  accent,  some  being  more  or  less  marked,  others  very  fine 
and  scarcely  perceptible.  The  short  sentence  2Bo  rcoflt  ifjr  benn  fyin  ? 
may  be  read  with  the  following  accentuations  according  as  the  one 

1       4 

or  the  other  word  becomes  logically  more  important  :    2Bo  rcoKt 
253  43i52  42351 

ifyr  benn  l;in  ?  or  9&o  rcottt  ifyr  benn  fyin  ?  or  2Bo  inotlt  ifyr  benn  tyn  ?  The 
lower  numbers  here  denote  stronger,  the  higher  numbers  weaker 
accent. 

DETAILS   CONCERNING  ACCENT. 

I.  WORD  ACCENT. 

Principal  Accent. 

47.  i.  Accent  in  Simple  Stem  Words.  The  root  syllable  has  here  the 
accent  :  ©pra'd)?,  flin^'cn,  gu'tcm. 

2.  Accent  in  Derivative  Words.  Words  with  suffixes  and  prefixes  are 
often  differently  accented. 


44  DETAILS  CONCERNING  ACCENT         47.  2.  A. 


A.  In  words  with  suffixes  the  accent  rests  upon  the  root  syllable  : 
tyei'lig,  traum'fyaft. 

The  following  exceptions  occur  : 

a.  Words  ending  in  the  suffix  ;lei  are  accented  upon  the  last  syllable,  as 
the  suffix  lei  (i.e.  kind}  was  originally  a  noun,  and  the  element  preceding  it  is 
thus  a  modifying  adjective,  and  still  retains  the  weak  accent  which  usually 
belongs  to  an  adjective  in  sentence  accent  :  einerlei',  ntan^evlei'.     Often,  how- 
ever, especially  when  such  a  derivative  stands  attributively  before  a  noun 
accented  upon  the  first  syllable,  the  accent  shifts  from  the  let  to  the  first 
syllable  to  avoid  the  collision  of  two  accented  syllables  :  ei'nevtei  Sar'be. 

b.  A  few  words  have  from  various  causes  shifted  their  accent  from  the 
root  syllable:    those  in  sen'ge(l)n  (as  fd)arwen'ge(n)  except  fau'len$en;   Jpornif'fe 
(also  £ct'niffe),  teben'big,  SKafjfyol'ber  (also  Sftafj'fyolbet),  SSadjol'ber  (also  2Bad)'c*lber), 
Abolun'Der;   offenbar',  vintmttelbar',  also  of'fenbar,  un'mittelbar  ;   gorel'le,  ^etmelin', 
SBalfu're  ;  a  few  feminine  Christian  names,  the  second  component  of  which 
ends  in  an  unaccented  syllable,  as  (Sertru'be  (but  ©ev'ttub),  Jlunigun'be,  &c.; 
in  the  North  names  in  Hit,  as  936cfltn'  (in  S.G.  936<f'lfu)  ;  the  verbs  frofylocfen 
(also  frcf)'(ocfen),  fd)marofc'en,  tmllfafy'ren  (also  wiK'fafyten). 

c.  A  very  large  number  of  foreign  words  have  the  accent  upon  the  last  or 
next  to  the  last  syllable  :  Snftnitto',  Snitiatt're,  &c.    There  is  a  tendency  for 
those  accented  upon  the  last  syllable  to  shift  it  upon  the  first  in  accord- 
ance with  German  fashion  :  3n'fmiti»,  &c.     Some,  as  Jtompafj,  have  become 
thoroughly  naturalized  and  have  the  accent  upon  the  first  syllable. 

Foreign  names  of  nationalities  in  ;er  accent  the  next  to  the  last  syllable,  if 
that  syllable  is  long,  otherwise  the  first  syllable  :  £ebrd'er,  Jlarta'ger,  but  Sl'vaber, 
3'talev. 

A  number  of  accented  foreign  suffixes  are  also  now  added  to  German  words, 
especially  a'ge,  a'lie,  a'ner,  ant',  ei',  ei'en  (infinitive  ending),  en'fev,  ie'ven  (infinitive 
ending),  te'runa,,  ifi',  60'  :  Sa^a'tie,  SBeimava'net  inhabitant  of  Weimar,  Sdcferei', 
faftei'en,  Senen'fcr  inhabitant  of  Jena,  ftolgie'ren,  fd)aubere3'  (slang)  frightful, 
pedjce*'  (slang)  unfortunate. 

d.  In  adding  the  German  suffix  tfdj  to  words,  foreign  adjectives  have  the 
accent  upon  the  syllable  preceding  ifd),  while  German  words  accent  the  root 
syllable  :    ara'bifdj,   dtfye'rtfd),  but   ffop'ftocfifd}   or  flop'ftocf  'fc^.      Only  lutfye'tifd) 
Lutheran  among  German  words  has  here  foreign  accent.     This  word  has 
also  a  regular  German  accent,  but  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning  :  Sutlers 
[i]fd)    Luther's,   coming  from  Luther,   as   bte    2utfy'er[i]fdje    93tbeliib?tfe£ung. 
Catholics  and  often  Protestants  pronounce  this  word  litth/evifdj  in  both  of 
these  meanings. 

B.  Prefixes  are  differently  accented,  as  follows  : 

a.  Adjectives  or  substantives  with  the  prefix  $e;  are  accented  upon  the  root 
syllable,  those  with  ant;,  et;,  intjj  upon  the  prefix,  those  with  un*,  iir;,  and  erjs 
sometimes  upon  the  root  syllable,  sometimes  upon  the  prefix  :  ®efang', 
Slnt'itjovt,  et'ltaS,  SKtfj'mut;  Un'fyclb,  but  unuberfel/bat  ;  Uc'funbe,  but  urvfofc'ltdj  ; 
@r^'bifd)of,  but  (Srjbieb'.  Nouns  with  un;  and  UK,  and  monosyllabic  and  also 
polysyllabic  adjectives  with  the  prefix  un;,  provided  they  do  not  end  in  *\ii), 
*bar,  or  ;fam,  accent  usually  the  prefix,  while  nouns  and  adjectives  with  erg;, 
adjectives  with  im,  perfect  participles  with  iin*,  and  polysyllabic  adjectives 
with  mi;  and  at  the  same  time  the  suffixes  4td),  ;bar,  or  ifam,  take  usually  the 
stress  upon  the  root  syllable,  the  last  group,  however,  only  when  the  words 
have  passive  force  :  Un'ntcnfd),  lU'iVruncj,  wt'vaf?,  un'abfydngtg,  un'scrteilljaft, 
nn'vermcgenb  ;  @qfd)e(m',  erjbumm',  itralt',  nnentive^t',  uiirteto'gen,  uwevbient',  unbe; 
f^df'tiiit,  unevforfd)'(i4,  unauSfu^r'bar,  iinauf^alt'fam  ;  but  un'erfrfultd),  un'taiujlid),  &c., 
as  they  have  active  force.  A  few  in  ;ltd)  have  the  accent  upon  the  root  syllable, 
although  they  do  not  have  passive  force,  as  they  have  emphatic  accent  (see 
45.  2,  above)  :  unmcg'(td),  unenb'ltd),  umjergug'Ud),  &c.  Even  where  the 
meaning  is  passive  we  find  the  accent  upon  the  prefix  if  the  idea  is  that  of 
actuality  rather  than  mere  possibility  :  un'au3fu!)rlid)  not  carried  out  in  detail, 


47-3-A.  WORD  ACCENT  45 

but  unau$fiif)r'(id)  or  imaugfufyt'bar  impracticable.  Usage  fluctuates  with  regard 
to  the  accent  of  the  participle  with  the  prefix  utt;,  but  there  is  a  marked  ten- 
dency to  place  the  accent  upon  the  root  syllable.  Only  a  few  nouns  with  eq--, 
as  (Sq'btfcfyof,  Srj'fjerjog  (in  the  North),  have  the  accent  upon  the  prefix. 

Note.  Different  forces  are  at  work  upon  the  accent  of  these  words.  Logical, 
emphatic,  or  rhythmical  accent,  according  to  circumstances,  prevails,  and  hence  the 
varying  results.  If  the  prefix  is  felt  as  an  essential  modification  of  the  word,  it  is 
accented,  if  it  merely  strengthens  the  meaning  of  the  stem  word  without  adding  an 
essential  element  to  the  meaning,  the  stem  word  is  accented.  Thus  we  say  Un'mt nfd) 
inhuman  creature,  lit.  not  human,  but  Ultfum'men  enormous  sums ;  (Srj'bifdjof 
archbishop,  but  (Jtjbetm'ger  arrant  rogue.  Instead  of  int;  and  erj;,  nouns  are  often 
used  for  strengthening  force :  JpcKenlarm',  £eibengelb',  {RiefenfleijT,  Jperjbru'ber, 
Jperjtteb'fte,  &c.,  but  here  the  accent  upon  the  first  element  is  also  quite  common,  as 
in  general  the  emphatic  or  logical  accent  may  according  to  circumstances  or  the 
individual  prevail. 

A  derivative  should  have  the  accent  of  the  word  from  which  it  is  derived,  but 
emphatic  or  rhythmical  accent  sometimes  prevents  this :  Ur'fimbe  unb  ur'funbttd),  but 
Ur'fprung  and  urfptiing'Ud)  (also  ur/fprtinglidj). 

b.  The  verbal  prefixes  be,  ent£,  ent,  er,  ge,  tier,  $cv,  and  usually  mijj,  are  unac- 
cented :   befeft'len,  jerfdjla'gen.     The  accent  of  verbal  prefixes   is  treated  at 
length  in  articles  215.  I  and  II  and  246.  II.  8. 

c.  Nouns  and  adjectives  on  the  one  hand  and  verbs  on  the  other  are  some- 
times differently  treated  with  regard  to  accent.     This  difference  points  to 
a  different  condition  of  things  in  prehistoric  Germanic.     There  a  noun  or 
adjective  might  form  a  compound  with  some  preceding  unaccented  word,  and 
then  in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  tendency  to  place  the  accent  upon  the 
first  syllable  the  accent  shifted  from  the  basal  adjective  or  substantive  com- 
ponent to  the  first  syllable  of  the  compound.     Verbs,  however,  could  not  as 
yet  form   thus  compounds  with   proclitic  words,   and   hence  here  always 
retained  the  accent  upon  the  root  syllable.    Later  certain  proclitic  adverbs, 
such  as  be,  ent,  er,  &c.,  entered  into  a  loose  compound  (see  3.  A.  e,  below)  with 
a  following  accented  verb,  and,  as  is  usual  in  such  compounds,  retained  their 
original   weak  sentence  accent,  just  as  ju  §rie'ben,  an  Statt',  &c.   became 
jufrie'ben,  onftatt',  &c.    This   early  condition  of  things  has  left  behind  the 
following  traces  : 

aa.  9lnt  and  ur,  prefixes  of  nouns,  are  accented,  and  have  thus  with  the  aid 
of  accent  retained  their  full  vowels,  while  the  same  prefixes  have  in  verbs,  by 
reason  of  their  weak  accent,  lost  their  fullness  of  vowel  and  been  reduced  to 
the  forms  ent  and  er:  Itt'teit,  but  ertei'len;  Slnt'roort,  but  entfprec^'en.  When 
nouns  are  formed  with  ent  and  er,  they  are  not  direct  compounds,  but  are 
derived  from  verbs :  (Sntfdjurbtgung  from  entfdjul'bigen,  (Sntev'bung  from  er« 
wet'ben.  9lnttvcrteu,  urteUen  are  derived  from  the  nouns  Slntnwvt,  Urteil. 

bb.  In  nouns  and  adjectives,  intfj  is  usually  accented,  while  in  verbs  it  is 
usually  unaccented :  SJhfj'braud),  mifj'braud)lid),  but  tnifsbrau'cfcen.  In  verbs, 
however,  there  is  at  present  a  marked  tendency  to  shift  the  accent  upon  the 
prefix  :  mijj'broudjen  instead  of  mif$bvau'd)en.  For  explanation  of  this  shifting  of 
the  accent  see  246.  II.  8.  Nouns  derived  directly  from  verbs  have  verb 
accent :  SJHjjfyanb'hutg  from  mtjjfyan'betn.  Sometimes  the  same  word  has  verb 
or  noun  accent  according  as  the  influence  of  the  verb  or  noun  is  felt :  bad 
iWtjjtrau'en  in  bie  (the  ace.  showing  the  direction  of  an  activity  toward)  33e»6lf; 
erung  distrust  in  the  people,  but  baa  SKijj'trauen  in  bee  23eoelferung  the  distrust 
that  prevails  among  the  people. 

3.  Accent  of  Compounds. 

A.  Accent  of  Compound  Nouns  and  Adjectives.  The  modifying  com- 
ponent takes  the  principal  accent:  Jpaupt'mann,  Se'febud).  This  brings  the 
accent  usually  upon  the  first  syllable.  There  are,  aside  from  the  one  word 
©djlaraf'fe,  no  exceptions  to  this  rule  among  nouns,  provided,  however,  that 


46  DETAILS   CONCERNING  ACCENT       47.3.  A. 

they  are  true  compounds,  and  are  not  decomposite.     In  other  classes  of 
compounds  there  are  a  number  of  exceptions : — 

a.  A  number  of  compound  adjectives  and  adverbs  in  ;ig,  •&$,  4o3,  have  the 
accent  upon  the  stem  of  the  second  component :  nohven'Dtg,  abjtcfyt'lid),  fyeiUeeT. 
This  accent  is  the  result  of  the  emphatic  stress  which  they  often  have  in 
forcible    language ;    see   45. 2.     The  regular  accent   upon   the   modifying 
component  is  also  common  :    not'rcenbtg,  &c.     A  number  of  other  common 
compounds  much   used  in  emphatic  language  take  emphatic  stress :    oit& 
gejetd/mt  excellent,  fotniiaf/renb  continually,  augncfy'tnenb  uncommonly,  &c. 

b.  In  some  compounds  the  accent  has  not  yet  settled  down  definitely  upon 
either  element,  since  the  logical  force  of  neither  is  strongly  pronounced.     In 
this  case  the  accent  fluctuates  according  to  the  position  of  the  word  in  the 
sentence.     At  the  end  of  the  sentence  the  word  is  accented  upon  the  second 
element,  within  the  sentence,  when  an  accented  word  follows,  the  first  element 
is  accented :   £>er  SKenfd)  ift  nodj  Mutjung',  but  ein  blut'junger  SKenfdj.    These 
words  are :  — 

aa.  Compounds  of  which  the  first  element  is  a  substantive  that  does  not 
contain  an  essential  modification  of  the  basal  component,  but  only  strengthens 
it  by  giving  a  concrete  illustration  of  the  general  idea  already  contained  in 
it :  maitfetot,  blutvot,  yedjfdjftarj,  baumftarf,  unmberfcfycm,  feberleidjt,  fonnenflat,  florf blinb, 
gra^gritn,  &c. 

bb.  Thus  also  compounds  of  which  the  first  element  is  an  adjective  or 
adverb  that  does  not  contain  an  essential  modification,  but  only  defines 
more  definitely  the  general  idea  contained  in  the  second  element :  fyellgelb, 
bunfelgetb,  fd)arlad)vct,  »tetgenattnt,  fletmmnjig,  &c. 

c.  Sometimes  there  is  a  difference  of  meaning  in  connection  with  a  difference 
of  accent :  flein'reid)  stony,  but  fteinreid/  very  rich ;   ein  cw'jjerorbentUdjet  Qko; 
fzffbr  an  assistant  professor,  but  ein  aujjevor'bmtltcfyet  ^rofefior  a  professor  of 
extraordinary  merit ;  2)on'ne«t»etttr  thunderstorm,  but  3?ennertt>et'ter  (exclama- 
tion or  oath) ;   auS'gejeidjnet  (participle)  distinguished,  but  au3gqeid/net  (adj.) 
splendid.     The  accent  upon  the  first  syllable  marks  the  element  as  a  modi- 
fying one,  while  the  lack  of  the  accent  there  shows  that   it  contains   no 
essential  modification   of  the   basal   component,  or,   as   in  the   last   three 
examples,  the  removal  of  the  principal  accent  from  the  first  syllable  may  be 
for  emphasis. 

d.  The   adjectives  and  adverbs  a((,  grcj},  and  especially  words  that  have 
intensifying  force,  as  fyod),  ftwfyt,  &c.,  usually  have  chief  stress  in  compound 
nouns,  while  they  have  secondary  or  fluctuating  (see  b.  aa  and  bb,  above) 
stress  in  adjective  compounds :  SUl'madjt,  ©vojj'madjt,  .£od)'t>futfdj,  SSoljl'fianb,  but 
attmdd/tig,  gvofjmdd/tig,  fyodjraei'fe,  tooljle'cel,  fyodfyfein',  &c.      It  must  be  noticed, 
however,  that  nouns  made  from  these  adjectives  also  have  the  accent  of  the 
adjectives :    aflgemein'  and  9U(gemein'fyeit.     The  difference  in  accent   usually 
found  between  nouns  and  adjectives  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  logical  force 
of  the  component  is  felt  in  nouns,  while  in  adjectives  it  is  destroyed  by 
emphatic  accent,  or  the  first  component  has  only  strengthening  force,  as  in 
b.  aa  and  bb,  above.    Also  in  adjectives  the  first  component  must  have  accent 
when  it  really  contains  an  essential  modification  of  the  basal  component : 
all'feitig,  gtcjj'tnutig,  fyod/beutfd),  ttJofyf  geboven.     Notice,  however,  that  the  second 
component  in  other  compounds  may  take  the  accent  for  quite  a  different 
reason  from  that  given  for  the  above-mentioned  adjectives,  namely,  because 
it  becomes  logically  emphatic :  altin'bifd)  in  contrast  to  aitnot'cifd),  but  nit'* 
engltfd)  in  contrast  to  neu'cnglifd). 

e.  A  large  number  of  compounds  are  not  in  fact  true  compounds,  but 
merely  the  syntactical  fragments  of  a  sentence  which  have  been  written  as 
one  word.     Such  improper  or  loose  compounds  are  not  accented  as  true 
compounds,   but   retain   the   accent   which   they   had   as  elements   in   the 
sentence,  i.  e.  sentence  accent.    A  few  illustrations  of  this  sentence  accent  in 
improper  compounds  may  serve  to  explain  many  deviations  from  the  rules 


47.3- A.^.  WORD  ACCENT  47 

given  above  for  accent  in  compounds:  (i)  Adjectives  compounded  with 
a  substantive  have  usually  the  accent,  but,  as  adjectives  standing  before 
nouns  in  the  syntactical  structure  of  a  sentence  shift  the  accent  upon  the 
noun,  so  may  such  syntactical  constructions  retain  their  original  accent 
when  they  are  written  together  and  spoken  as  one  word :  Sung'fcau,  ©rau'bart, 
but  ber  $oj)fprie'jier,  (Mjetmerat'  (but  ©efyeim'vat,  when  the  syntactical  structure 
is  broken  and  a  regular  compound  is  formed).  (2)  The  articles  in  loose 
compounds  remain  unaccented  as  in  sentence  accent :  berfel'be,  beSglei'cfyen, 
etnntal'  (but  etn'mat  once,  as  cm  is  a  numeral  and  not  an  article)  once  upon  a 
time,  but  ber'jmtge,  as  the  demonstrative  force  is  felt.  (3)  An  attributive 
genitive  in  loose  compounds  takes  the  accent  if  it  follows  the  dependent 
noun,  as  in  sentence  accent :  SWuttergot'teg,  jettle'benS.  If  the  governing  noun 
follows,  it  is  accented  in  case  of  compounds  denoting  a  period  of  time,  as  in 
£agegan'fa"9,  thus  retaining  here  also  the  original  sentence  accent,  while  other 
compounds  of  this  form  are  usually  true  compounds  and  take  the  accent 
upon  the  first  component.  (4)  A  name  of  a  material  or  something  measur- 
able when  compounded  with  some  word  denoting  a  measure,  quantity,  or 
weight,  takes  the  accent  as  in  sentence  accent :  aHerteljhm'ce,  SHertetiafyr',  but 
4?alb'jafi,r,  as  it  is  a  regular  compound.  (5)  Prepositions  in  loose  compounds 
remain  unaccented,  as  in  sentence  accent :  abfyan'ben,  abfei'tcn.  (6)  Numeral 
compounds  take  the  accent  upon  the  last  element  except  in  the  attributive 
relation,  where  the  first  element  is  accented :  fiinfunbstoan'jig,  breifyun'bert,  britte; 
Ijatb',  but  fimf  uttbjwanjig  2ftann,  brei'fyunbert  SWann,  brit'tefyalb  fitter.  (7)  The  last 
part  of  the  name  of  an  individual  takes  the  accent  as  in  sentence  accent : 
.ijanSttHirfi'  (also  ^)an0'it>urfl)  jack-pudding.  (8)  When  a  whole  sentence  be- 
comes a  loose  compound,  the  accent  varies  according  as  the  origin  of  the 
compound  is  felt,  or  it  is  felt  as  a  true  compound:  Sebefyod)',  gcttlcb',  but 
Jleljr'auS,  ©aufauS,  ^affan.  (9)  Points  of  the  compass  have  accent  upon  the 
last  element :  9iorbo|V,  Suboft',  9tcrbtt?eft'. 

f.  A  few  peculiar  modern  formations  have  the  accent  upon  the  second 
element :  Ssafyrfyim'Dert,  Safyrtau'fenb,  Safyqefynt'. 

g.  Names  of  places  vary  much  in  their  accent,  and  no  reliable  rules  can 
be  given  as  a  guide.     Usually  the  many  words  before  ;burg,  ;berg,  sfyeim,  ;fiabt, 
sborf,  &c.,  are  modifying  components,  and  take  the  accent,  as  jto'mg<5b«vg, 
ffranf  flirt,  &c.     But  in  many  words  no  logical  relation  between  the  parts  is 
felt,  and  the  second  component  takes  the  accent  in  accordance  with  a  growing 
tendency  to  shift  the  accent  toward  the  middle  or  end  of  the  word,  as  in 
9Utfhe'li£,  ffiernigero'be,  JJafcenfl'lenbcgcn,  &c.     This  is  especially  the  case  when 
the  second  component  ends  in  an  unaccented  syllable  :  Scrnfaf'tet,  Jpcljmin'ben, 
^aifevglau'tern,  2Bittenber'ge  (but  2Btt'tenberg),  £c.      In  the  following  cases  the 
final  component  is  usually  accented,  however  not  uniformly  in  all  parts 
of  the  country :  compounds  of  which  the  first  element  is  an  adjective,  as 
Dbcrwe'fel,  ©rofebee'ven ;  those  in  ;born,  sbronn,  ;brud),  sbrticf,  sbrunn,  *bufd),  sforbc, 
;gtafc,   ;t)a((,  jfyaufen,  4orfti  Jtnu»be,  «reut1j,  ;rcbe,  ;fce,  ;ftalbe,  ;lt>ertl),  *tt>6rt1j,  as  in 
$aberborn'r  J&eilbronn',  JtomgeljorfV,  (5ber3l»at'bf,  &c.    The  first  component,  how- 
ever, must  in  all  cases  take  the  accent  when  it  becomes  essential  to  the 
thought,  as  for  instance  to  make  a  contrast,  or  to  distinguish  two  names 
having  the  same  basal  component :    3d)  ircfyite  nic^t  in  Dleu'tfrclil?,  fenbetn  in 
SUt'ihelijs.     The  local  pronunciation  of  names  of  places  often  varies  from  that 
generally  heard  elsewhere.     The  people  of  the  well-known  university  town 
($retf3Hxilb,  for  instance,  accent  the  name  of  their  city  upon  the  first  syllable 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  names  of  other  places  having  the  same  basal 
component,  \vhile  people  generally  accent  here,  as  in  numberless  other  cases, 
the  second  element,  as  they  are  not  acquainted  with  the  other  less  known 
places  having  the  same  basal  component,  and  hence  do  not  feel  the  logical 
force  of  the  first  component.     On  the  other  hand,  the  inhabitants  of  a  place 
which  has  for  a  name  a  compound  word  with  a  familiar  basal  component,  as 
in  the  case  of  ^apenburg',  may  accent  the  basal  component,  as  to  them  the 


48  DETAILS   CONCERNING  ACCENT    47. 3.  A.^. 

mere  name  with  the  accent  upon  the  second  element  is  perfectly  clear,  while 
elsewhere  people  generally  accent  the  first  element  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  names  having  the  same  basal  component. 

Thus,  there  is  here  a  good  deal  of  irregularity.  Even  where  the  first 
element  is  a  modifying  component  it  does  not  uniformly  take  the  accent : 
9lorb'beutfd)tanb,  but  9iorbame'rifa.  This  irregularity  is  frequently  caused  by 
the  tendency  to  arrange  the  accents  so  as  to  make  an  easy  and  rhythmical 
succession:  bit  Jtiifte  son  9tovbVfrifa',  but  bie  norb"a' frifa'nifcfye  jtiijh.  Also  in 
names  of  persons  the  usual  accent  is  disturbed  by  rhythmical  accent,  as  the 
titles  have  a  weak  stress  and  may  cause  a  rearrangement  of  the  accents  of 
the  name:  $o'l)enlo'l)e,  but  fturfT  Jpo'tyenlo'lje. 

B.  Accent  of  Compound  Verbs.    The  accent  here  depends  upon  the  nature 
of  the  compound  :  (l)  If  the  modifying  component  is  separable,  it  is  accented : 
auf'fiefyen,  un'tergefyen,  aus'gefyen.    (2)  If  the  modifying  component  is  inseparable, 
it  is  unaccented:   uberfefc'eri,  »o(l$tefc/en.    The  adjective  »o((fom'men  complete, 
perfect,  belongs  here,  as  it  is  in  fact  the  perf.  participle  of  the  lost  inseparable 
oollfom'tnen.     As  its  origin  is  forgotten  and  it  is  felt  as  an  adjective,  it  also 
shifts  the  accent  upon  the  first  syllable.    The  adjective  participle  hnllfom'men 
welcome  has  been  influenced  in  its  accent  by  »o(lfom'men.     (3)  If  the  verbal 
compound  is  not  directly  compounded,  but  has  been  formed  from  a  compound 
noun,  it  has  noun  accent :  ftiife/jiucfen.     This  subject  is  treated  at  length  in 
articles  215-218. 

a.  Nouns  formed  from  these  verbs  retain  the  accent  of  the  verb  :  soKjiefy'en, 
S5o(ljug' ;  »or'fa((eit,  2Wfa((. 

However,  here,  as  in  2.  B.  c,  above,  we  find  in  one  group  of  words  a  different 
treatment  of  noun  and  verb.  Nouns  in  composition  with  bitrdj,  ftinter,  fiber, 
urn,  unter,  iviber,  have  uniformly  the  accent  upon  the  prefix,  although  the 
corresponding  verb  is  accented  upon  the  verbal  stem :  2Bi'berfprucf),  but 
wibetfarecfy'en ;  Surcfy'ftid),  but  burdjftecfy'en ;  Un'tev^alt,  but  unterfyal'ten.  Nouns 
compounded  with  these  prepositions  take,  however,  the  accent  of  verbs  if 
they  have  a  suffix :  Utnge'bung,  Unterfyaf  tung,  Jjintevlaf fenfdjaft. 

b.  In  older  periods  of  the  language  the  perfect  participle  like  other  adjec- 
tives took  the  accent  upon  the  first  syllable  and  hence  upon  the  prefix,  while 
in  case  of  verbs  compounded  with  a  proclitic  adverb  (i.e.  an  inseparable 
prefix)  the  pure  verbal  forms  had   sentence  accent,  i.e.   accent  upon  the 
verbal  stem,  as  explained  in  2.  B.  c,  above.     The  old  manner  of  accenting 
the   participle  may  still  survive  in   the   one   participial  adjective  un'tertan 
subject  to,  participle  of  the  now  obsolete  itntevtun'  (still  found  in  early  N.H.G. ; 
see  I  Cor.  xv.  27).     It  is  quite  possible  here,  however,  that  the  present  accent 
of  the  adjective  participle  is  modern,  the  accent  shifting  from  the  verbal  stem 
to  the  prefix,  as  the  word  was  felt  as  an  adjective  and  noun,  and  all  relation 
to  the  lost  itntertun'  was  forgotten.     Aside  from  this  isolated  example  the 
accent  of  the  participle  now  follows  that  of  the  verb :   voHjo'gen,  part,  of 
»ol(jte'f)en. 

C.  Accent  of  Compound  Ad-verbs  and  Interjections.    The  accent  here 
rests  usually  upon  the  last  syllable :  bergauf ',  firomab',  ft.  inu'bcv,  fy  evuot',  barauf , 
ttietteicfyt',  tiielnteljr',  jitd)ei' !     The  logical   importance  of  some  other  syllable 
often  causes  exceptions  to  this  rule :  baburdb/,  bartn',  &c.  become  ba'Durd),  ba'tin 
when  the  demonstrative  force  is  felt ;  see  141.  5.  A.  b. 

D.  Accent  of  Decomposite  Words.     Although  a  compound  may  consist  of 
two  words  or  several,  it  can  as  a  rule  have  only  two  component  elements—- 
the basal  component,  which  contains  the  more  general  idea,  and  the  modifying 
component,  which  contains  an  essential  modification.     Either  component 
may  be  a  compound.     The  modifying  component  of  decomposites  takes  the 
accent   according   to  the   principles  given  in  A  and  B,  above,  for  simple 
compound  nouns,   adjectives,  and  verbs :    S3iin'be$tagg6efd?{u£   (93un'be6tag  + 
33efdjlufj'),  »ov'urteil3fm  (SScr'urteil  +  fret),  iibervor'teilen  (u'ber  +  wor'tetten),  and  many 
compounds  (see  245.  IV.  3.  B)  which  are  not  yet  generally  written  as  one 


48.  i.  A.  WORD  ACCENT  49 

word,  such  as  in  ftonb'  fefcen,  gu  ©run'be  Itgen.  Nouns  made  from  this  last  class 
of  verbs  retain  the  verb  accent  and  are  usually  written  as  true  compounds  in 
one  word:  Snfianb'fejjmtg,  3itgntn'bel?gung.  If  the  compound  has  more  than 
two  components,  it  is  usually  a  loose  compound,  i.e.  a  whole  sentence  or 
a  syntactical  fragment  of  a  sentence  which  is  written  as  one  word,  or  it 
may  be  a  mere  co-ordination  of  words.  Such  a  loose  compound  has  in 
some  cases  sentence  accent  and  in  others  accent  upon  the  first  syllable 
after  the  manner  of  a  true  compound:  (SiumaleuuJ',  ffdj$l)unbertunbbm'{5ig, 
fdjroarjrotgol'Dene  5<tf)iie,  but  (SteU'cicfyein,  <S>pring'm$felb.  When  a  loose  com- 
pound becomes  a  modifying  component,  it  usually  retains  its  original 
sentence  accent:  Slrmjun'berfyfmb,  9Utnjei'bergefd)foak,  ©auregur'fenjttt,  Summer* 
juug'enfhetdj,  SJiuttergot'tegbilb. 

a.  Many  exceptions  are  found  to  the  above  general  rules.  There  is 
an  evident  tendency  in  long  words  to  shift  the  accent  from  the  first  com- 
ponent to  the  second,  if  the  latter  is  compound,  on  account  of  the  physical 
difficulty  of  accenting  a  syllable  so  far  removed  from  the  end.  This 
occurs  especially  in  case  of:  (i)  The  names  of  certain  church  festivals  or 
holidays:  ^almfonn'tag,  Jfavfrei'tag,  9lfd)ermitf»odj,  &c.  (2)  Many  titles  or 
official  positions:  SlmteJjaupt'mann,  J&offommiiTions'rat,  ©enerafycfl'meifter,  especially 
those  in  ober*  and  uniev;,  as  JDberftaatg'antoatt,  Unterjiaate'fefrrtitt-  For  the  same 
reason  a  compound  modifying  component  shifts  its  accent  occasionally  upon 
its  second  (i.e.  basal)  component,  when  the  basal  component  of  the  decom- 
posite is  a  simple  element:  ftret'ljafen,  but  Sretfya'fenflabt  ;  8anb'gerid)t,  but 
JJanbgeridjts'rat,  &c.  This  shifting  of  the  accent  upon  the  second  component 
becomes  a  rule  where  the  first  element  does  not  contain  an  essential  modifica- 
tion of  the  basal  component,  but  has  only  strengthening  force  :  mutterfeeleiu 
ollein',  @vjtau'gemd)t$. 

E.  Accent  of  Derivatives  formed  from  Compounds  and  Compounds 
formed  from  Derivatives.  A  derivative  formed  from  a  compound  is 
accented  as  a  derivative,  but  a  compound  in  which  the  basal  component 
is  a  derivative  is  accented  as  a  compound  :  Siebfyabem'  (Steb'fyaber  +  et),  but 
€tabt>olijei  (Stabt  +  Spolijei')  ;  <£$riftfleUevti'  (@djrift'fieH«-f  et),  but  ^ajj' 


4.  Pronunciation  of  Foreign  Words.  The  accent  here  depends  upon 
whether  the  word  is  still  distinctly  felt  as  a  foreign  or  as  a  German  word. 
Many  foreign  words  have  been  thoroughly  naturalized  and  have  received 
German  accent,  many  others  are  sometimes  pronounced  as  foreign  words, 
sometimes  as  German  words  ;  the  greater  number,  however,  still  retain  the 
accent  of  the  language  from  which  they  were  borrowed.  Some  words  which 
are  now  accented  as  German  words  had  foreign  accent  in  earlier  periods  of 
the  language.  In  view  of  the  great  irregularity  that  here  prevails,  this 
subject  cannot  be  treated  in  a  grammar,  and  the  student  must  be  referred 
to  his  lexicon.  The  German  dictionaries  in  use  in  Germany  avoid  these 
foreign  words,  but  they  are  usually  treated  in  a  separate  work  called 
grembworterbudj. 

Secondary  Accent. 

48.  Secondary  accent  is  not  bound  so  closely  to  certain  syllables  as  is  the 
principal  accent,  but  is  often  under  different  circumstances  shifted  from  one 
syllable  to  another.  There  are  two  factors  involved  in  determining  secondary 
accent  —  a  logical  and  a  physiological  principle.  Sometimes  both  unite  in 
fixing  the  accent  upon  a  certain  syllable,  sometimes  one  principle  gains  the 
victory  over  the  other. 

I.  Logical  Principle  in  Secondary  Accent.  This  principle  is  applied 
in  compound  and  derivative  words  as  follows  : 

A.  In  compound  words,  that  syllable  receives  secondary  accent  which 
would  receive  principal  accent  if  the  component  were  an  independent  word  : 

E 


50  DETAILS  CONCERNING  ACCENT        48.  i.  A. 


pfer,  «§aus'f)fr'ren,  aua'mer'gen.  In  decomposites,  although  there  may  be 
a  number  of  different  words,  there  will  be  usually  only  two  components, 
so  that  the  principal  accent  falls  upon  the  principal  syllable  of  the  modifying 
component  and  the  secondary  accent  upon  the  principal  syllable  of  the 
basal  component:  SSa'tertanbstte'be  (93a'ter(anb  +  8ie'be),  gelb'bteb'ftefyL  The 
accent  here  is,  however,  often  disturbed  by  the  tendency  (described  in  2, 
below)  to  distribute  the  accents  so  as  to  make  a  regular  and  rhythmical 
succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables:  ICcr'anjei'ge,  ©nb'uttei'le 
instead  of  aSor'anVige,  (Snb'ut'teUe. 

B.  Accent  of  Suffixes.  After  a  root  syllable  which  contains  the  principal 
meaning  and  chief  accent,  certain  prefixes  from  their  logical  force  as  modi- 
fying elements  take  secondary  accent,  some  of  which  are  the  remnants  of 
once  independent  words.  These  suffixes  are  : 

a.  Substantive  suffixes  :  at,  fit,  ob,  Ijeit,  In,  feit,  lein,  ling,  m$,  fat,  fdjaft,  turn  : 
^ei'ma'tftt,  Jtlei'no'be,  Jlo'nigirf,  @'»mgfeit'. 

b.  Adjective  suffixes:    bar,  tyaft,  tcljt,  tg,  tfcfc,  fid:},  fam,  fe'tig:    braudj'barc, 
lebVfte. 

2.  Physiological  Principle  in  Secondary  Accent.  For  physiological 
reasons  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce  two  accented  syllables  one  after  the  other. 
It  is  easier  and  at  the  same  time  more  rhythmical  to  place  an  unaccented 
syllable  between  the  first  and  second  accent.  Thus  to  avoid  the  clashing  of 
principal  and  secondary  accent  the  latter  is  often  removed  from  the  syllable 
logically  important  to  one  of  minor  importance  :  SSoc'anjei'ge  instead  of 
SSor'an'jeige.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce  more  than  two 
unaccented  syllables  one  after  the  other,  and  hence  the  natural  tendency  is 
to  give  one  of  several  unaccented  syllables  a  secondary  accent,  provided, 
however,  that  it  will  not  clash  with  another  accent  of  the  same  strength  : 
beffere'  ©efialt',  but  the  secondary  accent  upon  a  final  syllable  must  be  sup- 
pressed or  shifted  when  it  would  stand  before  another  accent:  jte  eroar'tete 
aWa'rian'nen  ;  bag  Gnb'urteir  frfotgt',  but  ba3  (Snb'ur'teU  fyridjt'.  Thus  secondary 
accent  depends  largely  upon  the  accents  in  the  preceding  or  following 
syllables.  The  following  details  should  be  noted  : 

a.  In  polysyllabic  words  the  secondary  accent  depends  upon  the  logical 
value  or  the  position  of  the  syllable.    The  important  syllables  as  described 
in  I,  above,  are  accented  if  their  position  admits  of  it.  Also  a  short  logically 
unimportant  syllable  receives  an  accent  if  it  is  at  a  distance  of  two  or  more 
syllables  from  the  principal  accent,  providing  it  is  not  followed  by  an  accent  : 
fyei'tere'  ®efe(l'fd)aft. 

The  intensity  of  all  secondary  accents  increases  with  their  distance  from 
the  principal  accent,  and  sometimes  becomes  stronger  than  the  accent  upon 
a  logically  more  important  syllable:  in  2luf"fef)1erin'nen  the  suffix  tit  has 
a  stronger  accent  than  the  root  syllable  fef).  Here,  however,  as  elsewhere, 
the  secondary  accent  is  influenced  by  the  accent  of  the  following  word,  as 
two  accents  must  not  come  together:  £offnungen'  enuecft',  but  ^offnung'en 
taufdjt'. 

b.  A  single  syllable  between  two  accents  is  unaccented  :  3)o$  SU'ter  fcfyiifct' 

nidjt'. 


c.  If  there  are  two  syllables  between  two  accents,  they  are  both  unaccented 
if  short,  but  the  first  may  be  accented  if  it  is  long  :  aSi'bevlfdjfeit',  but  lln"? 
e'benfyeit',  feU"fa'me  Slvt'.    The  second  of  the  two  syllables  standing  between 
accents  can  be  accented  only  when  the  word  stands  before  a  pause  in  the 
sentence  or  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  in  which  cases  it  does  not  really  stand 
between  two  accents,  but  between  an  accent  and  a  pause  :  25em  ©lucfltc^cH 
fann'  eg  an  nidjtg'  gebredj'm,  or  Sent  ©lucFllrfjeii'  |  fann'  (3  an  nid)t$'  gcbrccfy'en. 
35mt  toccfc'feliiben  fie'ben,  but  ©ar  wdjfeutb  ifl  beS  3D?anne3  rafter  ©inn,  bnn 
Seben  untertan,  &em  tt>ed)'felit&cti'. 

d.  If  there  are  three  syllables  between  two  accents,  the  middle  syllable 
usually  takes  the  secondary  accent  unless  it  be  considerably  lighter  and 


49.  WORD  ACCENT  51 

shorter  than  the  first  syllable,  in  which  case  the  first  syllable  is  accented : 
ein  un'banfba'res  J?inb',  but  etne  im'glii(f  (t<Jje  fite'be.  The  third  of  these  syllables 
can  never  have  the  accent,  as  it  would  bring  it  immediately  before  the 
principal  accent  (see  e). 

e.  A  secondary  accent  can  stand  before  the  principal  accent,  but  never 
immediately  before  it :  rtn'berle'gen,  S^e'ofooje'.   Here  as  elsewhere  the  intensity 
of  the  secondary  accent   increases   with   its   distance   from  the   principal 
stress.     Thus  the  secondary  accent  is  much  stronger  in  the  second  of  the 
two  preceding  examples. 

f.  In  foreign  words  the  secondary  accent  lies  upon  the  first  syllable,  and  if 
the  word  is  long  a  third  accent  may  be  placed  between  the  two  accents : 
Wligien',  OJe'Ugiof'ttat".     Here  as  elsewhere  the  natural  tendency  to  make 
a    succession    of   strong    and  weak  syllables  often  disturbs  the   accent : 
Sfteli'gton'. 

Unaccented  Syllables. 

49.  The  limitation  of  the  principal  accent  in  the  main  to  the  root  syllable 
is  now  a  principle  quite  generally  observed  throughout  the  Germanic  family 
of  languages,  including  both  English  and  German.  This  system  has  not 
always  obtained,  as  fossil  remnants  still  show,  but  since  its  adoption  has 
been  of  great  influence  in  shaping  the  form  of  the  German  language.  Since 
the  principal  syllable,  which  is  usually  the  root  syllable,  receives  the  main 
accent,  the  inflectional  endings,  many  suffixes,  and  the  prefixes  be,  emp ,  ent,  er, 
$e,  »cr,  jcr,  are  neglected  in  accenting,  and  hence  they  have  lost  the  full  vowel 
forms  which  they  once  had.  The  various  vowels  and  diphthongs  of  the 
languages,  as  a,  o,  u,  ait,  &c.,  have  been  preserved  only  in  the  accented 
syllables,  while  in  the  unaccented  syllables  the  same  vowels  and  diphthongs 
have  all  been  reduced  quite  uniformly  to  e :  erfiU'Ien  (Gothic  usfulljan).  In 
words  like  (Si'g?ntiVmer  the  secondary  accent  has  preserved  the  vowels  from 
decay,  while  the  unaccented  vowels  have  been  reduced  to  e.  Many 
words  have  lost  their  fullness  of  sound,  many  vowels  have  disappeared  for 
ever.  The  process  of  decay  has  not  yet  ceased.  Sometimes  the  vowel  e  is 
now  of  so  little  importance  that  it  can  be  pronounced  or  omitted  :  gerabe  or 
grab,  bange  or  bang.  Sometimes  the  e,  although  it  has  dropped  out  in  com- 
paratively recent  times,  is  no  longer  felt  at  all.  No  one  thinks  any  more  of 
the  e  once  after  g  in  ©laube,  ®IM,  &c.  In  the  different  inflectional  systems, 
e  is  often  in  familiar  language  entirely  suppressed,  while  in  a  more  choice 
style  it  can  be  skilfully  dropped  or  employed  according  to  the  rhythmical 
requirements  of  the  sentence.  See  62.  F.  b.  It  will  also  in  this  connection 
be  noticed  throughout  the  Grammar  that  the  German  is  especially  fond  of 
the  trochee  (—  \j)  or  the  falling  spondee  (—  — )  as  a  word  foot,  and  is  now 
usually  disposed  to  change  longer  feet  into  these  favorite  shorter  feet  by 
dropping  an  unaccented  e,  if  it  can  be  conveniently_  done.  Thus  —  \^^, 
±  -\-  o,  -L  w  ^,  become  —  ^,  —  -,  J-^-:  Jto'mgtf,  not  Jto'mgea ;  SDZo'ntagiJ,  not 
Sflo'ntageg ;  Ijt'mmltfdj,  not  I)t'ntmeTifd?.  It  must  be  noticed  that  the  dropping  of 
e  here  is  solely  a  question  of  accent,  for  in  disyllabic  forms  the  same  words 
retain  the  e :  (beg)  £age$,  (bet)  ^immel.  Also  in  words  closely  united  by 
thought  we  can  notice  the  tendency  to  divide  up  the  syllables  into  disyllabic 
feet:  fjcute,  but  fjelit'jujta'g?.  Thus  also_ trisyllabic  rising  feet  become  disyl- 
labic: b?glei'|ten,  from  be  +  geleiten;  begmV|gen,  from  be  +  geniigen.  It  should  be 
noticed,  however,  that  the  literary  form  of  speech  is  averse  to  all  these 
changes  of  feet,  if  the  clearness  of  the  thought  could  thereby  be  endangered. 
Thus  we  must  say  ttxmbelte  (past  indie.)  and  not  iranbelt,  for  the  latter  form 
would  be  the  same  as  the  pres.  indie.,  and  would  thus  endanger  the  thought. 
In  the  first  class  of  strong  nouns,  however,  even  the  literary  language 
has  endorsed  this  dropping  of  e,  although  the  plural  became  thereby 
identical  in  form  with  the  sing. ;  see  67.  Dialect  goes  much  farther  in 
suppressing  unaccented  sounds  than  the  written  language.  In  S.G.  dialect 

E  2 


52  DETAILS   CONCERNING   ACCENT'  49. 

also  unaccented  final  n  has  disappeared :  2>u  nuifdjt  (mujjt)  bei  mir  bteibe  (for 
b(eiben) — Auerbach. 

In  many  words  full  vowels  have  been  preserved  in  the  unaccented  syllable, 
but  such  words  are  quite  uniformly  of  foreign  origin :  2JJu(at'te,  Softer, 
2Rinu'te,  &c.  Only  in  such  words  as  U'fjit,  and  in  a  number  of  names,  as  Dtto, 
<§erta,  &c.,  has  the  unaccented  vowel  been  preserved  in  German  words. 

II.    SENTENCE  ACCENT. 

SO.  In  a  sentence  the  different  words  do  not  have  uniform  accent,  but 
here  again  the  logical  principle  of  accenting  the  important  words  and 
slighting  the  unimportant  is  observed.  This  logical  accent  falls  into  two 
general  classes,  which  may  be  styled  grammatical  accent  and  logical  or 
emphatic  accent,  which  are  treated  in  the  two  following  articles. 

A.    Grammatical  Accent. 

As  certain  syllables  of  a  word  take  accent  by  reason  of  their  logical 
importance,  so  also  are  certain  grammatical  elements  of  a  sentence  of  greater 
logical  importance  than  others,  and  receive  accordingly  greater  accent. 
General  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  the  accent  of  the  different  grammatical 
elements,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  are  only  general  rules  and 
are  set  aside  whenever  the  logically  important  idea  shifts  to  other  elements. 
As  will  be  seen  below,  the  question  of  accent  is  sometimes  intimately 
connected  with  that  of  word-order. 

The  following  hints  may  be  useful : 

1.  In  general  the  predicate  as  the  most  important  thing  to  be  communi- 
cated is  more  strongly  accented  than  the  subject :  Set  Jpunb  be'Kt. 

2.  The  predicate  adjective  or  noun,  the  dependent  infinitive  or  participle, 
the  separable  prefix  of  a  separable  verb,  are  of  more  importance  than  the 
copula,  auxiliary,  or  finite  verb  which  bind  them  to  the  subject,  and  hence 
receive  the  accent,  and  according  to  German  usage  stand  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence.     For  this  important  point,  see  215.  II.  i.  A  and  285.  II.  B.  b.gg. 

3.  If  the  predicate  verb  has  an  object  or  adverbial  modifier,  these  usually 
take  a  stronger  accent  than  the  verb  itself,  except  in  case  of  a  reflexive  or 
personal  pronoun :  2>a3  3Berf  lobt  ben  SKei'fler.    @t  fpticfjt  lau't.    <Ste  rcbeu  jufa'mmen 
(at  the  same  time),  but  @ie  re'ben  gufamnten  (=ntitetnanber).     (5t  freit't  fidj. 

4.  If  there  are  a  number  of  objects  or  adverbial  modifiers,  the  logically 
more  important  are  accented  and  stand  toward  the  end  of  the  sentence, 
especially  an  adverb  of  place :  SotumbusJ  fuljv  am  3.  QJuguft  1492  »on  5pa'Io3  ab. 
The  order  here  is  treated  in  detail  in  285.  II.  B.c,  d,  e. 

5.  An  adjective  usually  receives  less  stress  than  the  noun  it  limits :  S)er 
japaneftfdje  Jtai'fft.     Here,  however,  the  logical  importance  often  shifts  upon 
the  adjective :  ©tb  wit  ba3  brau'ne  $ferb. 

6.  Pronouns,  articles,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  auxiliaries  receive  less 
stress  than  other  parts  of  speech.     These  classes  of  words  often  become 
enclitics  or  proclitics,  when  an  accented  syllable  immediately  precedes  or 
follows,  that  is,  they  here  lose  their  accent  and  are  treated  as  if  they  were 
a  part  of  the  preceding  or  following  word  :  (enclitics)  fya'ftbu  (pro.  fya'ftu),  bie 
0la'd>t  bltrd),  &c.;  (proclitics)bur<i>  gte'be,  e3  i'jt,  er  ttei'jj,  but  e'v  befe'nnt  because  the 
pronoun  is  followed  by  an  unaccented  syllable.    Often  monosyllabic  pronouns 
or  articles  become  enclitics  after  prepositions,  and  are  sometimes  even  con- 
tracted and  thoroughly  fused  into  one  word  with  the  preposition  :  ini't  cud), 
bet'  ifjm,  au'f  bag  or  aufs,  in  bent  or  tm.     See  also  57.  B  and  C,  and  58.  B.  b,  c. 

7.  When  two  or  more  elements  are  closely  related,  there  is  often  a  marked 
tendency  to  bind  them,  as  in  a  loose  compound,  still  more  closely  together  by 
one  principal  accent,  which  rests  upon  the  last  element,  especially  in  the 
following  cases : 


51.  SENTENCE  ACCENT  53 

a.  "When  the  one  word  is  in  apposition  with  the  other  :  SWuttet  SKaht'r.   SBcr 
foil  bein  £uter  fein,  SBater  Zlfai'n  ? 

b.  When  a  title  and  a  proper  name  form  one  idea :  Jfaifer  SBi'lljetttt. 

c.  In  case  of  Christian  and  surname :  Scrfob  ©ri'mm ;  but  (S'ridj  @d)tmbt, 
nicfyt  3of)a'nne«  ©djmibt. 

d.  Usually  in  case  of  a  noun  and  its  modifying  genitive,  although  here 
occur  many  exceptions   according  to  logical  requirements :    (Sc  unrb   bic 
(2rf)tt>eUe  meiite$  £>au'fe$   nid)t  ubtrtreten,  or  @r  iuirb   meitted  £aufc$ 
<2>cf)tt>e'Ue  nicfjt  iibertveten.    The  genitive  of  specification,  however,  for  logical 
reasons  usually  takes  the  accent:   2)ie  ft  tin  ft  fceS  Ste'rbeitS  tft  allgemein, 
or  less  commonly  £>e$  <3te'rbeil3  ftunft  ift  attgemetn. 

£.  Usually  in  case  of  a  noun  with  its  modifying  prepositional  phrase,  when 
they  together  form  one  idea :  S5aS  58udj  auf  bent  SH'fd). 

f.  When  a  noun  denoting  a  weight  or  measure  and  the  following  noun 
denoting  a  material  or  something  measurable  together  form  the  idea  of 
a  complete  whole :  cut  <5turf  £u'dj,  em  ©lag  SBei'tt,  erne  fiinftel  SKei'le. 

g.  In  case  of  several  words  which  are  connected  by  a  preposition  or  con- 
junction and  form  together  one  idea :  3>»eig  auf  3»ei'a,e  one  branch  upon  the 
other,  \.  e.  all  upon  one  pile,  toeit  unb  brei't,  ©ntnb  unb  fflo'bcn property,  real  estate ; 
jung  unb  a'lt,  grofi  unb  flei'n,  arm  unb  ret'cfy-    The  unity  of  the  idea  arises  here 
from  the  fact  that  the  words  are  either  synonyms,  and  thus  represent  the  same 
thing  from  two  different  standpoints,  or  are  opposites  or  complements,  and 
thus  show  the  whole  range  of  the  idea  from  the  two  extremes.     Of  course  the 
logical  importance  of  the  first  word  may  sometimes  require  it  to  be  accented  : 
3tt»ei'g  auf  Bwei'g  (compare  with  first  example  above)  one  branch  at  a  time. 
The  accent  upon  the  first  word  here  shows  that  it  is  to  be  taken  separately. 

h.  When  several  nouns  denoting  things  of  the  same  kind  are  placed 
together  to  express  one  idea :  2>a3  ?lbc' ;  bunt,  bu'm ;  <£ubn>e'ft. 

B.    Logical  and  Emphatic  Accent. 

Logical  and  emphatic  accent  are  sovereign  and  can  set  aside  all  the 
preceding  rules,  disturbing  both  the  grammatical  and  word  accent.  Any 
word  or  syllable  can  for  logical  or  emotional  reasons  receive  the  accent :  3)er 
2J?a'nn  (the  man,  not  the  woman]  tft  nicfyt  alt.  £)er  9J?ann  i'ft  alt.  £et  9Wanu  ifl  nt'djt 
(contradicting)  alt.  £)er  2ftann  tft  ntdjt  a'lt,  fcnbern  ju'ng.  S)e't  (that)  9Kantt  ift  ntcfyt 
alt.  Thus  also  that  syllable  or,  in  a  compound,  that  component  may  for  logical 
reasons  take  the  principal  accent,  which  under  normal  conditions  uniformly 
has  the  secondary  accent,  or  remains  unaccented  :  5)er  £afe  tft  ntcfyt  fitrdfjtba'r, 
fonbern  furcfytfa'nt.  (St  Ijat  utdjt  eine  93re'nnevei,  fonbevu  cine  93rau'eret  angelegt.  3d) 
Ijabe  bag  nut  md)t  c'rbeten,  fonbevn  ve'rbcten.  9lufgefd)o'ben  tft  md)t  aufgejjo'bm.  SRicljt 
bie  ©artentit'r,  fonbern  bie  ©attenmau'cr  ift  befd)abigt.  One  says  in  correcting  an 
incorrect  grammatical  form  :  gebe'n,  nid)t  gebe'. 

51.  Sentence  Accent  affected  by  the  Rhythm.  Words  that  are  comparatively 
unimportant  to  the  meaning,  and  hence  do  not  absolutely  demand  stress,  may 
be  with  or  without  accent,  according  to  the  requirement  of  the  natural 
rhythm  of  the  sentence.  They  remain  unaccented  if  their  accentuation 
would  bring  two  accented  syllables  together ;  but  when  they  are  preceded  or 
followed  by  other  less  important  unaccented  syllables  they  may  receive 
accent  in  order  to  make  an  easy  and  rhythmical  succession  of  accented  and 
unaccented  syllables.  Thus  in  the  following  sentences  the  predicate  verb, 
which  in  general  is  weakly  accented  when  it  has  modifiers,  has  in  the  one 
instance  no  accent,  because  it  is  followed  by  an  accent,  while  in  the  other  it 
is  accented,  as  it  is  followed  by  an  unaccented  syllable  :  93o'rgen  macfyt  ©o'rgen, 
but  JHei'bev  ma'cfyen  Seu'te.  However,  when  the  logical  force  of  the  words 
becomes  strong,  they  must  receive  accent,  even  though  the  accent  disturbs 
the  rhythm.  Thus  we  answer  an  inquiry  after  the  number  and  sex  of  the 
children  that  a  man  has  with  the  words :  (Sr  l)at  brei'  £6'd)ter. 


54  DETAILS   CONCERNING  ACCENT  52. 

52.  Sentence  Accent  affected  by  the  Tempo.    Aside  from  the  points  men- 
tioned above,  there  are  other  factors  which  influence  the  accent.     Among 
these  the  tempo  plays  an  important  role.     As  the  movement  in  the  sentence 
increases  in  speed,  the  number  of  accents  decreases,  and  their  intensity 
becomes  greater.    Also  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  sentence  or  before 
a  pause  the  accent  becomes  more  pronounced. 

PITCH,  OR  TONE. 

53.  The  pitch  in  a  foreign  language  is  one  of  the  most  subtle  of 
things,  but  in  English  and  German,  so  closely  related  by  a  common 
origin,  pitch  is  for  the  most  part  the  same. 

USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

54.  The  use  of  capital  letters  in  German  differs  from  the  English 
in  several  points.     The  following  are  begun  with  a  capital : 

1.  Every  complete  sentence  in   prose,   and   in    poetry  every 
verse. 

2.  Every  direct  quotation  :  2)er  SBettelfad5  fagt  me :  ,,3d)  tyafce  genug." 

3.  Every  noun  and  any  word  used  as  a  noun,  if  it  can  take  the 
definite  article,  an  adjective,  or  any  other  modifying  word  before  it: 
ber  2)iann,  ber  9Ute,  ber  Sunge,  but  alt  unb  jung  old  and  young,  because 
no  article  can  stand  before  these  words  in  this  set  expression ; 
baS  SBeinen ;  bag  traulid)e  2)it ;  ©cfyoneS,  ettraS  <2>d)one8. 

«.  Pronominal  adjectives,  indefinite  pronouns  and  numerals, 
though  often  used  substantively,  are  written  with  a  small  letter : 
manner,  niemanb,  man,  etner,  etn  tnenig,  &c. 

b.  Also  many  nouns  in  certain  set  expressions,  used  adverbially, 
are  written  with  a  small  letter  :  jit  liefce  tun ;  jit  flatten  fommen,  Son 
alters  fyer,  anfangS. 

4.  Adjectives  and  ordinals  preceded  by  the  article,  when  they 
stand  after  proper  names,  forming  with  the  name  the  designation 
of  one  individual :  §rtebrtcfy  ber  ©rofje  or  ber  Svelte. 

5.  Adjectives  and  possessives  in  titles:  (Seine  SKajeftat;  ba§  Jtonig* 
licfye  Soflamt;  ber  SSirtlicfye  ©efyeimrat ;  bie  0lorbbeutf^e  (£d)uljeititng. 

6.  Certain  pronouns  in  direct  address,  as  explained  in  138.  i, 
and  also  those  referring  to  the  speaker  in  the  proclamations  and 
words  of  emperors  and  kings.     Also  other  pronouns,  pronominal 
adjectives,  and  the  numeral  etn  sometimes  take  a  capital  to  indicate 
emphasis,  but  more  commonly  are  written  with  a  small  letter  or 
spaced,  as  ein.     Differing  from  English,  the  pronoun  of  the  first 
person,  id)  /,  is  written  with  a  small  letter,  unless  it  begins  a  sentence 
or  direct  quotation. 

7.  Adjectives  in  'fd)  derived  from  names  of  persons  and  those  in 
*er  from  names  of  places  :  bie  ©rimmfcfyen  or  ©rimm'fc&en  SWdrcfyen ;  ber 
Joiner  (sometimes  also  folner)  Dom. 

a.  But  adjectives  made  from  proper  names,  whether  of  persons, 
peoples,  or  countries,  are  written  with  a  small  letter  when  used,  not 
with  reference  to  one  person  or  thing,  but  in  a  general  universal 
sense  :  bie  lutfje'rifd^e  Jttrcfye ;  romifd),  ^reufjifd),  folnifd?,  &c. 

8.  Usually  only  the  first  element  of  compound  nouns  is  written 


55. 3.  USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS  55 

with  a  capital,  but  sometimes  other  elements  take  a  capital,  especi- 
ally in  the  following  cases :  (i)  When  a  misunderstanding  might 
arise  from  the  use  of  small  characters  :  @rb*3Rucfen  to  keep  it  from 
being  confounded  with  ©rsbrucfen ;  ber  3*£aiit,  &c.  (2)  Proper  names 
and  adjectives :  <Sd?Ie3n!tq=«§olftein,  ,ftatfer*$BU§eIm§*£anb,  9Rieberfd?Ieftfd^ 
2J?drfifd?e  (Sifenfcafyn.  (3)  The  last  component  element  in  long  com- 
pounds :  £amtffd?tffafyrt8:=®efeafd;aft,  <Hweflati0n8geri$tS*$raftbent.  ^ 
Common  class  nouns  in  a  loose  compound  (see  249. 1 1.  2):  bag 
3n=bie=«£6f)e=fommen.  Usage  differs  much  here,  some  writing  also 
common  nouns  with  small  letters  :  bag  Smamtbleifcen.  Notice  that  in 
the  above  cases  a  hyphen  (=)  must  be  used  when  the  second  element 
has  a  capital. 

APOSTROPHE. 

55.  An  apostrophe  is  used  as  in  English  to  indicate  that  a  sound 
which  can  be  pronounced  is  suppressed  :  rcm'ge  for  roenige ;  er  rebet' 
for  rebete. 

The  exceptions  are  as  follows  : 

1.  An  apostrophe  is  not  used  in  the  common  contractions  of  the 
article  with  a  previous  preposition :  am,  anS,  &c.  for  an  bent,   an 
bag,  &c. 

2.  It  is  not  now  usual  to  place  an  apostrophe  before  8  in  the 
gen. :  <Scfyifler8,  ®oetf)e0,  &c.     Older  usage  :  <Sd)iUer'3,  &c. 

3.  If  a  proper  name  ends  in  a  sibilant  3,  f,  fc,  &c.,  no  additional 
8  is  required  in  the  gen.,  but  the  apostrophe  is  usually  employed 
here  to  indicate  the  case :  33ofj'  (now  also  SBojj'S)  £uife. 


56  56. 


PART   II 

THE   PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

THEIR  GRAMMATICAL  FORMS,  USE,  NATURE. 

PRELIMINARY. 
Number,  Case,  Gender. 

56.  a.  THERE  are  in  German  two  numbers,  the  singular  and 
plural. 

b.  There  are  four  cases  :  the  nominative,  the  case  of  the  subject 
and  direct  address  as  in  English ;   the  genitive,  corresponding  to 
the  English  possessive  and  also  objective  after  the  preposition  of 
when  it  depends  upon  a  noun  or  adjective,  as  in  'a  man  of  honor,' 
'  conscious   of  guilt ; '    the  dative,   corresponding   to  the  English 
indirect  object  of  a  verb  and  direct  object  after  certain  prepositions 
(see  list  in  227) ;  the  accusative,  corresponding  to  the  direct  object 
of  a  verb  and  direct  object  after  certain  prepositions  (see  list  in 
227). 

c.  There  are  three  genders,  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter.    The 
general  rule  for  the  gender  of  nouns  denoting  living  beings  is  that 
the  noun  is  masculine  or  feminine  according  to  the  natural  sex  of 
the  object  represented  by  it,  but  there  are  many  exceptions  to  the 
rule.     The  gender  of  nouns  denoting  things  destitute  of  sex  is  not 
always  neuter  as  in  English,  but  is  masc.,  fern.,  or  neut.,  regulated 
in  part  by  the  meaning  or  the  form  of  the  word.     Some  rules  for 
gender  are  given  in  98  and  99,  but  in  general  the  gender  of  each 
word  must  be  learned,  as  there  is  much  irregularity.     The  gender 
of  the  noun  is  usually  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  preceding  article 
or  other  modifying  word. 

INFLECTION    OF  THE  ARTICLES. 
DEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

57.  A.  The  definite  article  has  in  the  development  of  the  language 
become  ever  more  and  more  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  the 
noun,  so  that  it  now  fairly  deserves  its  name  (article,  from  Lat. 
articulus/0*'«/).     The  article  stands  immediately  before  the  name, 
and  thus  not  only  indicates  its  gender,  but  also,  as  it  is  richer  in 
forms  than  the  substantive,  marks  its  case  more  distinctly. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Masc.     Fern.     Neut.  M.,  F.,  and  N.  alike. 

Nom.     .     .     ber         bie        bci8  ...       bie  the. 

Gen.      .     .    be8         bet        be8  ...       ber  of  the. 

Dat.  .     .     .    bent        ber        bem  ...       ben  to  (or for)  the. 

Ace. ...    ben        bie        baS  ...      bie  the. 


57. D.  INFLECTION  OF  THE  ARTICLES  57 

B.  The  definite  article  is  an  enclitic,  i.e.  it  leans  upon  a  preceding 
word,  the  voice  passing  rapidly  over  it,  as  if  it  were  a  part  of  the 
preceding  word.     For  this  reason  the  article  suffers  many  con- 
tractions with  a  preceding  preposition  or  other  word,  especially 
the  contraction  of  bent  (neut.  and  masc.  dat.)  and  bag  (ace.)  with 
a  preceding  monosyllabic  preposition.     3ur  for  ju  ber  is  the  only 
fern,  contraction  allowed.     The  more  common  contractions  are  am, 
ang,  aufg,  fcetm,  fiivg,  im,  ing,  fcom,  jum,  for  an  bem,  an  bag,  auf  bag,  fcei  bent, 
fur  bag,  in  bem,  in  bag,  Don  bem,  ju  bent ;   sometimes  in  the  familiar 
language  of  every  day :  aufm,  ijinterm,  gegeng,  ufcern,  &c.,  for  auf  bem, 
^tnter  bem,  gegen  bag,  uber  ben,  &c.    In  the  spoken  language  contraction 
with  a  preceding  verb  is  also  very  common  :  <$r  fyat'g  (fyat  bag)  grofce 
£og  geivonnen. 

a.  In  the  classics  we  find  the  contractions  gun  for  $u  ben  (dat.  pi.),  an 
(pronounce  an'n)  for  an  ben  (ace.  sing.  masc.  and  dat.  pi.),  and  in  (  =  in'n)  for 
in  ben  (ace.  sing.  masc.  and  dat.  pi.),  which  have  since  disappeared  from  the 
literary  language :  ttom  Jfopf  bis  jun  gujjen  (Schiller's  Rauber,  2,  3).    3fjr  ivarft 
fte  bem  getnb  an  Jfopf  (Goethe's  Go'tz,  I,  2).    Unb  fe|'  bid>  in  ©eifel !  (ib.,  Faust, 
1.  2428).     (Sr  fabelte  gettnjj  in  tejjten  Siigen  (ib.,  1.  2962).     Such  contractions  can 
still  be  heard  in  colloquial  and  popular  language. 

b.  Contraction  is  the  rule  in  all  the  above  cases  in  the  numerous  set 
phrases  where  the  article  loses  its  demonstrative  (see  D)  force  entirely,  and 
hence  its  importance,  pointing  to  no  concrete  object  in  particular  which 
thus  needs  to  be  pointed  out  or  described,  in  order  to  be  identified,  but 
to  one  which  has  taken  on  abstract  and  general  force:  (Sr  fd)Iug  bie  ©egnet 
auf$  «§anl)t  He  defeated  his  opponents  (lit.  hit  them  upon  the  head).     (Sc  fajjte 
ijjn  fdjavf  ins  9Iuge  He  looked  at  him  sharply.     (§r  gef)t  jur  ©djule  (no  reference 
to  a  particular  school,  but,  in  general,  to  the  place  where  one  learns). 

Outside  of  these  set  expressions  the  article  is  also,  on  the  same  general 
principle,  very  often  contracted  when  it  has  no  demonstrative  force,  especially 
in  familiar  language  where  the  relations  of  the  persons  and  objects  to  each 
other  are  perfectly  clear  and  need  not  be  pointed  out.  However,  when  the 
least  demonstrative  force  enters  into  the  article,  it  cannot  be  contracted, 
especially  in  choice  language :  3d)  fyabe  im  guten  ©touben  geJjanbelt  /  acted  in 
good  faith,  but  3d)  fyabe  in  be'm  guten  ©lauben  gefyanbclt,  bajj  id)  in  metnem  9ted)te 
irdve. 

c.f  Instead  of  being  contracted  the  article  is  sometimes  lengthened.  The 
lengthened  gen.  and  dat.  forms  berer  (for  ber)  and  benen  (for  ben)  are  found 
more  or  less  frequently  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century: 
bie  33efo(gung  berer  ©efefce  (Klopstock).  23ie(leidjt  baji  ©ott  benen  ©rcjjeti  bie 
Slugen  auftut  (Goethe). 

C.  The  definite  article  is  also  a  proclitic  (i.  e.  leans  upon  the 
following  word),  the  voice  passing  rapidly  over  it  and  resting  upon 
the  next  word :  £er  SWe'nfd?  ifl  flerfclify.     Hence  the  article  is  often 
contracted  or  written  as  a  part  of  the  following  word  :  'g  Sfiorijeng  = 
beg  2ttoro,eng  of  mornings,  berfe'IBe  the  same.     The  article  is  a  proclitic 
or  enclitic  according  as  it  precedes  or  follows  a  stronger  accent  to 
which  it  naturally  attaches  itself. 

D.  The  definite  article  is  in  fact  only  the  unaccented  and  shorter 
form  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun  ber  that  (see  129.  i),  and  still, 
though  in  greatly  reduced  degree,  retains  its  demonstrative  force. 
Owing  to  its  enclitic  nature  the  pronunciation  of  the  def.  article 
differs  according  to  circumstances  just  as  the  English  the,  though 


58  THE   PARTS   OF   SPEECH  57.  D. 

always  more  or  less  short  and  obscure,  thus  differing  from  the 
demon,  pronoun  ber,  which  has  a  strong  accent. 

INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

58.  A.  Its  declension  is  as  follows : 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Masc.     Fern.    Neut.  M.,  F.,  and  N. 

Nom.     .      ein        eine       ein      a  ...        meine  my 

Gen.       .      eineg      einer      eineg  of  a  ...         tneiner  of  my 

Dat.  .    .      etnem     einer      etnem  to  (for)  a  ...        meinen  to  (for)  my 

Ace.  .     .      einen     eine        ein      a  ...        meine    my 

B.  Of  course  there  can  be  no  plural  of  ein,  but  as  all  the  other 
words  declined  like  ein  have  a  plural,  tnein  is  declined  as  a  model 
for  the  whole  group  in  the  plural.  The  words  declined  like  ein  are : 
I  ein  no  and  all  the  possessives,  mein  my,  unfer  our,  bein  thy,  euer  your, 
fetn  his,  its,  ttyr  her,  U)r  their.  Notice  that  this  group  has  no  ending 
to  show  gender  in  nom.  sing,  of  the  masc.  and  nom.  and  ace.  sing,  of 
the  neut.  Of  these  words  ein  is  the  only  one  that  is  an  enclitic,  and 
hence  is  the  only  one  that  can  suffer  apheresis  (see  b). 

a.  The  indefinite  article  like  the  definite  is  an  enclitic,  being  the  un- 
accented form  of  the  accented  numeral  adjective  ein  one,  which  is  sometimes 
distinguished  from  the  indef.  article  by  being  written  with  a  capital  or,  more 
commonly,  spaced  letters:  (Sin,  ein. 

b.  Owing  to  its  enclitic  nature  the  indef.  article  suffers  apheresis  with 
the  preceding  word,  forming  in  the  familiar  language  of  every  day  a  complete 
enclitic  declension  as  follows : 

SINGULAR. 

Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

Nom.  .    .    .    'n  'ne  'n 

Gen.    .    .    .    'ne3  'nee  'ne$ 

Dat.    .    .    .    'mm  (or  'at)  'net  'mm  (or  *m) 

Ace.    .    .    .    'nen  or  'n  (=n'n)    'ne  'n 

Example :  (S3  tear  'ne  furdjtbare  3eit  (M.  Dreyer*s  Drei,  i). 

c.  This  group  of  words  had  in  early  N.H.G.  other  abbreviated  forms,  as 
ems  (nom.  and  ace.  neut.  and  gen.  masc.  and  neut.)  for  etneg,  eim  or  em  for  einem, 
cum  or  eiu'  for  einen,  &c.     These  forms  are  often  found  in  the  language  of 
Luther  and  occasionally  in  the  works  of  Goethe :  @3  ifl  beffet  toonen  im  tmtjien 
Sanbe  |  2)enn  bet)  eim  jencfifdjen  »nb  gotnigen  2Beibe  (Proverbs  21.  19).    9JHt  eim 
tetblid?  ®etb  (Goethe's  Urfaitst,  1. 258).    ffienn  t<$  fo  fafj  bei  'em  ®etag  (ib.,  1. 1372). 
Of  these  contractions  only  substantive  forms  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  neut.  sing, 
remain  in  the  literary  language  ;  see  106.  Note  2.     In  the  careless  spoken 
language  of  every-day  life,  however,  these  contractions  still  continue  to  take 
place :  SUJit  eim  9Wal ?  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,  i.)   In  the  same  manner  we 
find  earlier  in  the  period  contracted  forms  of  the  other  words  inflected  like 
cm,  namely,  fein  and  the  possessive  adjectives,  and  in  poetry  and  popular 
language  such  contractions  still  appear:  Jlonig  ©ifrib  Uegt  in  feint  xoten  SMute ! 
(Uhland's  Die  drei  Lieder). 

d.  In  more  choice  language  the  indefinite  article  is  pronounced  in  full,  but 
with  weak  accent. 

USE   OF   THE  ARTICLES. 
I.    GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

59.  A.  The  indefinite  article  ein  a,  in  form  the  unaccented  numeral 
©in  one,  true  to  its  origin  singles  out  one  object,  action,  or  quality 


59.  I.E.  USE  OF  THE  ARTICLES  59 

from   among  a  number.      It   designates  an  individual   object  in 
different  ways  : 

a.  It  points  to  a  person  or  thing  without  fixing  its  identity  :  (Sin 
j?inb  fcegegnete  un8.     3rf)  fyafce  etnen  <£d)mtbt  gefannt  I  knew  a  man  by 
the  name  of  Schmidt.     (Sin  SBuef?  liegt  cwf  bent  $tfd).     If  the  individual 
introduced  by  the  indefinite  article  is  afterwards  referred  to,  it  is 
designated  by  the  definite  article,  since  it  is  considered  as  known  : 
(£3  rear  einntal  eiit  Jtonig.    £>er  Jlonig  fjatte  fetn  Jtinb. 

b.  In  its  more  indefinite  sense,  ein  is  equal  to   trgenb  ein  any, 
designating  no  individual  in  particular:   0tte  ijl  etn  j?aifer  (o  retcfy 
gereefen. 

B.  The  definite  article  ber  the,  in  form  the  unaccented  demon- 
strative fcer  that,  true  to  its  origin,  points  out  a  definite  object  or 
thing,  not  directly  by  a  gesture,  as  the  demon,  ber,  but  by  implication, 
referring  to  a  person  or  thing  which  has  already  been  brought 
before  the  mind  by  previous  mention,  or  which  is  clearly  indicated 
by  the  context :  $rut>cfyen  tyatte  eine  arme  Gutter.     $lfcer  bie  Gutter  tear 
fef;r  fromm  unb  gotteSfiirdjtig.    £)er  jefcige  .ftatfer  Son  25eutfd?Ianb.  £>a3  SBudj 
auf  bent  £tfcfye. 

C.  Both  articles  are  used  in  a  generalizing  sense  with  much  the 
same  force,  the  indefinite  to  single  out  of  a  class  one  individual  to 
serve  by  way  of  comparison  or  contrast  as  a  representative  of  its 
class,  the  definite  article  also  before  a  substantive  in  the  singular 
to  point  out  an  individual  as  a  fit  representative  of  its  class  or 
genus  in  all  its  entirety  or  all  its  characteristic  features :  (Sin  Sflenfdj 
tfl  in  feinem  Seben  reie  ©rag  As  for  man  his  days  are  as  grass.     @in 
S)tefc  ifl  furdjtfom,  ein  Soree  fkrf.     5ur  einen  Jtnaben  ftirbt  |  ein  $ofa  (a 
man  like  Posa)  nicfyt  (Schiller's  Don  Carlos,  5,  9).     3>er  SKenfcfy  ifl 
flerblicfy.    £>er  SKenfc^  fott  ntc^t  flotj  fein.     S)u  fctfl  boc^  bie  gefcorene  alte 
Sungfer  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap,  i)  You  are,  indeed,  a  regular  old 
maid.    2)a3  ifl  bie  rente  Sttge  That  is  a  downright  lie.     The  plural  of 
the  article  is  also  used  :  SBeibe  iraren  |a  nocfy  bie  retnen  ^tnber  (R.  Voss's 
Psyche,  XIII)  Both  were  still  mere  children. 

D.  Omission  of  Article.     Proper  names  do  not  usually  take  an 
article,  as  the  name  itself  points  out  clearly  the  object  in  question  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  article  in  many  cases  before 
the  names  of  materials  and  abstract  nouns,  as  these  substantives  do 
not  suggest  definite  objects  or  things,  but  only  general  ideas.     Also 
words  which  in  the  sing,  usually  require  the  article  often  drop  it  in 
the  plural  for  the  same  reason,  namely,  because  the  reference  is  not 
to  definite  individuals  but  only  in  a  general  way  to  a  class  or  in- 
definite number:  -ftinber  unb  Dlarrcn  fagen  bie  SSafyrfyeit.     In  all  these 
cases  when  the  reference  becomes  a  definite  one  the  article  must 
stand. 

E.  Nouns  which  do  not  usually  take  an  article  require  it  at  once 
when  they  become  modified  by  an  adjective,  a  genitive,  a  phrase, 
or  relative  clause,  provided  the  modifier  thus  with  the  aid  of  the 
article  marks  the  noun  as  a  definite  and  distinct  thing:    ftrtebrtdj 
Frederic,  but  ber  grofj e  5rtebrtcfy  Frederic  the  Great ;  fetncS  SBeijenme^I 
fine  wheat  flour  (indefinite),  baS  fetnfle  SBetjenmef;!  ju  bem  btfligflen  $retfe 


60  THE   PARTS  OF   SPEECH  59.  I.E. 

the  finest  wheat  flour  at  the  lowest  market  price  (the  superl.  in  both 
cases  with  the  art.  as  a  definite  quality  and  price  are  stated),  but 
fetnfkS  2Beiflenntef)l  311  fciflicjfhm  $reife  very  fine  flour  at  a  very  low  price 
(not  entirely  definite)  ;  in  fyotyem  QUter  at  an  advanced  age  (indefinite), 
but  im  l)of)en  Sitter  »on  78  Satyren  (definite)  ;  ©ott  fei  £>anf  !  thanks  be 
to  God  !  but  bent  ©otte  30taelg  to  the  God  of  Israel.  2)er  ®ott,  ber 
(Stfett  wacfyfen  Ite§,  ber  reoflte  feine  ,ftned)te  (Arndt's  Vaterlandslied). 

F.  The  article  must  sometimes  be  used  on  merely  formal  grounds 
to  make  clear  the  case  :  (Sr  jie&t  ben  0tofen  SRelfen  »or,  but  when  the 
substantive  clearly  shows  the  case,  the  article  in  such  instances 
drops  out,  as  the  reference  is  an  indefinite  one  :  @r  jtefct  Sfoftlv 
SPftrficije  »or.  The  use  of  the  articles  is  especially  frequent  before 
names  of  persons  to  bring  out  clearly  the  case  :  3d?  gietye  Corner  bent 


II.    DETAILED  STATEMENT  OF  THE  USES  OF  THE  ARTICLES. 

A.  Common  class  nouns  take  the  article  both  in  the  sing,  and  pi.,  when 
they  are  the  names  of  definite  objects,  or  stand  as  representatives  of  their 
class  or  genus,  but  drop  it  in  all  cases  where  they  express  an  indefinite 
number  or  an  abstract,  general  idea  :  £>te  flatter  ftnb  bet  €>d)nturf  bet  93dmne, 
but  £>et  93aum  treibt  SMdttet.  !t>ag  93ud)  aitf  bent  £ifd),  but  Sebet  ^aufmann  ntujj 
gefiottg  93ud)  ftifyren  Every  merchant  must  keep  his  book  account  (no  definite 
book,  but  his  accounts  in  general)  properly.  3)a$  tjl  bet  5Belt  Scuif  That  is  the 
way  of  the  world,  but  Slug  jebem  ihver  SBcrte  fptad)  bte  !Dante  »cn  38elt  From 
every  word  that  she  spoke  it  was  clear  that  she  was  a  lady  familiar  with  the 
ways  of  POLITE  SOCIETY  (  =  3Mt,  here  used  in  its  abstract  application). 
25er  9J?enfd)  tjl  ftetbUd)  Man  (as  the  representative  of  his  race)  is  mortal,  but 
QRenfd)  fettt  fyeijji  JTdtttpfet  fetn  To  be  a  man  (here  =  alive  to  all  that  is  of  human 
interest)  means  to  be  a  fighter  in  life's  battles.  In  the  last  sentence  2ftenfd) 
neither  refers  to  a  definite  individual  nor  does  it  picture  a  man  as  the 
representative  of  the  race,  but  is  used  in  a  general  abstract  sense  almost 
with  the  force  of  a  predicate  adjective  ;  see  111.  a. 

a.  If  a  genitive  precedes  its  governing  noun,  the  latter  must  drop  the 
article,  as  the  genitive  points  out  definitely  the  particular  object,  and  hence 
must  itself  require  the  article  :  35et  §ett  bes  $aufe3,  or  beg  $aufeg  Jpett. 

Note.  In  an  earlier  period  the  article  was  not  required  before  the  gen.  which 
preceded  its  governing  noun,  and  many  survivals  of  this  construction  occur  in  the 
form  of  compound  nouns  :  SDfanneSftott  the  -word  of  a  man,  ^tettnbeSljetj  the  heart  of 
a  friend,  2RenfdjenIjetj  the  human  heart,  and  thus  also  many  fern,  compounds  ending 
in  en,  the  old  weak  gen.  form  for  the  singular  as  well  as  the  plural  (see  76.  II.  i)  : 
5rauenfHmnte  the  voice  of  a  -woman,  eine  SWaftnung  au3  S^auenntunb  an  exhortation 
from  the  mouth  of  a  woman,  &c. 

b.  The  definite  article  stands  very  frequently  for  a  possessive  adjective 
when  no  ambiguity  could  thus  arise,  especially  before  parts  of  the  body 
or  articles  of  clothing,  often  accompanied  by  the  dat.  of  the  pronoun  or 
noun  referring  to  the  person  affected  :  £ct  Jtopf  tut  tntt  fo  toel)  My  head  aches 
so  badly.    2)?an  nahm  ben  33cftegten  bte  SBaffen  ab.     @t  fledft  bie  9lafe  in  adcg.     @r 
fcfyloj}  ihm  bie  9lugen  He  closed  his  (a  friend's)  eyes.     Gt  fdjtof?  bie  Slugen  He 
closed  his  (own)  eyes.     (St  »etlot  bog  SeBen.     (St  fam  fyetein  mit  bem  ^>ut  in  bet 
£anb.     (St  rieb  ftdj  bie  91ugen. 

c.  In  a  distributive  sense  the  definite  article  in  German  often  corresponds 
to  the  English  indefinite  a  (in  2nd  example  not  the  indef.  art.  a,  but  a  form 
of  the  prep,  on):    £>tefeg  $ucl)  foftet  90  ^fennig(e)  bie  (Sfle  This  cloth  costs 
90  pfennigs  a  yard.    Sunfntal  bo3  3a!)t  five  times  a  year. 


59.II.E.  USES   OF  THE  ARTICLES  61 

d.  A  title  in  the  form  of  an  attributive  gen.  takes  the  indef.  art.  in  German, 
while  in  English  no  article  at  all  is  used:    SBilljefat  I.  nofjm  ben  Xitd  eineg 
.ftaiferg  an  William  I.  accepted  the  title  of  emperor. 

e.  The  indefinite  article  in  German  is  used  in  many  idiomatic  expressions : 
tin  jebet  or  ein  iegUdjer  each,  everybody,  ein  fold)er  (SKann,  &c.)  such  a  (man,  &c.), 
fo  tin  (grejjeg  2anb),  or  ein  fo  (gvofeg  Sanb)  such  a  (large  country),  &c. 

B.  Collective  nouns  are  treated  as  common  class  nouns,  the  article  being 
used  if  the  reference  is  to  the  entire  body,  but  dropped  when  the  reference 
is  to  an  indefinite  portion :  Sftacfy  bem  iTteffen  erfdjien  bag  ^>awenft,eimfd)e  gujjsolf 
After  the  engagement  Pappenheim's  infantry  came  up,  but  (S'g  etfdn'en  ^Sappm* 
fyeimfdjeg  5u{?»clf  Some  of  Pappenheim's  infantry  came  up.     Notice  the  use  of 
the  article  in  bag  ^arlantent  parliament,  ber  Jtongrejj  congress,  £c.,  where  in 
English  the  article  is  usually  dropped. 

C.  Names  of  materials  usually  have  no  article,  from  the  idea  of  an  indefinite 
mass  which  is  usually  connected  with  their  use,  but  take  an  article  like  any 
common  class  noun  when  they  denote  (i)  a  definite  portion,  or  (2)  variety  of 
the  material,  or  (3)  when  they  represent  the  material  in  all  its  entirety  in 
contradistinction  to  other  materials :  feineg  ©olb  fine  gold,  gruneg  ^olj  green 
wood,    .ftcfy  tenftanb  becft  SBeg  unb  ®rag.    Xrtnfen  @te  £ee  ober  Jtaffee  ?    But :  cut 
(or  ba$)  ®fag  a  glass  (drinking  utensil),  ein  (or  bag)  £ud)  a  shawl,  ein  Stein 
a  stone,  ein  ©fen  horse-shoe,  bte  ungarifdjen  2Betne  the  different  sorts  of  wine 
from  Hungary.    Sag  ®plb  ift  bag  fcfibarfte  SWetaU. 

a.  The  indefinite  article  is  often  placed  directly  before  a  noun  indicating 
a  food  or  drink,  where  in  English  such  nouns  are  commonly  preceded  by 
some  other  noun  or  an  indefinite  pronominal  adjective  indicating  the  usual 
amount  of  the  substance  served  at  one  time  to  one  person,  or  the  usual 
amount  prepared  at  one  time  in  one  mass:  cine  @uvpe  a  dish  of  soup,  ein 
93uttetbrot  a  piece  of  bread  and  butter,  etne  Jlartoffel  some  potatoes,  a  dish  of 
potatoes,  ein  93ter  a  glass  of  beer,  ein  2Mtterer  a  glass  of  bitters,  ein  2kot  a  loaf 
of  bread.  Sftetne  tfrau  bringt  ntir  einen  Jtaffee  ntit  einem  9?um  My  wife  is  bringing 
me  a  cup  of  coffee  with  rum.  5Jh)torb  bereitete  ftdj  einen  See  My  lord  made 
some  tea  for  himself. 

D.  Abstract  nouns  do  not  take  an  article  when  the  idea  of  amount,  extent, 
degree,  or  kind  of  the  quality,  condition,  or  activity  is   defined  in   only 
a  general  way,  but  they  at  once  demand  an  article  or  a  pronominal  adjective 
when  the  idea  is  individualized,  that  is,  when  the  extent  or  kind  becomes 
definite,  or  the  attention  is  directed  to  some  particular  case  or  cases,  or 
when  the  abstract  noun  is  used  in  the  sing,  to  represent  the  idea  in  all  its 
entirety,  in  its  widest  sense,  and  not  as  limited  to  one  individual  case  or 
several :   Set  aftenfd)  mufj  Siitfrtn  nnb  £abel  ertragen  levnen  Man  must  learn  to 
bear  both  praise  and  censure.     ©Kef  ntadjt  SD?ut.     ©r  tragt  afleg  nut  ®ebu(b. 
3d)  fange  nut  nut  freier  -£>anb,  abet  ©elenfigfeit  gefyert  bajn  I  catch  fish  with  my 
hands,  but  it  takes  some  skill.     Set  Sllte  werfanf  in  9tad;finnen.     3ammern  tfl 
unnitfc.     But :  3d)  finbe  baju  bie  Sett  nidjt  I  have  not  the  time  (for  this  particular 
task).     (Sine  @ebulb,  toelcfye  ntdjtg  erfdjuttern  fann;   ber  griebe  ber  @ecte,  bie  Siebe 
©otteg.     <3otdje  Ungered)tigfeiten  ftnb  unevfyort.     Sag  Santmevn  ifl  nnmiji  Your 
lamenting  will  do  no  good.    £)te  3eit  tfi  flnd^tig  Time  always  speeds  along. 
(St  u?at  ganj  Uebecodet  @o^n,  bie  flRMfidjt  unb  (S^recbietung  felbfl  He  was  quite 
an  affectionate  son,  the  very  personification  of  consideration  and  respect. 
3Me  Ungerecfyttgfeit  fhaft  ftd)  felbft.     3 ft  benn  bag  btc  SKcglidjfeit  ?    Is  it  possible, 
within  the  range  of  the  possible  ? !    or  in  shorter,  weaker  form :   3ft'g  bie 
5Rcgu'd)fctt  ?  You  don't  say  so  ! 

E.  The  names  of  persons  in  general  need  no  article,  as  the  name  itself 
indicates  with  sufficient  clearness  the  individual ;  but  as,  on  the  one  hand, 
a  proper  name  needs  at  times  to  be  pointed  out  more  definitely  to  distinguish 
it  from  others  of  the  same  name,  and  on  the  other  hand  it  may  be  used  as 
a  common  noun,  the  article  is  often  for  these  reasons  and  others  found 
before  it,  especially  in  the  following  cases  : 


62  THE   PARTS   OF  SPEECH  59.II.E.0. 

a.  When  the  reference  is  to  a  person  already  mentioned,  or  one  that  is 
explicitly  designated  by  some  adjective  modifier,  or  in  familiar  language  one 
not  designated  by  any  modifier,  as  it  is  supposed  that  he  is  a  party  well 
known  to  the  person  in  question :  S)a3  ift  ber  Jtatl  That  is  Carl  (of  whom  we 
were  speaking).     gtiebtic|  bet  ©to§e,  or  ber  grope  gtiebtidj,  ber  bicfe  SBilfyefat,  ber 
alte  £err  <2>d)mibt.    2Benn  bie  Jtinbet  ifyn  nut  turn  toeitem  faljen,  fo  riefen  fie  fdjon : 
SRutter,  ber  SBtejelfafyat  fommt!     Whenever  the  children  saw  him  even  afar 
off,  they  cried  out :    Mother,  Jasper  the  brezel-seller  is  coming !     5Kit  bem 
Sfyobot  witt  id)  gat  ntdjt  mefyt  untgehen.    3d)  tnag  unb  »iH'$  nid)t  gtauben,  bajj  mid) 
bet  9Rai  verlafien  fann.     In  familiar  language  the  definite  article  sometimes 
takes  the  place  of  £etr  Mr.  and  ftrau  Mrs.  or  grdutein  Miss  before  surnames, 
when  the  persons  spoken  of  are  well  known  to  persons  addressed  and  need 
not  be  described :  £)er  ©cfymibt  or  Syrc  ©djmibt,  bie  @d)tnibt  or  grou  @d)tnibt. 
It  is  quite  common  to  use  the  article  before  the  names  of  celebrated  persons  : 
bie  SDtorlitt,  bie  (Sbnet  (grau  SJatonin  2flarie  »on  (Sbnet;©fdjenbadj),  bie  ©lliot,  &c. ; 
ber  SMsmarcf,  &c. 

Note.  The  definite  article  before  names  of  persons  and  animals  is  more  common  in 
the  spoken  than  written  language,  and  very  much  more  common  in  the  South  than 
in  the  North  :  bet  Jtatl  instead  of  Jtarl,  bet  SPlllto  (name  of  a  dog).  In  the  North,  on 
the  contrary,  the  custom  of  using  proper  nouns  without  the  article  is  extended  to 
common  class  nouns  when  used  as  familiar  names  just  as  in  English  :  SWllttetg  «KUtb 
mother's  dress ;  see  90.  In  the  South  the  article  always  stands  in  such  cases. 

b.  In  direct  address  the  name  or  title  is  usually  of  itself  definite  enough, 
and  hence  is  without  article :    Dtto,  hie  bag  jiicfyt !     Thus  also   in  letters : 
3>uerfte  Suife!     ©eefyrter  Jpett!     Siebet  (or  giebflet)  ©djmibt!    My  dear  friend 
Schmidt.     In  conversation  the  manner  of  address  is  as  in  English :   §err 
(Scfymibt  Mr.  S.,  ifrau  <Sd)mibt  Mrs.  S.,  S^uleiit  @d)mibt  Miss  S.,  &c.     Boys 
are  addressed  by  their   Christian  name  for  short,  and  men  in  familiar 
language   call   each  other  by  their  surnames,   or  ;djen    is    added  to  the 
surname,  as  ©tengeldjen  my  dear  Stengel.     In  deferential  language  the  third 
person  is  often  used  instead  of  the  second,  and  then  the  article  is  used,  or 
sometimes  after  the  analogy  of  the  direct  form  omitted  (for  number  of  the 
verb  see  253. 1.  I.  a) :   £>er  £ett  Jpauvttnann  hnrb  geuMjj  bte  ®{ite  Ijaben,  &c., 
Captain,  you  will  certainly  be  so  kind,  &c.    9ld),  grautein  ftnb  fo  gut!  O,  Miss, 
you  are  so  good  ! 

In  accordance  with  older  usage  we  sometimes  hear  in  provincial  language 
the  article  in  direct  address :  ©uten  Slbenb,  bie  Jperten !  Good  evening,  gentle- 
men. 

c.  Also  titles  in  the  third  person  which  precede  names  of  individuals, 
whether  persons  or  things,  usually  have  no  article,  as  they  are  felt  as  a  part  of 
the  name  :  -Profefibt  SWiiUer  Professor  Miiller,  £err  @d)mibt  Mr.  Schmidt,  .Ronig 
2Bil!jehn,  <£dj(ojj  SJBalfetbingen  Castle  Walferdingen.     In  an  earlier  period  the 
omission  of  the  article  here  was  not  so  common,  and  still  usage  fluctuates 
in  certain   cases.     In   the  nom.   the   omission   of  the  article  is  decidedly 
more  common  than  its  retention,  and  also  common  in  the  ace.,  but  not  so 
much   so  as  in  the  nom. ;  in  the   gen.  the  article  is  retained  if  the  gen. 
follows  the  governing  substantive,  but   is   dropped  if  the  governing  noun 
follows:   Slb»ofat  3Kuller  Ijat  eine  grofje  $rari3.     3dj  Ijabe  ba3  Sergniigen,  £errn 
iDoftot  SBefpe  ju  fpted^en?      Have  I  the   honor  of  addressing  Dr.  Wespe? 
£>ie  $rari3  be3  &b»ofaten  3J?uUet,  but  SlDCofat  SRuttetS  $rarti3.    The  omission  of 
the  article  is  here  not  common  in  the  dat.  except  after  prepositions,  where 
the  title  sometimes  has  the  article  and  sometimes  drops  it :  3Me  italienifcfyen 
Xruwen  untet  Dbetft  Slttmanbt.    3>er  Jtonia.  unb  bie  Jtcntgin  son  @d)tt>eben  unb  9ior; 
tregen  nebft  bent  Iprinijen  Sugen.     In' all  the  above  cases  when  the  title  is  felt 
in  its  full  force  and  not  as  a  part  of  the  usual  name  the  article  must  be 
used.    In  the  plural  also  such  titles  naturally  take  the  article,  as  they  are 


59. II. F.I.  USES   OF  THE  ARTICLES  63 

felt   in   their  full  force:   Softer  93.  meint  Doctor  B.  thinks,  &C.,  but   bie 
Softoren  23.  unb  35.  metnen  Doctors  B.  and  D.  think,  &c. 

d.  Aside  from  the  previous  logical  reasons,  the  article  is  also  often  used 
on  formal  grounds  to  distinguish  the  different  cases.    The  article  is  much 
more  frequently  used  in  the  gen.,  dat.,  and  ace.  than  in  the  nom.,  and  is 
avoided  also  in   the   dat.  and  ace.  if  the  colloquial  weak  ending  ;en   be 
used :   35te   SBerfe   beg   *prariteleg,  but  where  an  g   can   be   easily  added   bie 
SBerfe  <£d)tnfe(g.    Jtart  faa,t  eg  bem  grig  or  fagt  eg  Stifcen.    Jlarl  tobt  ben  5n|S  or 
lobt  ivrifcen.    Also  in  case  of  a  preceding  title  which  usually  has  no  article 
or  inflection,  being  felt  as  one  with  the  name,  the  article  must  stand  if 
the  name  itself  resists  inflection  by  reason  of  its  sibilant  ending,  and  the 
case  relation  is  not  otherwise  made  clear :  bag  Seben  Jtaifer  SBUfyelmg  I.,  but 
bag  £eben  beg  Jtaiferg  Sibertug.     But  occasionally  the  title  is  inflected,  but  is 
without  the  art. ;  see  92.  I.  a. 

e.  Proper  names  of  course  take  an  article  when  they  are  used  as  common 
npuns.    This  is  the  case  when  a  proper  name,  which  has  become  noted 
for  some  one  thing,  is  applied  to  any  individual  who  has  distinguished 
himself  similarly,  or  when  by  way  of  metonomy  the  name  of  an  individual 
is  applied  to   one  of  his  works  or  creations,  or  a  work  of  art  is  named 
from  the  person  it  represents :  SBUljetm  ber  <2ttf(e  tr-eiljt  fid),  em  jtoeiter  93rutuS, 
bem  grojjen  Slnliegen  bev  tfretfjeit.    35ie  ©cttfd)eb  fttib  jal)lreid)er  a(g  bie  ©oetlje  Men 
like  Gottsched  are  more  numerous  than  those  like  Goethe.    3n  Xevtia  lefen 
bie  Sc^uler  ben  Dstb.    3d)  fyabe  ben  ©oetlje  I  have  the  works  of  Goethe.     3d) 
bringe  ifjr  ben  footer'  I'll  bring  her  a  copy  of  Homer('s  poems).    35er  SRafcljael 
in  bee  35regbnet  ©aflerie  the  painting  by  Raphael  in  the   Dresden  gallery, 
ber  fleine  Sanberg  the  smaller  edition  of  Sanders'  German  dictionary,   ber 
$erfuteg  the  statue  of  Hercules,   ber   8<wfi  (play  named   from   its  leading 
character).     On  the  contrary,  however,  the  article  is   sometimes  dropped 
after  the  analogy  of  proper  nouns  in  general :  Unb  fyter  Ijabe  id)  ©erof  —  faints 
blatter  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  2,  p.  47)  And  here  I  have  Gerok, 
namely  his  Palmbldtter> 

f.  A  proper  name  takes  the  article  as  any  common  class  noun  when  the 
reference  is  to  one,  a  definite  group,  or  the  entire  number  of  individuals 
who  have  the  same  origin,  and  hence  a  name  in   common :    ein  33ourbon 
a    Bourbon,   bie   Siourbonen   the    Bourbons.     This  is  the  rule   in  case   of 
illustrious  or  well-known  houses,  but  in  case  of  private  families  the  article 
is  more  commonly  omitted :    33raung   <inb  nid)t  reid)  The  Browns  are  not 
rich.     Illustrious  names  must  of  course  drop  the  article  when  they  are 
used  partitively :  35ie  beittfdjen  & aifer  beg  adjtjefynten  3af)rl)tinbertg  hjaren  £abgbitrger. 

g.  Also  things  as  well  as  persons  may  take  names  to  distinguish  them 
from  others  of  their  class,  especially  planets,  ships,  newspapers,  hotels, 
usually  with  the  article:  ber  5JJarg,  ber  3upiter,  bie  SMftorta  (name  of  a  ship), 
ber  ^otarfUrn  Polar  Star  (ship),  ber  (Soriolan  (newspaper),  bie  Union  (news- 
paper), ira  S3(aiten  ©tern  at  the  Blue  Star  (hotel). 

Note.  In  the  marine  news  of  North  German  newspapers  it  is  quite  common  to  drop 
the  article  before  names  of  ships,  thus  treating  them  like  names  of  persons :  JpannoVtr 
(ship)  ifl  gejUrn  Jtap  §enri)  paffiert  (Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  30.  Mai,  1901). 

F.  Geographical  names  fall  into  two  distinct  classes,  one  with  the  article, 
the  other  without  it : 

I.  The  names  of  the  natural  divisions  of  the  earth's  surface,  such  as 
rivers,  lakes,  seas,  oceans,  mountains,  forests,  peninsulas,  groups  of  islands, 
£c.,  except  the  names  of  individual  islands  and  the  names  of  continents, 
take  the  article,  as  they  were  originally  common  class  nouns,  or  are  desig- 
nations of  familiar  objects  (see  E.  a,  above) :  ber  9H)eiu  (Gallic  Renos  river) 
the  Rhine,  bie  <2aljad)  (ad)  related  to  Latin  aqua  water)  tributary  of  the 
Inn,  ber  SJrorfen  or  23lcrfgbeuj  (peak  in  the  Harz  Mts.),  baa  SKatter^ora  (Mt.), 


64  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  59. II. F.I. 

ber  ©ritnetoalb  (forest  near  Berlin),  ber  5JMcj>omte3  the  Peloponnesus,  bie  @\)« 
Haben  the  Cyclades,  but  Jtreta  Crete,  (guropa  Europe,  &c. 

2.  The  neut.  names  of  the  political  divisions  of  the  earth,  such  as  cities, 
countries,  and  minor  divisions  of  countries,  usually  have  no  article  when 
they  are  unmodified,  but  require  it  when  modified  by  an  adjective,  a  gen., 
or  a  relative  clause :  S&erlitt  Berlin,  £eutfd)(anb  Germany,  but  bag  fdjcne 
2>eutfdjfanb  beautiful  Germany,  &c.  Many  names  of  places  had  an  article 
in  an  older  period,  as  they  were  originally  common  class  nouns,  or  had 
for  their  final  element  a  common  class  noun  ;  see  88.  i.  In  most  cases 
all  feeling  for  the  origin  of  such  words  is  lost,  but  a  few  groups  of  words 
and  a  few  isolated  names  still  retain  the  article  in  accordance  with  older 
usage : 

a.  Only  one  town  or  city,  bee  £aog  The  Hague  (lit.  the  forest),  takes  the 
article. 

b.  All  feminine  and  masculine  names  of  countries  and  districts  take  the 
article :  a  number  of  fern,  in  ;ei  or  ie,  as  bie  Sombatbei  Lombardy  (i.  e.  land 
of  the  Lombards),  bie  SRormonbte  Normandy  (i.e.  land  of  the   Normans); 
some  fern,  in  ;cm,  as  bie  5Rolbau  Moldavia ;  fern,  in  ;marf  march,  as  bie  Silts 
matf;    a  few  isolated  fern.,  as  bie  <£cfytt>eij  Switzerland,  bie  $fal$  the  Pala- 
tinate, bie  Saiifijj  Lusatia,  bie  Setta'nte  the  Levant,  bie  53retagne  Brittany,  £c. ; 
masc.  in  fQ>&n  district,  which  are  also  sometimes  neut.  in  accordance  with 
the  earlier  gender  of  the  word,  as  bet  (bag)  {Rfjeingau ;  bee  or  more  commonly 
bag  @{fajj  Alsace. 

Note.  The  poet  sometimes  takes  liberties  with  these  words  and  drops  the  article, 
thus  vividly  treating  them  as  real  proper  nouns  instead  of  common  nouns  according  to 
their  origin :  2BeU  tt>ii  eg  fatt  jtnb,  bafj  SRarf  93tanbenbutg  jebem  getbgiet'gen  @<f  lift 
aug  236I)metlanb  ijetfdjacfyett  ftitb  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows,  2). 

c.  Neuter  names  of  places  quite  uniformly  are  used  without  the  article, 
except  the  few  in  b  and  those  in  slanb,  where  the  4anb  is  felt  in  some  cases 
as  a  common  noun,  and  thus  requires  the  article,  or  in  most  cases  drops 
it  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  that  neuter  names  do  not  take  the 
article :  im  .?effen(anb(e)  or  in  §effen(anb  jn  Hesse  (lit.  land  of  the  Hessians), 
bag  93ogt(anb  section  in  Saxony  (lit.  land  under  a  governor),  once  a  bulwark 
against  the  Slavs,  bag  SSenblanb  section  in  Hanover,  originally  land  of  the 
Wends,  bie  9liebetlanbe  the  Netherlands,  £c.,  but  35eutfd)lanb  Germany,  (Stint* 
lanb  and  <£amlanb  sections  in  Prussia  along  the  Baltic,  &c. 

G.  The  names  of  streets,  squares,  and  city-wards  naturally  take  the 
article,  as  the  final  component  element  is  a  common  noun  :  bie  griebricfygflrajje, 
bet  ©djtllerptafc  Schiller  Square,  bag  @panbauer»iertel  (part  of  Berlin).  In 
adverbial  expressions  indicating  street  and  number  the  article  is  often 
omitted :  2Bo  iroljnjl  bit?  Jpalbborffltafje  funfjefyn. 

H.  The  names  of  the  seasons,  months  (see  also  04.  3.  A.  b),  days,  parts 
of  the  day,  and  the  meals  require  the  article  except  in  a  few  set  expres- 
sions :  im  ©ommer,  311  Slnfang  beg  Slugujt,  am  ©onntag.  35et  3JJorgen  graut.  3)1 
bag  gru()jliirf  fertig? 

I.  A  difference  of  conception  in  some  cases  leads  to  a  different  use  of 
the  article  in  the  two  languages.  The  German  sometimes  uses  the  article 
to  indicate  that  a  word  stands  for  a  collective  idea,  conceived  of  in  its 
entire  range,  or  for  a  definite  thing,  while  in  English  it  is  omitted,  as  some 
other  point  of  view  is  taken :  bag  SUtertum  antiquity,  bag  Sfyrijientiim  Chris- 
tianity, bag  @h)ftum  elysium,  bie  (Stye  matrimony,  bog  (Slurf  fortune,  bev  £tmmel 
heaven,  bie  £6lle  hell,  bie  97 atfywelt posterity, bie  9latur  nature,  bag  ^Jarabieg  paradise, 
bag  ©cfyicf fat  destiny,  bet  Sob  death,  bie  23orfef)iing  providence,  &c.  On  the  other 
hand  the  article  is  often  dropped  in  German  even  though  used  in  English,  to 
indicate  that  the  thing  or  idea  is  not  conceived  of  with  a  definite  extent  or 
intensity:  3<fy  fyabe  Jtcpfwel)  I  have  a  headache.  (St  I)at  SwniUe  He  has 
a  family. 


SQ.ULg.       OMISSION  OF  THE  ARTICLE  65 

III.  OMISSION  OF  THE  ARTICLE. 

The  article  in  general  is  omitted  :  (i)  when  the  noun  does  not 
designate  a  definite  object  ;  (2)  when,  as  in  case  of  proper  nouns 
and  direct  address,  the  object  is  already  sufficiently  defined  ;  and 
(3)  in  many  set  expressions  and  proverbs  coined  in  an  earlier  period 
when  the  article  was  little  used. 

The  article  is  omitted  in  the  following  common  cases  : 

a.  In  the  predicate  when  the  noun  does  not  designate  a  definite  individual 
but  something  abstract,  such  as  a  quality,  relation,  condition,  calling,  or 
capacity  of  any  kind,  moreover,  any  fact  or  idea  in  a  broad  general  sense, 
also  indefinite  time  :  2>er  9Jf  enfd)  ifl  ein  ©ott,  fobafb  er  3Kenfd)  ifl  Man  is  a  god 
when  he  is  humane.  3d)  bin  Cartel  I  am  biased.  3d)  bin  23raut  I  am 
betrothed.  @t  fturbe  v«uJ5tfd)et  Untertan.  <Sie  ijl  nod)  Jtinb.  3m  ©runeivalb 
(forest  near  Berlin)  ifl  £oljauftion.  ($t  ifl  33aumeifler.  (St  fant  ati  SRettet  in  ber 
9lot.  Die  iibetyrobuhtott  an  ©taatenoten  ifl  getoofjnttdj  gotge  eineg  Jtrieges.  (§8  tt?at 
Scfjimntcr  be3  Jpaufe3.  (Si  hnube  Slbenb.  S3  nwrbe  SSHnter.  Sometimes  the  pre- 
dicate substantive  assumes  almost  pure  adjective  force  and  can  be  modified 
by  an  adverb  :  3d)  bin  nid)t  Jfennet  genug  (adv.).  Of  course,  however,  the 
slightest  approach  to  definiteness  calls  for  the  article  :  £>a3  ifl  bet  SSaumeifler 
That  is  the  architect  (of  whom  we  were  just  talking). 

Note.  This  omission  of  the  article  in  the  predicate  is  especially  frequent  in  apposi- 
tional  and  parenthetical  phrases,  which  are  often  contracted  clauses  in  which  the 
appositional  substantive  is  the  real  predicate,  and  hence  the  omission  of  the  article  is 
natural,  but  the  omission  often  thus  occurs  even  when  in  a  complete  sentence  the  same 
word  in  the  predicate  would  require  the  article:  9Utf  Slnfdnfltc  (=  Dbgltid)  «t 
Slnfdnget  ifl)  bejjanbelt  er  bit  <Sad)t  bod)  mtt  SKeiflerfd^aft.  3d)  Sfel,  breifadjet  Sfel 
Berfdjerfte  aitf  bitfe  SSeife  meinen  5«unb,  but  3d)  bin  ein  Grfel.  llnter  ber  (Regterung 
brt  ^cniga  ©iegmunb,  @o^n  be3  beutfdjen  ^aiferd  Jtarta  IV  (Wational-Zeitung}.  3d) 
fd)«ibe  3fynen  in  5lir  (e^tmatige 


b.  If  a  genitive  precedes  its  governing  noun,  the  latter  must  drop  its 
article  ;  see  II.  A.  a. 

c.  The  article  is  often  dropped  when  a  singular  noun  is  used  by  way  of 
synecdoche,  to  designate  more  than  one  or  a  regular  succession  :    @r  tvitg 
jtJ  mtt  flarfem  §lrm.    3n  tiefent  Xat,  auf  fdjneebebecften  §6^en  n>ar  fletsJ  bein   58i(b 
ntit  naf).    2Wit  fd)arfem  @d)titt  with  a  quick  step. 

d.  In  prepositional  phrases  the  indefinite  article  can  be  omitted  when  the 
reference  is  evidently  to  only  one  object  :  ein  ©ebaube  ntit  flad)em  !Dad).    (Sin  auf 
bettatbetem  S3erge  liegenbed  Sd)(of.    2luf  ^agerem  £alfe  {job  ftd)  ein  btaffe^  »evgilbte3 


e.  The  article  is  dropped  before  a  noun  as  in  English  when  it  introduces 
a  formal  definition  of  itself:  Jlnnfl  ifl  (or  fycifjt)  bie  £>arjle(lung  bc3  ©djoneit. 

f.  The  article  is  dropped  before  a  noun  which  does  not  represent  a  definite 
object  or  thing  but  is  used  in  a  broad,  general  sense  :  SMutigcl  ijl  Slntigct 
A  leech  is  a  leech  wherever  you  find  it.     Grnbe  gut,  aflcg  gut  If  the  end  is  good, 
all  is  good.     The  article  is  absent  thus  in  many  pithy  sayings  which  date 
back  to  a  time  when  the  article  was  little  used,  and  thus  bear  the  stamp  of  an 
earlier  coinage. 

The  article  is  frequently  omitted  before  the  absolute  superlative  to  express 
a  high  degree  in  a  general  way  without  reference  to  any  particular  com- 
parison :  tSinfadjfle,  tieffle  £armenie  ifl  int  (Sturm,  h?ie  in  bee  -ffimbfttlle  (Raabe). 
5luf  fabefle  Summfcvfe  mad)te  er  Sinbrucf,  auf  ?lvnolb  nid)t  (G.  Hauptmann). 

g.  The  article  is  dropped  in  an  enumeration  of  things  or  particulars  belong- 
ing to  the  same  class  or  category,  but  must  stand  before  each  noun  if  they 
are  considered  individually  rather  than  as  belonging  to  one  class  :  33ei  bet 
IflugfuUung  ber  gtad)tbricfrubn£  ,,9lvt  ber    aSerpacfung"  Ijat  bet    QJetfenbet  einen 

F 


66  THE   PARTS   OF  SPEECH  59.111.^. 

mogltdjfl  bejetdjnenben  Sludbrurf  (5aji,  ©adf,  Jttite,  Jtafhn,  fallen  u.  bgt.)  ju  fcafylen. 
SHe  falfdje,  abet  bidder  lanblduftge  9lnftd}t,  bag  9tyein,  9teufj,  (Jtycne  unb  £efim  ant 
@t.  ©ottijarb  entfpringen,  gab  audj  ju  einer  trrigen  Sluffaffimg  ber  ©trafjenoerfydlrmjfe 
Slnlafj.  £err  ©djreiber  SBittJjoff,  Xcpfntarfterfe,  £interljaud,  werte  (Stage  linfd.  Surid) 
am  Sludjutjj  ber  Sintma*  aud  bent  Suridjer  ©ee,  jefct  bie  »olfreid)fle  ©tabt  ber  ©d?tt»eij 
(90,000  ($.),  aJHttelpunft  finer  grojjartigen  Snbuftrie  in  ©eibe,  SSaunttootte,  2JJafdjinen 
it.  a.,  bebeutenber  £anbel,  (Sifenbafjnfnotenpnnft  unb  lebfjafter  ftrembensericljr.  But 
the  article  is  used  in  the  following  sentence,  as  the  objects  are  considered 
individually  :  25o  (unter  bent  (Sfirtfibaume)  lag  ein  brauned  9D?uffd)en,  em  fd)»ar$er 
©amtfyut,  ein  bunted  Jtleib,  ein  2Rdrd)enbud),  ein  S3ttt>erbudj,  fedjd  ©d)veibebud)er, 
§ebern  unb  ©djiefetjtifte,  ©tricfgarn  unb  audj  eine  h>unberfi^6ne  $u^ve. 

h.  Similar  to  the  above  is  the  very  common  use  of  dropping  the  article  of 
each  of  a  pair  of  words  connected  by  unb,  or  ttiebet  —  nodj  neither  —  nor, 
nidjt  —  nod)  not  —  nor,  nidjt  —  cber  not  —  or:  £ag  unb  9tad)t,  £eib  unb  <Eeele, 
Qingang  gu  ©arten  unb  JJegelbafyn,  ber  93lidE  be3  ^aftord  »on  ^anjel  unb  SUtar,  auf 
@ofa  unb  ©tu^len,  ahnfcfyen  5«ebti(^«benfma(  unb  58ranbenburger  %a\.  !Da  wac^ft 
ireber  ©aunt  no^»  ©fraud).  3n  bltnber  §ajl  jagte  .Rafpar  ba^in,  ad^tett  nidjt  auf  <§tocf 
nod;  <£tein;  nidjt  auf  3«un  nod)  ©raben. 

Note.  This  omission  of  the  article  is  not  limited  to  set  expressions,  as  stated  in 
some  grammars,  but  is  permissible  before  all  words  thus  coupled  together,  except  in 
the  gen.  case,  where  as  yet  the  omission  does  notuniformly  occur  :  93atet  unb  2J?utter  ftnb 
fjeimgefefirt.  £tebe  SSater  unb  2Rutter.  ©etyordje  SSater  unb  SKutter,  but  ©ebenfe  bed 
ber  SWutter.  Xrofe  ©traubend  unb  ©tentmenS. 


t.  The  article  is  dropped  before  nouns  which  are  used  twice,  once  before 
and  again  after  a  prep.  :  SBoge  auf  SBoge,  »on  £ag  ju  Sage,  ©d^ritt  »or  <£d)ritt,  &c. 
j.  The  article  is  dropped  in  a  very  large  number  of  set  expressions  coined 
in  an  earlier  period,  most  of  which  have  this  in  common  —  that  they  have 
a  broad  general  meaning,  and  do  not  refer  to  definite  objects  or  things. 
The  following  groups  of  expressions  are  thus  used  without  the  article,  though 
in  some  cases  the  newer  form  with  the  article  can  also  be  found  : 

aa.  The  adverbial  gen.  of  time,  place,  manner,  condition  :  ntorgend  or  bed 
morgend  of  mornings,  ©omnterd  in  the  summer  time,  bet  etfter  ©etegenfjeit,  Ijcheren 
Drtd  before  a  higher  authority,  flucjd  quickly,  fdjlimmjien  5al(d  if  the  worst 
happens,  in  the  worst  event,  &c. 

bb.  The  ace.  as  object  of  a  verb,  or  the  dat.  or  ace.  after  preps,  in 
numerous  set  expressions  in  which  the  substantive  does  not  retain  its  literal 
meaning,  but  enters  into  close  relations  with  the  verb,  forming  with  the 
latter  one  idea,  usually  of  a  general  or  figurative  application  :  retnen  'Ufunb 
fatten  to  remain  mum,  Jpanb  anlegen  to  put  one's  hand  to,  to  go  to  work, 
teUneljnten  to  take  part  in  ;  ju  Serge  fafyren  to  ride  up  hill,  or  sail  up  stream, 
ju  Jheuje  friedjen  to  become  humbled  ;  see  245.  IV.  3.  B. 

cc.  The  dat.  or  ace.  in  numerous  prep,  phrases  in  which  the  substantive 
retains  its  separate  meaning,  independent  of  the  verb,  but  has  a  general  or 
indefinite  application.  The  more  common  cases  are  the  following  : 

(1)  In  general  statements  of  time:  »or  SKtttag  before  noon,  nadj  £ifd)  after 
meal-time.    Sag  iiber  all  day,  &c.    9tad)  getaner  2lrbeit  tjl  gut  rulnt. 

(2)  In  adverbial  phrases  of  manner  and  reason  :    ju  gufi,  ju  SBaffer  gehen  to 
go  on  foot,  by  water,  &c.  ;   »or  Slngft  beben  to  tremble  on  account  of  anxiety, 
aud  Siebe  fcanbeln  to  act  prompted  by  love,  &c. 

k.  The  article  is  dropped  before  certain  adjective-substantives,  see  111.  7.  h. 

/.  The  indefinite  article  is  not  usually  used  before  fyunbert  hundred  and 
taufenb  thousand  :  Ijunbert  ©djuter  one  hundred  pupils. 

m.  The  article  is  dropped  in  short,  concise  commands  or  warnings  :  Slugen 
linfd!  Jtopf  jurwf! 

ft.  The  article  is  often  dropped  before  collective  or  abstract  nouns  and 
names  of  materials  ;  see  II.  B,  C,  D. 

Also  any  noun  which  usually  has  concrete  meaning  loses  the  article  if  it 


60.  i. 


OMISSION   OF  THE  ARTICLE 


67 


assumes  abstract  meaning :  3>t  Dberft  tyatte  in  feinet  furjen,  ettoag  tnUitdtifdjen 
2trt  itnb  SBeife  gefprcdjen,  auS  bet  jebod)  £erj  Hang,  ba$  gum  J&ergen  ging. 

0.  The  article  is  almost  always  dropped  before  proper  names  in  direct 
address,  and  as  a  rule  elsewhere,  but  there  are  many  exceptions,  as 
enumerated  in  II.  E  and  the  sub-articles.  Also  the  following  points  come 
under  this  head : 

aa.  In  familiar  language,  titles  and  designations  of  relationship,  and  in 
poetry  and  folk-lore  the  names  of  familiar  objects,  may,  in  order  to  impart 
more  vividly  the  idea  of  personality,  be  treated  as  proper  names  and  thus 
drop  the  article  (see  II.  E.  a.  Note,  and  9O) :  nad)  $ol)eit3  23efeljl  according  to 
the  command  of  your  Highness.  £errfd)aftsS  jinb  fyeute  gang  imter  fid)  (words  of 
a  hired  girl)  My  employer  and  his  family  are  to-day  entirely  to  themselves. 
SanteS  .f  (eib  Aunt's  dress.  Jhtabe  fyrad? :  id?  bred?e  bid),  Oio^letu  fpvad? :  id?  fhdjc 
kid?  (Goethe's  Heidenrosleiri). 

bb.  In  official  language  or  a  familiar  style,  definite  persons  or  organizations 
are  called  not  by  their  proper  name  but  by  some  common  noun  that  repre- 
sents the  capacity  in  which  the  person  or  thing  appears.  This  common  noun 
like  a  proper  name  drops  the  article  :  Seflagtet  trete  ttor  Let  the  defendant  step 
forth.  <£d)reibtt-  biefer  3«itett  the  writer  of  these  lines.  SSerfafiev  the  author,  &c. 

cc.  Names  of  books,  firms,  and  headings  and  addresses  like  proper  names 
in  general  drop  the  article :  ®efd?id?te  bet  936lferft>anberung  History  of  the 
Migration  of  the  Nations,  (Sifengiefjerei  »on  9h  2J?.,  Slrtifel  bet  <§toffncmten  The  Use 
of  the  Article  before  Names  of  Materials  (heading  of  an  article  in  a  German 
Grammar).  2Jlein  ©cfdjaft  befinbet  fid?  @.9B.,  griebridjfi.  160  My  place  of  business 
is  in  the  south-west  part  of  the  city,  Frederic  Street,  No.  160. 

INFLECTION  OF  COMMON  NOUNS. 

60.  i.  Nouns  are  divided  into  three  declensions,  the  Strong, 
Weak,  and  Mixed.  The  different  cases  and  numbers  in  all  these 
declensions  are  formed  by  adding  certain  vowel  or  consonant 
endings  to  the  stem  of  the  noun  and  sometimes  by  modifying 
(indicated  below  by ")  the  stem  vowel.  The  following  is  the  general 
outline  of  the  different  systems  of  terminations  and  different  methods 
of  treating  the  stem  vowel : — 


STRONG. 

WEAK. 

MIXED. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

Singular. 

First  Class. 

Second  Class. 

Third  Class. 

Fourth  Class. 

Nom.  - 
Gen.   —  8 
Dat.    — 
Ace.    — 

,   ?> 

=!? 

-W 

-(')« 
-(e)n 

-(e)n 

=i;r 

Plural. 

Plural. 

Plural. 
istCl.andCl. 

Nom.  12. 
Gen.    m 
Dat.    -^-n 

ACC.      '.<!!> 

—  e 

—en 
—  e 

—  C 

-^er 
—  ern 
JLer 

-(e)n 
-(e)n 
-(e)n 
-(f)n 

-(e)n  -8 
—  (e)n  —8 
-(e)n  -8 
-(e)n  -6 

F   2 


68  INFLECTION  OF  COMMON  NOUNS      6O.I.A. 

The  declensions  are  distinguished  by  the  case  ending  in  the 
gen.  sing,  and  nom.  pi. 

A.  The  Strong  declension  has  g  or  eg  in  the  gen.  sing.  :  ber  <2>paten 
spade,  gen.  beg   ©Vateng.     It  subdivides  into  four  classes  in  the 
plural  according  to  the  formation  of  the  nom.  plural  : 

a.  The  First  Class  has  no  additional  ending  in  the  nom.  pi., 
but  sometimes  modifies  the  root  vowel  :  ber  <§.paten,  pi.  bie  ©paten  ; 
ber  SSater  father,  pi.  bie  SSdter. 

b.  The  Second  Class  adds  e  in  the  nom.  pi.  without  modification 
of  the  root  vowel  :  ber  QIrm  arm,  pi.  bie  Qlrme. 

c.  The  Third  Class  adds  e  in  the  plural  and  modifies  the  root 
vowel  :  ber  8ru£  foot,  pi.  bie  fr'ufie. 

d.  The  Fourth  Class  adds  er  to  form  nom.  pi.  and  modifies  the 
root  vowel  :  bag  SBucfy  book,  pi.  bie  Silver. 

B.  The  Weak  declension  has  n  or  en  in  every  case  sing,  and  pi. 
except  nom.  sing.  :  ber  Jtnafce  boy,  gen.  beg  Jtnaben,  dat.  bent  Jtnafcen, 
ace.  ben  JtnaSen,  pi.  nom.  bie  Jlnafcen,  &c. 

C.  The  Mixed  declension  is  strong  (i.  e.  takes  g  or  eg  in  gen.)  in 
the  sing,  and  falls  into  two  groups  in  the  pi. 

a.  The  first  group  takes  the  weak  pi.,  i.  e.    ends  in  n  or  en 
throughout  the  pi.  :  ber  @taat  state,  gen.  beg  @taat(e)g,  pi.  bie  ©taaten. 

b.  The  second  group  has  the  foreign  ending  s  throughout  the  pi.  : 
bag  (Scfco  echo,  gen.  beg  (Sefyog,  pi.  bie  Gcfyog. 

D.  In  any  of  these  declensions  where  the  case  ending  of  the 
noun  is  deficient,  the  article  (which  is  ever  playing  a  more  im- 
portant role)  marks  distinctly  the  case:  ber  Dmnitmg,  beg  Dmnifcug, 
&c.     See  2,  below. 

2.  There  is  at  present  considerable  confusion  in  German  de- 
clension. The  strong  declension  and  the  first  class  of  the  mixed 
are  growing  at  the  expense  of  the  weak,  and  the  strong  declen- 
sion itself  is  losing  in  many  words  its  g  of  the  genitive  sing.  :  @g 
fcbien  ifym  (cem  (£f)amdleon)  ju  gefaflen  auf  ben  fcfyrcanfen  Sftanfen  beg  (Sfeu 
(Uber  Land  und  Meer).  The  grammarians  severely  condemn  the 
suppression  of  g  in  such  examples  as  the  preceding,  but  in  a  number 
of  categories  this  omission  has  been  sanctioned  by  usage,  as  tfre 
feeling  has  prevailed  that  the  article  alone  marks  the  case  clearly  ; 
see  84,  85.  a;  86.  i,  and  a;  86.  2.  a  and  c;  02.2.  a.  b;  78.  In 
case  of  common  nouns  the  g  is  most  frequently  suppressed  when 
the  word  ends  in  an  unaccented  sibilant  :  beg  (Slofcug  (or  ©lo&uffee)  j 
etneg  S^ttfcfy  (Fontane's  Unterm  Birnbaum,  II)  or  8 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  ALL  DECLENSIONS. 

61.  a.  Feminine  nouns  never  vary  in  the  singular,  the  article  or 
context  alone  showing  case.  Thus  feminines  belong  to  their  respec- 
tive classes  and  declensions  only  in  the  plural.  Occasionally 
traces  of  inflection  in  the  sing,  can  still  be  found,  indicating  a 
different  state  of  things  in  earlier  periods;  see  76.  II.  i. 

b.  Nouns  ending  in  unaccented  ar,  e,  el,  em,  en,  er,  cfyen,  il,  ir,  lent, 
fel,  ul,  always  lose  the  e  of  the  case  ending  :  ber  &lu8el  wing,  gen.  beg 


62.  D.      GENERAL  RULES   FOR   DECLENSIONS  69 


Slugelg,  dat.  pi.  ben  ftlugeln,  not  beg  ftlitgeteg,  ^n  ^lugelen  ;  bie  freber  pen, 
pi.  bte  ftebern;  ber  ttn'gar  Hungarian,  pi.  bie  lln'garn,  but  ber  Tartar' 
Tartar,  pi.  bie  Xarta'ren. 

c.  The  last  noun  of  true  compound  substantives  is  alone  declined, 
and  also  gives  the  gender  to  the  compound.  For  loose  compounds, 
see  80.  2. 

STRONG   DECLENSION. 
General  Rules. 

62.  A.  In  every  strong  masc.  or  neut.  (for  fem.  see  61.  a)  noun 
the  nom.  and  ace.  sing,  of  the  respective  genders  are  the  same, 
and  in  nouns  of  all  genders  the  nom.,  gen.,  and  ace.  plural  of  the 
respective  genders  are  alike,  the  accompanying  article  or  adjective 
alone  marking  case  relations. 

B.  Every  strong  noun  ends  in  eu  or  n  (see  61.  b)  in  the  dat.  pi, 

C.  The  case  ending  e  according  to  61.  b  is  dropped  after  the 
suffixes  e,  el,  em,  eit,  er,  cfyen,  lein,  fel:  ber  (Sngel  angel,  teg  (Sngelg  (not 
(Sngeleg),  tent  (Sngel  (not  ©ngele),  &c.     In  case  of  those  ending  in  n,  no 
additional  n  is  added  in  the  dat.  pi.:  ber  ©pnten  spade,  gen.  beg  <Spateng, 
dat.  pi.  ben  <2#aten  ;  bag  ftrdulein  young  lady,  dat.  pi.  ben  ftrdulcin. 

Note.  The  general  rule  of  dropping  (  after  the  above-mentioned  suffixes  has  been 
very  effective  since  early  M.H.G.,  and  has  produced  marked  results  in  the  inflection 
of  nouns  ;  see  67.  The  cause  of  the  dropping  of  e  after  these  suffixes  seems  to  be  the 
pronounced  tendency  in  words  of  more  than  two  syllables  to  suppress  a  syllable  in 
order  to  make  an  easy  and  rhythmical  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 
These  unaccented  suffixes  follow  an  accented  syllable,  and  if  another  unaccented 
syllable  were  formed  by  adding  e  the  favorite  rhythm  would  be  disturbed.  Thus  the 
trochaic  word-foot  (—  \J}  has  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  dactylic  word-foot 
(-^)- 

D.  The  gen.  sing,  takes  eg  when  it  ends  in  some  sound  difficult 
to  unite  with  the  g  of  the  case  ending  without  the  aid  of  e,  just  as 
es  in  English  is  added  to  form  the  pi.  when  s  alone  would  be 
difficult  to  pronounce  :  one  glass,  two  glasses.     Usually  eg  stands 
after  final  b,  b,  Ib,  nb,  mpf,  g,  fl,  if,  ?,  fcfy,  ft,  or  after  a  final  vowel  or 
diphthong:  ber  ftifd)  fish,  beg  S'ifdieg;   ber  93cut  building,  beg  SBaueg. 
In  case  of  a  final  vowel  or  diphthong,  even  though  in  print  the  e 
(as  in  beg  -.Bang)  be  suppressed,  it  is  nevertheless  slightly  heard. 

Also  in  other  cases  eg  is  often  used,  particularly  in  choice 
language,  but  simple  g  is  more  common,  and  in  familiar  language 
even  after  some  of  the  above-mentioned  consonants.  Simple  g 
is  used  in  the  following  cases  :  (i)  Always  in  the  First  Class  and 
also  elsewhere  in  order  to  avoid  a  dactyl  (—  ^  <J)  or  an  antibacchius 
(-  ^-  ^),  that  is,  when  the  final  syllable  of  the  uninflected  form  of 
the  word  is  unaccented  or  has  only  secondary  accent:  ber_95ogel, 
beg  33ogelg,  not  beg  33ogeleg  ;  ber  Jtdfig  cage,  beg  Jt  afigg,  not  beg  Jta'figifg  ; 
beg  £ofeg,  but  beg_Jtird$ofg,  not  usually  Jtrrcty^f  ?g  ;  ber  SSiJ'amonb  full 
moon,  beg  93o%n6nbg.  (2)  Also  in  the  adverbial  genitive  :  tagg  brauf 
on  the  next  day,  fyterortg  at  this  place.  (3)  In  proper  names  always, 
and  if  after  sibilants  simple  g  is  here  difficult  to  add,  the  genitive 


70  STRONG   DECLENSION  62.  D. 

may  take  en8  or  an  apostrophe  without  an  ending,  or,  in  case  of 
cities,  the  preposition  son  is  usually  placed  before  the  name  to  show 
the  genitive  relation:  (SnglanbS,  SKarenS  or  3)iar',  bte  ©trajjen  son 
$ari3 ;  see  86.  2. 

E.  The  dative  sing,  ending  e  is  now  on  the  decline  and  confined 
largely  to  the  choice  language  of  painstaking  speakers,  but  much 
disregaided  in  familiar  language. 

It  is  not  usually  found :  (a)  in  the  First  Class :  nut  bem  €tyaten  ; 
(b]  in  the  word  ©ott  God  when  no  article  stands  before  it :  ©ott  fei 
£)anf!,  but  bem  ®otte  33rael8;  (c)  in  proper  names:  in  ftranfreicfy  in 
France;  (d)  after  an  unaccented  syllable  when  it  would  form 
a  dactyl  (—  ww)  or  antibacchius  (— ^-«^):  mit  bem  Jto'mg,  cor  einem 
Sfto'nat ;  (e)  after  words  ending  in  a  vowel :  in  bem  (See ;  (/)  in  the 
names  of  winds :  bem  SHorb  (but  in  gen.  beg  -iftorbeg)  auggefefct  exposed  to 
the  north-wind ;  (g)  in  case  of  nouns  without  an  article  or  adjective 
modifier  in  prepositional  phrases :  son  Satyr gu  Satyr,  jit  STIIJJ  on  foot,  ein 
0ting  von®  olb,but  with  an  article  or  adjective  modifier  the  e  may  appear: 
ba8  @nbe  »om  £ieb(e),  ein  9fting  »on  gebiegenem  ®olt(e);  (h)  in  nouns  which 
are  preceded  by  a  name  of  a  weight  or  measure :  mit  einem  £iter 
SBein ;  (*')  in  foreign  words :  bem  6enat,  bent  problem,  &c. 

Note.  The  large  group  of  words  referred  to  in  245.  IV.  3.  B  occurring  in  set 
adverbial  expressions  form  often  a  very  noteworthy  exception  to  the  rule  that  the 
dative  drops  the  e  in  case  of  nouns  without  the  article  in  prepositional  phrases.  The 
t  was  attached  to  these  words  in  an  earlier  period  when  an  e  was  common  here,  and 
now  it  remains  in  a  complete  state  of  fossilization,  and  hence  cannot  always  be  used 
and  dropped  at  will,  as  is  the  case  with  other  words :  @r  jieljt  fetn  SBottetbudj  ju 
flftate  (perhaps  more  common  than  9lat)  He  consults  his  dictionary,  but  ($r  getyott  juin 
Olate  or  {Rat.  In  some  cases  this  e  is  very  firm  in  these  adverbial  expressions:  (Jr 
0eljt  jU  ©tunbe  He  is  going  to  rack  and  ruin. 

F.  The  using  or  dropping  of  e  in  the  gen.  and  dat.  is  often 
a  matter  of  euphony.     The  following  two  rules,  though  not  ab- 
solutely followed  in  all  instances,  may  be  considered  as  a  good 
guide  in  cases  not  covered  by  the  rules  given  above  : 

a.  The  e  drops  out  in  the  case  ending  if  the  following  word 
begins  with  a  vowel,  as  the  effect  is  unpleasant  to  the  ear  when  two 
vowels  come  together :  @r  ifl  bent  @eij  (not  ®eije)  erge&en. 

b.  The  e  is  much  used  both  in  prose  and  poetry  to  avoid  two 
accented  syllables  coming  together,  and  thus  standing  between 
accented  syllables  it  causes  a  rhythmic  succession  of  accented  and 
unaccented  syllables :  9Md?  ©o'lbe  brd'ngt,  am  ©o'lbe  tyd'ngt  bocfy  aUeS ! 

FIRST  CLASS  OF  THE  STRONG  DECLENSION. 

63.  To  this  class,  which  has  no  additional  ending  in  the  nom. 
plural,  and  never  has  an  e  in  a  case  ending,  belong : 

a.  Masc.  and  neut.  nouns  ending  in  unaccented  *et,  *en  (always 
contracted  to  n  after  *el  and  *t\  in  verbal  nouns :  bag  -§anbeln  acting, 
ba3  <Stottetn  stuttering),  *er,  *d)en,  *lt\\\,  =fet :  ber  ©paten  spade,  ber  SSater 
father,  £c. 

Also  the  diminutives  in  fevl  and  I,  which  have  been  borrowed 
from  the  Bavarian  and  Austrian  dialects,  belong  here  when  used 


65.       FIRST  CLASS   OF  STRONG   DECLENSION        71 

in  the  literary  language :  ba8  ©efjnabertyupferl  humorous  song,  beg 
©cfynaberljjupferig,  pi.  bie  ©cfynaberbupferl ;  bag  U6er6rettl  high-grade  variety 
show,  beg  llfrerfcrettlS,  pi.  bie  itberbrettl.  For  the  inflection  of  these 
nouns  in  dialect  see  79.  i.  b.  Note. 

b.  All  neuter  nouns  beginning  with  the  prefix  ge«  and  ending 
in  *e :  baS  ©emdlce  oil  painting,  &c. 

c.  Two  feminines,  Gutter  mother  and  Softer  daughter,  the  isolated 
masculine  Jtafe  cheese,  and  two  neuter  verbal  nouns,  £un  doing 
and  ©etn  being. 

d.  Diminutives  in  ;Ie  in  the  Swabian  and  Alsatian  and  *li  in  Swiss  dialects  : 
baa  £errle  the  little  man,  be3  JpertleS,  pi.  bie  (,  ber,  ben,  bie)  £errle.     Some  Swiss 
dialects  lengthen  the  stem  in  the  plural :  ba3  SHugli  (=2luglein),  pi.  N.  Sluglt,  G. 
(lacking),  D.  Slugtene,  A.  Slugli.    The  n  drops  out  in  all  these  dialects  in  the 
dat.  pi.  of  this  group. 

INFLECTION  OF  THE  FIRST  CLASS. 

64.  This  class  in  its  declension  falls  into  two  divisions : 
(h  The  nom.  pi.  exactly  the  same  as  the  sing. 

b.  The  plural  is  modified  or  mutated. 

Models. 

a.  Singular.  b. 

N.  ber  ©paten  spade  ber  SBruber  the  brother 

G.  beg  ©pateng  of  the  spade  beg  SBruberS  of  the  brother 

D.  bent  ©paten  to  (for)  the  spade       bent  93ritber  to  (for)  the  brother 
A.  ben  ©paten  the  spade  ben  SBruber  the  brother 

Plural. 

N.  bie  ©paten  the  spades  bie  93ruber  the  brothers 

G.  ber  ©paten  of  the  spades  ber  SSruber  of  the  brothers 

D.  ben  ©paten  to  the  spades  ben  SBriibern  to  the  brothers 

A.  bie  ©paten  the  spades  bie  SSritber  the  brothers 

Singular. 

N.  ba8  ©emalDe  the  painting  bie  SKutter  the  mother 

G.  be8  ©emdlbeS  of  the  painting  ber  Gutter  of  the  mother 
D.  bem  ©emalbe  to  the  painting  ber  Sautter  to  the  mother 
A.  bag  ©emalbe  the  painting  bie  Sautter  the  mother 

Plural. 

N.  bie  ©emdlbe  the  paintings  bie  SKiitter  the  mothers 

G.  ber  ©emdlbe  of  the  paintings         ber  SKuttcr  of  the  mothers 
D.  ben  ©emdlben  to  the  paintings       ben  3Kuttern  to  the  mothers 
A.   bie  ©emdlbe  the  paintings  ""          bie  SKutter  the  mothers 

65.  Notice  that:  (i)  if  the  noun  ends  in  en  it  does  not  add 
another  n  in  the  dative  plural ;  (2)  feminines  do  not  vary  in  the 
sing.,  the  article  alone  marking  case ;  (3)  neuter  nouns  of  the  form 
©e  —  e,  as  ©ebdube,  often  (full  explanation  in  Note  below  and  in  83.  b) 
modify  the  root  vowel,  and  usually  so  the  diminutive  endings  *d?en 


72  STRONG   DECLENSION  65. 

and  --lein,  as  bag  «&unbdjeu  or  «£unblein  little  dog  (fuller  statement  in 
245.  1.8.  i.c).  This  mutation  is  not  a  sign  of  the  plural,  but  goes 
throughout  the  sing,  and  pi.;  (4)  words  of  the  forms  ®t  —  t, 
—  cfyen,  —  Wn  are  usually  neuter :  ber  «£unb,  but  bag  «§itnr>ct?en,  &c. 

Note.  Words  of  the  form  ©e  —  e  or  ©e —  (ending  in  f(,  et,  as  ©efieber,)  often  have 
modification  of  the  stem  vowel  by  mutation  (see  26.  A  and  C),  as  they  once  had  after 
them  an  i,  which  has  become  e  or  dropped  out :  ©ebrdttge  (O.H.G.  gidrengi),  ©eftlbe 
(O.H.G.  gifildi)  derived  from  fttl'D,  ©efieber  (O.H.G.  presumably  gifidari  or  gifidiri) 
derived  from  5ebet.  However,  a  large  number  of  verbal  nouns,  usually  new  formations 
formed  from  the  infinitive  stem,  do  not  mutate  :  baS  ©etaufe.  When  the  mutated 
form  and  the  unmutated  form  exist  side  by  side  there  is  often  a  little  shade  of  difference 
in  meaning ;  see  83.  i>. 

66.  The  list  of  nouns  in  this  class  that  have  the  nom.  sing,  like 
the  nom.  pi.  is  much  larger  than  those  that  modify  the  root  vowel. 
Among  those  that  suffer  mutation   in  the  plural  can   be  safely 
counted :    only  one  neuter,   Softer  cloister,  but  also  quite  often 
5Baffer  water,  and  sometimes  Sager  camp ;  two  feminines,  SWutter  and 
$ocbter ;  the  following  masculines :  Qlrfer  field,  bet  5IpfeI  apple,  SSoben 
(pi.  also  23oben)  bottom,  soil,  SBruber  brother,  §aben  (earlier  in  the  period 
without  mutation  in  the  pi.)  thread,  ©arteu  garden,  ©raben  ditch,  «§afen 
harbor,  pot,  jammer  hammer,  <§aubel  contention,  Saben  shutter,  shop 
(in  the  first  meaning,  pi.  also  bit  £aben),  Sftangel  lack,  SRantel  cloak, 
9kgel  nail,  €>fen  stove,  <SatteI  saddle,  (Scfaaben  damage,  <£d)nafcel  beak, 
©cfyicager  brother-in-law,  03«ter  father,  23ogel  bird. 

a.  Many  other  masculines  also  belong  here  sometimes  :  23ogen  bow,  Jfaflen 
box,  .ftragen  collar,  5JZagen  stomach,  9kbe[  navel,  2Bagen  wagon,  £c.  Grammarians 
discourage  the  spread  of  mutation  here,  as  these  words  were  unmutated  in 
earlier  periods  of  the  language.  When  this  class  was  formed  in  accordance 
with  the  development  described  in  67,  a  number  of  words  which  entered  the 
new  class,  as  SKutter,  S3ater,  23ruber,  £ed)tet,  Slpfet,  «&afett  pot,  Sftantel,  9tagel, 
@attel,  (Scfynabef,  were  already  mutated  in  the  plural.  This  mutating  group 
possessed  a  great  advantage  over  the  other  words,  as  they  had  a  plural 
form  clearly  distinct  from  the  singular,  and  the  economic  instincts  of  the 
people,  undisturbed  by  historical  considerations,  appreciated  this  advantage 
at  once,  and  extended  the  mutation  in  the  plural  to  other  words.  The  list 
given  above  represents  the  view  of  conservative  grammarians.  Literary  men 
do  not  confine  themselves  to  it :  Scfyubfdftot  (Gutzkow),  bte  ©lagfaflen  (Raabe's 
Hungerpastor,  chap,  iv),  bte  ^o^fe,  bte  £erjen  itnb  SWdgen  ber  SRcnfdjheit  (Raabe's 
A.  T.,  chap.  26),  pveitfjtfdje  SKdgen  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  p.  141).  South 
German  authors  use  mutation  still  more  freely. 

67.  This  class  is  historically  only  a  modified  form  of  the  Second  Class. 
The  general  rule  that  does  not  allow  e  to  stand  after  ;d,  ;em,  ;en,  ;er,  ;d)en, 
stein,  ;fe(,  caused  as  early  as  M.H.G.  many  words  that  were  formerly  in  the 
Second  Class  to  drop  the  plural  ending  e :  (O.H.G.)  engil  angel,  pi.  engila ; 
M.H.G.  engel,  pi.  engel(e).     This  movement  has  thus  given  rise  to  a  new 
class  of  nouns  not  found  in  O.H.G.    The  neuters  with  these  endings  passed 
over   into  this  new   class  very  easily  and  naturally,  as  they  already  as 
neuters  in  general  had  no  plural  ending  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  as  early  as 
O.H.G.,  and  hence  needed  only  to  drop  the  e  in  the  other  case  endings. 
Also  2J}uttet,  £od)ter,  and  33ruber  had  no  ending  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  pi.  in 
O.H.G.     The  fact  that  only  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  came  over 
into  the  First  Class  shows  us  that  the  cause  of  dropping  the  e  lies  entirely 
in  the  accent.     There  has  long  been  a  growing  dislike  for  the  dactyl  (—  «~>^} 
and  in  part  also  for  the  antibacchius  (—  —  w)  as  a  word  foot ;  see  62.  D.  (i). 
This   change  of  form  consists  in  changing  a  dactyl  or  antibacchius  into- 


67.  INFLECTION   OF  THE   FIRST  CLASS  73 

a  trochee  (—  ^)  or  a  spondee  (—  — ).  The  masculines  and  neuters  in  e,  el, 
em,  en,  er  went  over  entirely  into  the  new  class,  but  masc.  and  neut. 
words  in  at,  idj,  ig,  ing,  ling,  ri<|,  fal  were  only  in  part  affected  by  this  move- 
ment. They  dropped  the  e  in  the  singular,  but  retained  it  throughout  the 
plural,  in  order  to  mark  more  clearly  the  plural  idea :  bet  SBagen,  bed  SBageng, 
pi.  bie  2£agen  ;  but  bet  Bungling,  beg  3unglingg,  pi.  bie  3unglinge.  Those  in  ;nis 
took  ;eg  in  the  gen.  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  uniting  simple  g  with  the 
suffix,  but  dropped  it  usually  in  the  dat. :  bag  ©efangnig,  beg  ©efangniffeg,  bem 
©efdngnig  (©efangniffe),  pi.  bie  ©efangnifie.  The  retention  of  e  in  the  plural  was 
facilitated  by  the  secondary  accent  upon  the  suffix.  The  e  was  in  general 
suppressed  in  the  singular  more  easily  than  in  the  plural,  because  the  8  of  the 
gen.  sing,  clearly  marked  this  case,  and  there  was  little  difficulty  in  recognizing 
the  dat.  on  account  of  the  preceding  article,  while  in  the  plural  the  article 
is  often  dropped  and  a  clear  plural  ending  is  often  needed.  These  reasons 
also  apply  to  nouns  in  4ein,  but  the  case  is  quite  different,  as  the  nouns  in 
t\t\\\  were  neuter  and  in  the  M.H.G.  period  had  no  plural  ending  in  the  nom. 
and  ace.  pi.  and  often  throughout  the  entire  plural,  and  thus  in  N.H.G. 
simply  retained  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  pi.  the  historic  form,  and  extended 
it  uniformly  to  the  other  cases.  Nouns  in  ;d)en  and  many  in  -A,  an,  ;er  are 
also  neut.,  and  like  those  in  4cin  had  no  ending  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  pi.,  and 
thus  by  their  example  facilitated  the  dropping  of  the  pi.  ending  here  in 
case  of  masculines.  On  the  other  hand,  the  great  majority  of  nouns  in  ;at, 
:\i),  4ing,  md)  were  masculine,  and  retained  their,  historic  ending  e  in  the 
plural.  The  neuters  in  ;nig  and  of  the  form  ©e  —  (69.  5.  b.  Note)  had  in  earlier 
periods  both  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  the  ending  e  like  j?afe,  which  they  have 
dropped  in  the  sing,  and  retained  in  the  pi.  Neuters  and  feminines  in  -,\&\. 
took  e  in  the  plural  after  the  example  of  masculines  in  *\\{,  which  were  once 
common,  but  have  since  almost  disappeared. 

The  words  in  this  new  class  were  later  reinforced  by  stragglers  from  other 
classes  and  declensions,  especially  from  the  weak  declension.  In  a  number 
of  weak  nouns,  as  M.H.G.  balke  beam,  the  ;en  of  the  oblique  cases  was  so 
frequently  used  that  the  form  in  *en  was  erroneously  taken  for  the  stem  of 
a  strong  noun  in  tt\\,  and  was  accordingly  inflected  strong  :  (M.H.G.) 
N.  balke,  G.  balken,  D.  balken,  &c. ;  (N.H.G.)  N.  Salfcn,  G.  Salfeng,  D. 
SSatfen,  &c.  The  words  which  have  thus  come  from  the  weak  declension  are 
almost  wholly  the  names  of  lifeless  objects,  which  fact  accounts  for  their 
change  of  declension.  The  most  common  case  form  of  names  of  living 
beings  is  the  nom.,  since  a  living  being  is  naturally  thought  of  as  acting, 
while  the  most  common  case  forms  of  names  of  lifeless  objects  are  the  ace. 
and  dat.,  since  we  think  of  them  as  things  we  use,  as  the  objects  of  an 
activity  or  a  preposition.  Hence  in  case  of  these  weak  nouns  representing 
lifeless  objects  the  frequent  dat.  and  ace.  form  in  ;cn  became  fixed  in  the 
mind  as  the  usual  form,  and  gradually  displaced  the  less  familiar  nom.  form 
in  ft.  In  most  of  the  words  in  the  list  in  68,  the  old  and  correct  nom.  form 
is  still  struggling  with  the  ace.  form  for  the  mastery  in  the  nom.  case.  As 
the  nom.  form  remained  firm  in  case  of  designations  of  living  beings,  and 
the  ace.  form  supplanted  the  nom.  form  in  case  of  names  of  things,  the 
same  word  was  split  into  two  forms  if  it  had  two  meanings,  one  the  name 
of  a  person,  one  the  name  of  a  thing  :  ber  ftranfe  Frank  (race),  bet  Sranfen 
(in  Switzerland)  franc  (coin) ;  ber  2ump  (formerly  8umpe)  ragged  beggar, 
good-for-nothing  fellow,  bet  Sitmpen  rag ;  ber  (Nappe  black  horse,  originally 
raven,  and  still  so  in  S.G.  dialect,  ber  Happen  (in  Switzerland  a  coin  upon 
which  is  a  picture  of  a  raven)  jfoj  franc  ;  ber  £ropf  (formerly  Srcpfe)  simple- 
ton, bet  Stopfcn  drop. 

The  change  of  words  from  the  second  class  and  weak  declension  to  this 
class  was  a  gradual  one,  and  the  former  order  of  things  can  still  be  seen 
in  Luther's  works  in  a  number  of  cases  :  beg  garten  (2  Kings  ix.  27),  &c. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  large  number  of  feminines  which  in  early  N.H.G. 


74  STRONG   DECLENSION  67. 

had  their  sing,  and  pi.  in  most  part  alike,  and  hence  properly  belonged 
here,  especially  those  in  ;e,  ;in,  and  ;iing,  passed  over  later  into  the  weak 
declension,  following  the  general  tendency  of  feminines  towards  the  weak 
declension  :  (dat.  sing.)  funbe  (2  Cor.  v.  21),  (ace.  pi.)  funbe  (i  Cor.  xv.  3)  ; 
(nom.  sing,  of  £6ttnn)  bte  Sennnne  (Ezek.  xix.  2),  (nom.  pi.)  Sewinne  (Joel  i.  6)  ; 
(ace.  pi.)  ttwnunge  (Ps.  Ixxxvii.  2). 

68.  Irregularities  in  the  Declension  of  the  First  Class.  Though 
often  deficient  in  the  nom.  sing,  ending  n  or  en,  the  following  masc. 
nouns  may  now  be  safely  put  into  the  first  class:  ^ricbe  peace, 
ffunfe  spark,  ©ebanfe  thought,  ©efatte  kind  act,  favor,  ©laufce  faith, 
<§aitfe  heap,  0lame  name,  (Same  seed,  @d?abe  damage,  SSttte  will,  and 
usually  5el3  cliff.  SBucfyftafce  letter  (of  the  alphabet),  which  is  usually 
a  weak  noun,  belongs  here  sometimes.  All  these  words  except 
a8ud)fia&e  (nom.  SSudjftofcett  still  rare)  may  also  have  the  sing.  nom. 
ending  in  =en,  and  ftunfen,  ©efaflen,  and  @d)aben  almost  always  so, 
^etfen  usually  so  in  prose.  The  plural  is  entirely  regular,  €>cfyaben 
suffering  mutation  according  to  art.  64,  subdivision  b,  and  the 
others  without  mutation  according  to  a. 

Singular. 

N.  ber  92ame(n)  her  Sfelfen  or  jyels  ber  @d)aben 

G.  be§  Stamens  be8  'ffelfeng  (ftelfen)  be8  @d;abeng 

D.  bem  Stamen  bem  ^etfen  (tfcle)  bent  <8d?aben 

A.  ben  Stamen  ben  frelfen  or  ftelg  ben  <5d?aben 


a.  Forms  varying  from  the  regular  forms  above  result  from  the  previous 
declension  -of  these  nouns,  most  of  which  were  once  weak  or  both  weak 
and  .  strong,  and  hence  we  sometimes  find  beg  gelfen,  eineg  gelfefl  (early 
N.H.G.  ;  2  Chron.  xxv.  12),  in  einem  %d$  (Schwab,  Sagen,  III.  149)  ;  pi.  an  bie 
§elfe  (Steinbach  ;  now  obs.).  In  a  few  set  expressions  the  old  nom.  e  is  very 
firm  :  (S3  tjl  ©djube  !  It  is  too  bad  !  gviebe  feinft  9lfci>e  !  griebe  (O.H.G.  fridu) 
was  not  originally  weak  but  strong.  It  had  in  early  N.H.G.  the  following 
inflection  :  bet  griebe,  beg  Svitbcg,  bem,  ben  griebe  alongside  of  the  forms  ber 
fttiebe,  beg  griebeng,  bem,  ben  Srieben.  The  forms  in  ;en  show  that  the  nom.  e 
had  led  to  the  conception  that  the  noun  was  weak.  The  old  strong  gen. 
in  *e$  is  now  obsolete,  the  nom.  in  ;t  is  still  quite  common,  and  the  old 
strong  dat.  and  ace.  forms  in  ;e  not  infrequent  in  the  classical  period  when 
no  article  precedes  the  noun,  and  still  occurs  so  occasionally  :  Unb  une  fange 
fyaben  ttrit  fdjon  gwbe?  (Lessing's  Minna,  2,  i).  Sljnt  fatten  |  tangfl  bie  fitOen 
©cottar  jWalbtannen  |  Sriebe  ing  ©emiit  gerauf^t  (Scheffel's  Tromfieter,  i).  The  n 
of  the  oblique  cases  has  gradually  become  fixed  in  the  nom.,  but  has  not  yet 
displaced  the  old  ending  e. 


SECOND  CLASS  OF  THE  STRONG  DECLENSION. 

69.  To  this  class,  which  forms  its  plural  by  adding  e  without 
mutation  of  the  root  vowel,  belong : — 

i.  Masculine  monosyllables : 

a.  Almost  all  masculine  monosyllables  not  capable  of  mutation 
in  the  plural,  that  is,  those  monosyllables  not  containing  one  of  the 
vowels  a,  o,  it,  an:  ber  9Beg  way,  ber  £>ienft  service,  ber  $rei3  prize, 
ber  $lufcfy  plush.  This  is  a  very  large  group,  but  the  words  need 
not  be  enumerated,  as  they  are  easily  recognized  by  their  form. 


69.1.6.    SECOND  CLASS  OF  STRONG  DECLENSION    75 

b.  The  following  masculine  monosyllables  containing  one  of  the 
vowels  a,  o,  it,  flu,  but  forming  their  plural  without  mutation. 
Those  marked  with  *  have  sometimes  a  mutated  plural,  those 
marked  with  t  fluctuate  in  the  plural  between  mutated  and  un- 
mutated  form:  *5Jal  eel,  Mar  eagle,  9(ft  act,  2llf  (pi.  also  wk.)  auk, 
QHp  incubus,  Mr  (also  neut.)  are,  Mrm  arm,  93afj  (also  fern.)  coupling 
(time  or  place  of  birds),  23cm  ban,  ruler  of  a  banat,  *33ann  proscription, 
58arfd)  perch,  33a8  master,  *23aft  bast,  2Bau  (pi.  SSaue  dwellings  of 
animals,  pi.  tauten  buildings)  building,  SSIaff  bark  (of  a  dog),  33olD 
fellow,  dwarf,  93orb  (rarely  neut.)  edge,  border,  3Borb  (sometimes  neut. 
and  fern. ;  see  ®ort,  74.  i)  board,  shelf,  *  33orn  fount,  *  Sorfl  crack, 
fissure,  23ucfy3  box-tree,  33ult  (also  wk.  and  3rd  cl.  str. ;  nom.  also 
9Bitlten  and  bie  SBitlte)  hill(ock),  33utt  (pi.  also  wk. ;  also  a  wk.  fern,  tie 
SButte)  turbot,  @fyan  khan,  (Elan  (pi.  also  (ElanS)  clan,  *2)acfyg  badger, 
5)anf  (pi.  rarely  2)anfe  or  2)cinff,  usually  £>cmffaijungen ;  see  96.  5.  B), 
£)od?t  wick,  5)old)  dagger,  £>om  cathedral,  *2)orn  (see  83),  *2)orfcfy 
torsk,  Dratt  (also  a  wk.  fern,  bie  £>rafle)  groove  in  the  bore  of  a  rifle, 
2)rofi  (also  wk.)  magistrate,  £)rucf  (see  83),  tS)rufd)  thrashing, 
(pi.  also  wk.)  dunce,  5alj  groove,  *8:ant  coxcomb,  5am  fern, 
(sometimes  wk.)  faun,  *&jorb  (pi.  also  sometimes  5jorb8, 
fiord,  S'lac^S  flax,  gla^S  boor,  *8rlau8  'or  *S:rauf(^  tuft,  glor  (pi. 
rare)  bloom,  blossom,  fthir  (sometimes  a  wk.  fern.)  entrance  hall, 
ftorjl  (79.  i.  a),  *^unb  find,  &uf?  (83),  @au  (pi.  also  ©eaten  in  both 
meanings,  especially,  however,  in  poetry  in  the  second  one ; 
sometimes  neut.)  district,  field,  ®olf  gulf  (of  sea),  ©rab  degree, 
©ran  (perhaps  more  commonly  neut.)  grain  (weight),  *®rat  ridge, 
©rctt  (pi.  rare)  resentment,  ©riuij  groan  (sign  of  disapproval),  ©ucf 
look,  ©urt  girth,  belt,  <£arf  stroke  with  a  hoe,  *<§aft  (pi.  sometimes 
wk.)  clasp,  t£ag  enclosure,  fence,  grove,  -£afl  sound,  clang,  £alm 
(pi.  sometimes  wk.)  blade  (of  grass),  4?alt  halt,  4?arft  (prov.)  troop, 
«§ap  (pi.  rare)  hate,  «&au  plaqe  where  timber  is  being  or  has 
been  cut  down,  blow,  often  in  the  pi.  with  the  meaning  flogging, 
<£aitd)  breath,  <£>olf  (see  79.  i),  «§olm  holm,  «§op8  hop,  £orfl  aerie, 
«§ort  safe  retreat,  treasure,  *«&uf  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  hoof,  «§unb  dog, 
<§upf  jump,  3ur  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  joke,  Jtalf  lime,  Jtant  (or  ^antcn 
[ist  cl.  str.])  first  or  last  piece  of  a  loaf  of  bread  containing  the 
crust,  *Jtarfl  mattock,  JUaw  or  tJtla^S  slap,  JKatfcfy  clash,  slap,  lash,, 
^lottj  wedge,  Jtloon  ball  of  spun  yarn,  A(o£f  knock,  ^lopS  cooked 
meat-ball,  *^natt  crack,  loud  sound,  Jtnafl  knot,  Jtnaiit  (also  neut. ; 
also  bcr  or  ba8  Jtnaul,  2nd  cl.,  now  usually  ber  and  bn3  Jtnduel,  Jtuauel, 
ist  cl.)  ball  (of  thread  or  wool),  *^norj  knot,  JtnupS  thump,  tJtnujl 
(see  71.  i.  a],  Jlotyl  cabbage,  StoU  or  (SoafS  (usually  a  pi.,  but  often 
used  here  as  a  sing.)  coke,  *Jtolf  deep  pool,  *J?orf  (-ftorfen,  ist 
cl.)  cork,  Jtra[a]t  (sometimes  neut.)  kraal,  Jtradj  (pi.  also  Jtracfcg) 
crash,  panic  (in  business),  Jtulm  peak,  ^ult  or  Jtuttug  (pi.  ^ulte)  cult, 
tJtumpf  or  ^ump  (N.G.)  basin,  JturS  exchange,  course,  Jtur  share 
in  a  mine,  *  8ad?3  salmon,  £acf  lac,  JJa^n  plate-wire,  £aud>  leek,  ilaut 
sound,  %o$  (provinc. ;  also  neut,  pi.  £61)er)  coppice,  £oldj  cockle, 
or  £orf  (N.G.)  toad,  *«ud;a  lynx,  tfitmp  (79.  i.  a),  £un$  (pi.  also 
lunch,  £urcf?  batrachian,  a)iaat  mate  (naut.  term),  Wltfy  night- 


76  STRONG  DECLENSION  60.1.5. 

mare,  SWafl  (79.  i.  a],  1 SKafc  Mat,  little  fool,  SKotyn  poppy,  2>tof)r  moreen, 
WlolAj  salamander,  3)?onb  (see  83),  2ftorb  (pi.  SWotbe  £/Ws  q/"  murder, 
pi.  2ftorbtcitcu  ozs<?s  o/"  murder),  3)foft  unfermented  wine,  2)hicf  half- 
audible  sound,  i  2JJiif  (also  a  wk.  fern,  bic  3Kuffe)  muff,  *  3Wunb  (pi. 
also  SKunber)  mouth,  2)iurf8  (pop.)  dirty  or  contemptible  fellow,  2ttu£ 
(sometimes  wk.)  bobtail,  bear,  stupid  fellow,  short  coat,  jftorb  north- 
wind,  Df)m  (also  neut.)  aam,  Dim  proteus,  Drt  (pi.  sometimes  Drter, 
in  early  N.H.G.  also  Drte ;  in  early  N.H.G.  also  neut,  now  rarely 
so)  place,  Dfl  east-wind,  t$ad)t  (see  71.  i.  a),  $aft  (pi.  sometimes  wk., 
especially  in  (S^epaftcn  marriage-contract)  agreement,  93arf  (pi.  more 
commonly  $atfg)  park,  $art  (also  neut.)  part,  t$ofd?  doublets,  $fau 
(79.  i.  a),  $Pfropf  (79.  i.  a),  *$fu$I  pool,  $od)  rap,  %ol  pole  (north  and 
south),  5^ortport,  t$rafym  (also  a  wk.  fern,  bic  ^Srat;me) praam,  ferry-boat, 
$ratt  shock,  s^u!0  pulse,  t^untp  (colloq.;  pi.  also  ^urnpg)  loan,  $unft 
point,  *$unfd)  punch,  $utfd)  revolutionary  attempt,  $ufc  (pi.  rare 
except  in  compounds,  as  Jtopfpii^e  different  styles  of  head-dress) 
adornment,  *DuaIm  vapor,  thick  smoke,  Ouarj  quartz,  *  Oitafl  (more 
commonly  a  wk.  fern,  bie  Duafte)  tassel,  0tap§  sharp  rap,  9k^  (83), 
Olaut>  (pi.  rare)  robbery,  *9Rofi  grate  (of  a  stove),  *9tucf  jerk,  0iiif  call, 
*3lufdj  rush  (plant),  Otutfd?  land-  or  snow-slide,  @alm  (sometimes 
wk.)  young  salmon,  (Sarnt  velvet,  tSdjad^t  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  shaft 
(in  mine),  t<Sd)a!f  rogue,  wag,  *<8d)atl  sound,  t^cfyaufc  bundle  of  straw, 
@d7lamv  (pop.)  feast,  train  (of  a  dress),  untidy  man,  ©cfylafcS  lout, 
t@d)Iot  chimney,  t€>d)Iucf  swallow  (of  water,  &c.),  <5cfyluf(f)  hiding 
place,  hole  through  which  an  animal  can  slip,  @d)IumV  (pop.  N.G.) 
lucky  chance,  t<8d)ma£  smack,  @d}mucf  (pi.  more  commonly  <2d?mucf* 
fact^en)  ornament,  @^mul  (colloq. ;  pi.  also  ©c^miilg)  Jew  (contempt.), 
6d)mu3  (pop.  and  colloq.)  foolish  talk,  Scfyof  flock  (of  teals),  @ci?orf 
scab,  *  <Scl;ojj  shoot,  branch,  @d)rat  sylvan  spirit,  *  ©cfyuft  scamp,  @d}u^) 
shoe,  <Sd)u^(g)  (N.G.)  or  <5d;uv>f  (S.G.)  shove,  *  <2dwrj  apron  (for  men), 
<2d)trald)  opening  (in  a  furnace),  t<Sdjroa§  gossip,  <2d)irof  (colloq.)  dance, 
hop,  Sijarct,  better  <Sd)a(  (pi.  usually  <8d)als)  shawl,  <BMf  scalp,  <£ob 
(pi.  sometimes  <Sobe,  (Sober)  boiling,  (£03  wake  (of  a  ship),  (Spnlt  split, 
(Spann  instep,  @^at  spar,  @porn  (79.  i.  a),  ®£rojj  (79.  i.  a),  <8puf  ghost, 
(Spunt  (naut.  term  ;  sometimes  neut.)  a  small  piece  of  timber,  (Stafyl 
(see  Note),  (Stafg  (N.G.)  lean  and  awkward  person,  <£tar  (sometimes 
wk.)  starling,  (Start  (pi.  usually  (Starts)  start,  (Stod:  story  (of  a  house), 
@toff  stuff,  ©topf  stopper,  darned  place,  ©tranb  strand,  <8traup 
(usually  here  in  first  meaning,  sometimes  however  wk.,  usually  in 
the  3rd  cl.  in  the  second  meaning,  always  in  the  3rd  or  in  pop. 
language  4th  cl.  in  the  last  meaning)  ostrich,  combat,  bouquet, 
(Strold;  vagabond,  <Stropp  strop,  @tupg  (colloq.  N.G.)  or  ©tupf  (colloq. 
S.G.)  prick,  punch,  blow,  <8tu§  short  rifle,  *@ub  brewing,  @unb 
sound,  strait,  £aft  taffeta,  Sag  (sometimes  3rd  cl.  in  S.G.)  day,  $aft 
time,  measure  (in  music),  3^alg  tallow,  £alf  talc,  5"ang  tang,  3apg  clumsy 
fellow,  Sa§  (N.G.)  heap  (of  sheaves),  *Saufd)  (pi.  rare)  exchange, 
S^ron  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  throne,  3^Da|l  toast,  health,  Job  (pi.  £obe 
kinds  of  death,  but  S'obeSfdUe  cases  of  death]  death,  £on  clay,  Jopp  (pi. 
more  commonly  £o£ps)  top  (of  mast),  t£orf  peat,  piece  of  peat,  Soft 
(provinc.)  tuft,  Sraft  tract,  stretch,  Stran  train-oil,  Srap  trass, 


69.2.C.    SECOND  CLASS  OF  STRONG  DECLENSION     77 

crank,  $vofl  (also  wk.)  hobgoblin,  boor,  Xrofcfy  crest  of  feathers, 
$ro§  crowd,  gang,  ZruW  (83),  Siiff  tuff,  $ufcf  (nom.  also  Silken)  dot, 
spot,  £ufd?  flourish  of  trumpets,  lllf  joke,  Itr  urus,  5BaI  whale,  SBalm 
hipside  (of  a  roof),  SBarl  swivel-hook,  2Bar£  kedge,  2Bart  warder, 
3Bau  weld,  fJEBuIfi  (also  fern.  3rd  cl.)pad,  bustle,  roll,  3«W  bald-coot, 
3ott  inch,  3orn  (pi.  rare)  anger,  3urf  jerk,  twitch,  3"fy  sucking-bag. 


This  list  can  be  increased  by  adding  (i)  other  nouns  denoting  materials, 
plants,  and  animals  ;  (2)  a  large  number  of  technical  and  provincial  words  ;  (3)  a  few 
more  foreign  monosyllables.  The  plurals  of  nouns  in  the  first  group  do  not  usually 
denote  different  pieces  or  plants,  but  different  varieties  or  grades  of  the  material,  or 
different  varieties  of  the  species  :  bet  Gtiarj  quartz,  pi.  duarje  different  kinds  of  quartz. 
Differentiation  of  meaning  takes  place  sometimes  in  the  plural  between  the  mutated 
and  unnfutated  form  :  @taf)t  steel,  pi.  ©tdfite  butcher's  steels,  pi.  <StaIj(e  different 
kinds  of  steel.  See  also  06.  2. 

2.  Masculine  disyllabics  and  polysyllables  : 

a.  A  number  of  derivatives,  the  first  component  of  which  is  a 
prefix  and  the  second  a  monosyllabic  noun  which  is  rarely  found 
as  an  independent  word,  or  as  such  does  not  belong  to  this  class  : 
SBefetyl'  command,  2?ege§r'  (also  neut.)  demand,  desire,  Setyuf  purpose, 
sfiericfyt'  report,  SBefcfyeib'  answer,  information,  33efud)'  visit,    SBerceis' 
proof,  (Srfolg'  success,  *(5rlaf?  '  (2l6Iaf?  indulgence  granted  by  the  church, 
9lbetlajj  bleeding,  Qlnlafi  cause,  occasion,  always  with  mutation  in  the 
pi.  ;  Durdjlafj  culvert,  (Sinlafi  entrance,  more  commonly  with  mutation, 
5)iad?Iafi  bequest,  that  which  is  left  behind  after  death,  sometimes  with, 
sometimes  without  mutation  in  the  pi.)  decree,  ©rrcerb'  acquisition, 
gain,  ©emaf)l'  (also  neut.  in  the  meanings  husband,  wife,  especially 
the  latter)  husband,  ©efyan'  (sometimes  wk.)  comrade,  ©efyan'  in 
Hungary  a  count,   high   official,   ©efpong'   (also  wk.  ;   also  neut, 
especially  in  the  meanings  bride,  wife  ;  now  rare,  usually  employed 
in    humorous    language)   bridegroom,    husband,    ©eirafyr'fam   safe 
keeping,  ©eininn'  or  ©eroinfi'  gain,  herein'  society,  93ergleid?'  com- 
parison, 33erfyacf  or  93etf;au'  abattis,  *23erluft/  loss,  aSerjud/  attempt, 
experiment,  33enx>et3'  reproof,  SJkrjtcfyt'  renunciation. 

b.  A  few  compounds  the  last  component  of  which  is  rarely  found 
as  an   independent  word   or  as  such  does  not    belong   to   this 
class:    *5litfrut)r  uproar,  revolt,  •H?anS»urji  buffoon,  3nfult/  insult, 
aWitnrod)  Wednesday,  9kd)njetg  proof,  ttnfiolb  mischievous  being,  fiend, 
llnterfcfyluvf  shelter,  93telfrafj  glutton,  *$acf  in  compounds  (as  2>rei$acf 
trident),  *3urcad?8  increase,  3rci*f>acf  (pi.  also  3roie&acfe)  piece  of  cold 
toast. 

c.  A  number  of  disyllabic  or  polysyllabic  nouns  with   accent 
upon  the  first  syllable  which  do  not  have  component  elements  of  an 
appreciable  meaning,  but  are  made  up  of  elements  not  distinctly 
felt,  whether  it  be  from  the  fact  that  they  have  been  in  the  course 
of  time  corrupted,  or  because  they  are  of  an  origin  that  is  not 
clearly  felt,  including  a  number  of  foreign  words  :  -Menb  evening, 
vHfyorn  maple-tree,  Slm&op  anvil,  QltlaS  (pi.  ^Itlafje,  also  QUIan'teu  in  the 
second  meaning)  satin,  atlas,  iBal'fant  (pi.  also  SBaljVme)  balm,  akftarb 
(pop.  9?oflevt,    pi.   3?afterte)   and   SBaufert   (vulg.)  bastard,    ajrtiutujam 
intended,  SBuffarb  buzzard,  £>errctfd)  dervish,  @ibam  (poetic)  son-in-law, 
Jetifc^  fetish,  4?ageftolj  (also  wk.)  bachelor,  «§arnifd)  armor,  -Oerolb  herald, 


78  STRONG   DECLENSION  69.2.<r. 


(see  71.  i.  c.  (2)),  Jtofcalt  cobalt,  Jtofcolb  (see  245.  I.  15.  a.  Note) 
hobgoblin,  £eid?nam  corpse,  Dtyeim  or  Dfym  uncle,  $aflafd?  heavy  cavalry 
sword,  (Stiegltfc  (sometimes  wk.)  goldfinch,  Sa'baf  (also  $a6af)  to- 
bacco, SBaflad)  (also  wk.)  gelding,  SBiebe^ofcf  hoopoe. 

d.  A  few  onomatopoetic  formations  :   ,Jttefci£  lapwing,  j?u<fucf  (pi. 
also  JtitcfucfS)  cuckoo,  llfyu  (pi.  also  llfyug)  horn-owl. 

e.  A  small  but  growing  number  of  loose  compounds  (see  249. 
II.  2),  as  @:prtnginSfelt>  romp,  ©uefinbieroelt  greenhorn,  £c.  :  ©udinbiercelte 
(Storm's  Viola  tricolor,  II.  p.  71).     Most  compounds  of  this  kind 
still  prefer  non-inflection  :   afle  $f)atifaer  imb   ©ernegroj?  (Fontane's 
Stechlin,  XXXII.  p.  398).     See  also  80.2.  ^ 

3.  Masculine  derivatives  formed  by  the  aid  of  unaccented  suffixes 
other  than  those  employed  in  the  first  class  and  =tunt  of  the  fourth 
class,  namely,  those  in  ?at,  *(i)cfy,  =id}t,  4g,  =ing,  *linQ,  *\%,  =rid?,  &c.  : 
2ftonat,  JHettirt),  -gabicfat,  grilling,  sJBegertcfy,  &c. 

Also  usually  unaccented  masculine  foreign  suffixes,  as  *al,  =tan, 
*h>,  &c.,  except  those  in  79.  2  and  71.  4  :  $lu'ral  (also  $lutaf  ),  ©ro'fctan, 
<Su'perlati»  (also  6itperlatis/),  &c.  Also  some  of  those  in  79.  2  are 
trending  in  this  direction  ;  see  79.  2.  d. 

4.  A  few   feminines  :  a  number  in  *nt8  and   *\&\,  as  95etruBni3, 
2)rangfal,  &c.  ;     (Spfyinr   sphinx,    5lnana3  (pi.   =ffe  or   uninfl.)  pine- 
apple, ©afyinr  salpinx. 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  feminines  in  -.y\&  and  ;fal  were  also  inflected 
weak  after  the  analogy  of  other  feminines  that  do  not  suffer  mutation  in 
the  plural:  SBerftefyet  jt  biefe  gletcfyniffm  (now  usually  neut.)  nidjt?  (Mark  iv.  13). 
SBarnm  fliefye  id)  Xriibfalen  ?  (Lessing). 

5.  Neuters  : 

Historical  Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  neuters  might  have  their  nom.  and  ace.  pi. 
exactly  like  the  nom.  sing.:  meilte  QtaWe  (graue)  ^>ar  (=»^)aare,  acc.pl.;  Gen.  xlii. 
38).  This  former  manner  of  inflecting  the  pi.  is  still  very  common  in  one  construction, 
namely,  where  nouns  are  used  as  weights  and  measures,  as  fedj$  5>fimb  six  founds; 
see  96.  4.  1.  Here,  however,  the  uninflected  forms  of  the  nom.  and  ace.  pi.  have 
spread  to  the  gen.  and  dat. 

The  present  plural  ending  e  of  the  following  neuter  groups  is  after  the  analogy  of 
the  masculines  in  this  same  class.  See  also  b.  Note,  below,  and  67. 

The  following  neuters  belong  here  : 

a.  All  ending  in  =tcbt,  ^nig,  =fa*:  2>itf»d)t  thicket,  Sreignig  event, 
(scfrcffal  fate. 

b.  All  beginning  with  ge*  and  not  ending  in  *e,  =el,  *er,  as  ©efefc  law, 
except  the  few  in  74.  4. 

Note.  Nouns  in  this  group  had  in  an  earlier  period  both  in  the  nom.  sing,  and  pi. 
an  e,  which  was  originally  not  a  case  ending  but  a  part  of  the  stem.  Thus  this  group 
was  once  identical  with  the  words  of  the  form  ©e  —  e  (as  in  ©ebttfle)  in  the  First  Class. 
The  words  in  this  group  were  separated  from  the  others  by  dropping  the  e  of  the  nom. 
sing.,  so  that  the  e  which  remained  in  the  nom.  pi.  was  construed  as  a  pi.  ending. 
The  words  whose  root  syllable  ended  in  b,  b,  Q,  and  $,  usually  retained  the  e  in  the 
sing.,  the  others  dropped  it:  ©ebdube,  ©ebirge,  but  ©ebeK,  &c.  The  e  which  was 
once  in  the  sing,  of  these  words  was  originally  an  i,  and  hence  the  mutation  in  most 
of  these  words:  ©efpradj  (O.H.G.  gisprachi). 

c.  The  majority  of  monosyllabic  neuters.    ,  Among  these  words 
are  many  names  of  materials  the  plurals  of  which  we  translate  by 
kinds  or  grades  of',  see  i.b.Note,  above.     The  list  is  as  follows: 
213  (beg  Qlffeg,  pi.  bte  5lffe)  ace,  SBarf  (also  a  wk.  fem.)  forecastle,  29eer 


69. 5.  *.  SECOND  CLASS  OF  STRONG  DECLENSION      79 

(in  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  dialects  as  in  the  works  of  Rosegger; 
now  a  wk.  fern,  in  the  form  of  bie  S3eerc,  which  is  in  fact  the 
old  pi.)  berry,  93cet  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  bed  (in  a  garden),  23eil  axe 
(with  short  handle),  SBein  leg,  2Mer  beer,  SBlei  lead,  9Boot  (pi.  often 
936te)  boat,  33rau  (71.  a),  SBrot  (pi.  sometimes  SBrote)  loaf  of  bread, 
SBunb  bundle,  bunch,  2)erf  deck,  ®ing  (83),  2>ocf  (pi.  more  commonly 
2)o(fs)  dock,  (Scf  (in  use  earlier  in  the  period  and  still  occasionally 
found  ;  now  usually  restricted  to  compounds  such  as  £)tetecf  triangle, 
&c. ;  elsewhere  now  replaced  by  the  wk.  fern.  (Jcfe)  corner,  (£rj  ore, 
g-ett  hide,  ftenn  fen,  gefl  festival,  ftett  fat,  ftjefl  (or  frjelb)  elevated 
plain  (in  Scandinavia),  ftlcufy  flat  bottom  of  a  boat,  $Ieet  (N.G.)  navig- 
able canal,  5%  horizontal  stratum,  Brett  ferret,  ©am  yarn,  ®a3  gas, 
©ift  poison,  ©leig  track,  ©luef  happiness,  ©olb  gold,  ©ramm  gram,  ©ran 
(see  i.  £,  above),  @ro3  (feeS  ©roffeg,  pi.  bie  ©roffc)  gross,  £aar  hair,  «£aff 
(pi.  also  «&affS)  fresh  water  bay  (along  the  Baltic),  £arj  gum  (of  tree) 
4?erf  stern,  ^>eer  army,  «§eft  note-book,  «£e^l  (also  masc.)  secret,  «§eU 
happiness,  salvation,  £irn  brain,  3ai)r  year,  3ocfy  (also  a  pi.  3ocf)er, 
a  mining  term  used  of  certain  beams)  yoke,  Jtirm  chin,  Jtlijj  (pi.  also 
Jtltp)  cliff,  Jtnie  knee,  ^rcuj  cross,  Jtuff  (also  a  wk.  fern.  Jtiiffe)  koff, 
Jtummet  or  ^umt  hame,  Sanb  (83),  JJauit  (earlier  in  period  with  the 
plurals  Hufcer  or  £cw6e  in  the  first  meaning,  now  usually  in  the  second 
meaning  without  pi.)  leaf,  foliage,  £ecf  (also  masc.)  leak,  iMefd?  flowering 
rush,  £ob  (pi.  usually  ^obeSetfyehmgen  or  tfofcfaritcfye)  praise,  £og[g]  (ship's) 
log,  SoS  lot,  Sot  plumb-line,  SFtcfy  (see  74.  i),  Wlafyl  (pi.  more  com- 
monly SKa'fjIer)  repast,  3KaI  (pi.  more  commonly  SWtiler,  but  always 
SWerfmale  characteristics,  SCBunbcnmale  scars,  SWgelmale  marks  of  nails) 
mole,  mark,  sign,  Wlal  time  (two,  three  times,  &c.),  Wlalft  malt,  3Wap 
measure,  Wlm  sea,  2D?e^t  flour,  SKoor  moor,  SWooS  (pi.  2ftbfer  swampy 
lands)  moss,  2Ku3  (pi.  also  SWufer)  stewed  fruit,  9te$  net,  9tocE  yard-arm, 
D^r  eye  (of  a  needle),  Dl  oil,  ^8aar  pair,  $ec^  pitch,  $fetb  horse,  ^funb 
pound,  tyult  desk,  Ouart  quart,  Oie^t  right,  9ftecf  horizontal  bar, 
JHeep  rope  (naut.  term),  9teff  reef  (in  a  sail),  9te^  doe,  3tei^  empire, 
Sftteb  (pi.  sometimes  Otiebcr)  reed,  swampy  land,  Olieg  ream,  9ftiff  reef 
(of  rocks),  9lo^r  (pi.  rarely  Otbfyre)  reed,  pipe,  3fto|}  (pi.  in  early 
N.H.G.  0tof[er,as  in  Deut.  xvii.  16;  still  so  in  Austria,  as  in  Rosegger's 
Martin  der  Mann,  p.  80)  horse,  steed,  3Runb  (sometimes  masc.)  circle, 
@alj  salt,  6d}of  sheep,  (Scfyaff  (provinc. ;  pi.  sometimes  ©gaffer) 
tub,  @^a^))  (N.G.)  case,  cupboard,  <Sdriff  ship,  ©cfytlf  (sometimes 
masc.)  reed,  @djleet  thin  tree,  ©cfyorf  three-score,  6*ott  (pi.  also 
wk.)  bulkhead,  @cfyrot  (sometimes  masc.)  cylindrical  block,  <£d?irab 
(sometimes  masc.  and  cl.  str.,  or  wk. ;  nom.  also  sometimes  bie 
<§cfyivabe  or  ber  <8cfyroaben)  swath,  <2d)njein  hog,  @eit  rope,  <Sieb  sieve, 
<£tl[l]  (also  wk.  fern.  @il[IJe  or  @iele)  breast-piece  of  a  breast  harness, 
©piel  play,  <£pitt  capstan,  (Spinb  (79.  i.  b),  (Spriet  sprit,  (Stag  stay  (naut. 
term ;  pi.  also  StagS),  <§tiicf  (pop.  often  @tuct ;  pi.  sometimes  (Sturfen, 
pop.  (Stucten  and  (Studer)  piece,  $au  heavy  rope,  Seil  share,  $ief  deep 
channel,  canal,  Jier  animal,  $or  gate,  Suc^  cloth,  23iety  (74.  i),  93Iie8 
fleece,  2Batt  (pi.  also  SBatten)  shallow  place  bordering  upon  the  shore 
only  covered  at  high  tide,  2Bel?I  (also  masc. ;  also  fern.  SBefyle)  deep 
place  wrought  by  the  waves,  water-gall,  2B?fyr  dam,  SBcrft  (more 


80  STRONG  DECLENSION  69. 5.  c. 

commonly  a  wk.  fern.)  wharf],  2Berf  work,  SBort  (83),  ffiracf  (pi.  also 
SSracfe)  wreck,  3«l*  (pi.  sometimes  fylten,  Setter)  tent,  3eug  (in  early 
N.H.G.  also  masc.)  stuff,  troop  or  army  (early  N.H.G.),  %id  goal, 
3inf  (sometimes  masc. )  zinc,  Qinn  tin,  and  a  few  more  names  of 
materials  and  a  few  technical  terms. 

d.  A  few  derivatives  and  compounds  the  final  component  of 
which  does  not  exist  as  an  independent  noun,  or  as  such  does  not 
belong  to  this  class:   2tntlifc  (poetic)  face,  QlugenmerE  aim,  SBefifif' 
(pi.  often  SBepecfs)  knife  and  fork,  SarleJjn  (now  usually  2>arte1)en,  ist 
cl.  str.)  loan,  -gunbert  hundred,  JUeinob  (79.  i.  b),  £eilacfy  (pi.  also  wk.) 
sheet,  Oturfgtat  backbone,  Scwfenb  thousand,  Urteit  judgment,  SSerliefj' 
dungeon,  23erftecf' (sometimes  masc.)  hiding-place,  23 ielflacfy  polyhedron, 
SSottblut  thoroughbred  horse. 

e.  A  few  disyllabics  the  component  parts  of  which  do  not  have 
an  appreciable  meaning :  £>ufcenb  dozen,  2ftamnwt  (pi.  also  2Rammut§) 
mammoth,  SKeffing  brass,  $etfd?nft  seal,  Sefcfying  (sometimes  masc.; 
pi.  also  Sefcfyingg)  a  gun  of  very  small  bore. 

6.  A  few  loose  compounds  (see  80. 2) :  3}ergt§meinnid?t  forget-me- 
not,   £e6ercof;t  farewell.     Non-inflection  or  a  form  in  *8  is  more 
common  here  in  the  plural,  and  non-inflection  is  also  found  some- 
times in  the  singular ;  see  80.  2. 

7.  A  large   number  of  foreign  words  accented  upon  the  last 
syllable.     The  striking  feature  of  these  words  is  the  very  strong 
preponderance  of  neuters.     Almost  all  the  neuters  in  the  language 
accented  upon  the  last  syllable  belong  here,  except  a  few  in  74.  5 
and  79.  2.  e  and  f,  and  a  number  of  words  in  these  groups  are 
trending  in  this  direction. 

In  some  of  these  foreign  words  there  is  a  tendency  to  shift  the 
accent  upon  the  first  syllable  after  the  manner  of  German  words. 
Some  take  occasionally  the  plural  in  *3  instead  of  the  regular 
ending  *e,  as  bie  ©taoeitrS  instead  of  the  more  common  ©raseure. 
In  general,  however,  there  is  now  a  strong  tendency  in  choice 
language  to  discard  =8  in  favor  of  the  German  ending  e. 

To  this  group  belong : 

a.  Masculines  and  neuters  ending  in  accented  ag,  aft  at,  ct  (ft),  et, 
it,  ifi,  it,  itt;,  fl,  ng,  og,  otn,  op,  oft,  $$,  pt,  tt,  ut,  only,  however,  when  they 
represent  things,  for  nouns  which  have  these  same  endings  are 
weak  when  they  represent  persons  or  other  living  beings :  bet 
©ranit'  granite,  teS  ©ranite',  but  ber  sBanbtt'  bandit,  beS  aSanbi'ten,  &c. 
For  exceptions  see  76. 1.  4.  a.  Note. 

The  list  of  the  above  endings  is  not  complete,  but  in  general  it 
holds  good  that  masc.  and  neut.  nouns  accented  upon  the  last 
syllable  belong  here  if  they  represent  lifeless  objects. 

b.  Masc.  and  neut.  nouns  representing  either  beings  or  things 
ending  in  accented  at  (see  Note  i),  an  (see  Note  2),  an,  ar  (see  Note  2), 
dr,  aft,  em,  ert,  eur  (pronounce  6r),  ier,  i"o,  It,  mm,  ot,  on  (see  Note  2),  or, 
and  the  sibilants  8,  f,  x,  j :  genual' pen-case,  ^ttmiral',  JUtyfUer'  clyster, 
Officer'  officer,  £c.     Occasionally  the  accent  shifts  upon  the  first 
syllable  after  German  fashion :  ber  &08i'jxt$  compass,  teg  Jtompaffe», 
&c.     But  if  the  sibilant  was  originally  unaccented  the  word  does 


71.i.a.  SECOND  CLASS  OF  STRONG  DECLENSION    81 

not  belong  here  :  ber  •ftonfeng7  consent,  beg  .Ronfen'feg,  but  aWu'ftf'ug  (82) 
musician,  beg  SPhiftfug. 

Note  i.  A  few  foreign  nouns  in  ;al'  belong  to  the  third  class,  and  several,  as 
Slbmirat,  fluctuate  between  the  two  classes,  but  the  tendency  is  toward  non-mutation; 
see  71.  4. 

Note  2.  A  few  nouns  representing  living  beings  are  weak :  Ulan'  uhlan,  SSetercm' 
veteran,  SBatfcat'  barbarian,  Jpufar'  hussar,  ©djolat'  (archaic)  pupil,  Slutixfytfiott'  (also 
2lutod)tc'ne)  autochthon,  2)iafon'  (sing,  also  str.)  deacon.  A  few  others  fluctuate  between 
the  strong  and  the  weak  inflection,  but  the  former  is  gaining  upon  the  latter. 

Note  3.  Rafter7  and  Setter'  sometimes  form  the  irregular  plural  *JJaflore,  denote; 
see  71.  4.  If  Rafter  is  accented  upon  the  first  syllable,  which  is  more  common,  it 
does  not  belong  here  at  all,  but  to  the  group  in  79.  2.  a.  Rafter'  is  sometimes  weak. 

c.  The  isolated  masc.  Sfyaraf'ter  character  has  the  accent  upon 
the  final  syllable  of  the  stem  only  in  the  pi.,  SljaratVre,  but  in  the 
language  of  the  common  people  the  pi.  is  (Sfyaraf'ter,  and  the  word 
with  them  has  thus  passed  over  into  the  ist  cl. 

General  Note.  It  will  be  observed  by  even  a  glance  at  the  preceding  groups  that 
some  of  them,  especially  the  masc,  monosyllabics  and,  to  a  less  extent,  masc.  di- 
syllabics  and  polysyllables,  stand  under  the  influence  of  the  3rd  cl.,  the  mutation  in 
the  pi.  spreading  from  that  class  by  analogy  to  this.  Thus  a  number  of  words  are 
uncertain  in  their  pi.,  and  it  cannot  easily  be  determined  whether  the  regular  pi. 
without  mutation  or  the  new  one  with  mutation  is  the  more  common,  but  at  present 
the  tide  has  turned  and  in  general  the  drift  is  toward  the  unmutated  forms.  See  71.  i.  a. 
Note.  Earlier  in  the  period  a  number  of  the  words  belonging  to  7  were  entirely  or 
partially  weak:  bet  Oioman  (pi.  wk. ;  sing.  str.  except  in  compounds:  beg  {Romans, 
but  iRotttanenljelbin),  93aron  (wk.),  @pion  (wk.),  JMof  (wk.);  bag  Sltom  (wk.), 
(Sptgramm  (str.  in  sing.,  wk.  in  pi.),  ^Ijantctn  (str.  in  sing.,  wk.  in  pi.),  &c.,  all  now  in 
and  cl.  sir. 

70.  Models  of  Inflection  for  Second  Class : 

Singular. 

Qlrm  arm,  m.  ©efdngnig  prison,  n.  S)rangfal  distress,  f. 

N.  ber  Qlrm  bag  ©efdngmg  bie  S)rangfal 

G.  beg  9irm(e)3  beS  ©efdngniffeS  ber  2)rangfat 

D.  bent  QJrm(e)  bent  ©efdngniS  (or  *niffe)          ber  2)rangfal 

A.  ben  Qlrm  baS  ©efdngniS  bie  2)rangfal 

Plural. 

N.  bie  Qtrme  bie  ©efangntffe  bie  £>rangfale 

G.  ber  Qlrme  ber  ©efdngniffe  ber  2)rangfale 

D.  ben  Airmen  ben  ©efangmffen  ben  5)rangfalen 

A.  bie  3lrme  bie  ©efdngniffe  bie  £>rangfale 

Note.  Words  in  3  preceded  by  a  short  vowel  double  the  g  when  a  vowel  follows ; 
see  the  inflection  of  ©efanQJiig  above.  Thus  also  bet  3lti$,  be3  3fttfTed;  ber  2lt{a$, 
bed  Sltlaffee,  &c.;  see  also  4.  a.C.a,  p.  17. 

THIRD  CLASS  OF  THE  STRONG  DECLENSION. 

71.  To  this  class,  which  mutate  the  root  vowel  in  the  plural  and 
add  e,  belong : 

i.  The  following  masculine  groups : 

a.  The  following  masc.  monosyllabic  nouns,  which  contain  a 
mutatable  vowel  (a,  o,  n,  an).  Those  marked  with  *  have  sometimes 
an  unmutated  plural,  those  marked  with  t  fluctuate  in  the  plural 
between  mutated  and  unmutated  form.  Qlfct  abbot,  Qtrjt  physician, 
bowl,. 31ft  branch,  S3a$  brook,  SBoIg  skin,  aSafl  ball,  23anb  volume, 

G 


82  STRONG  DECLENSION  71.  i.e. 

SSart  beard,  93afj  bass,  95cmcf)  belly,  95aitm  tree,  aBaufd)  bolster,  pad,  93tocf 
block,  2?ocf  he-goat,  SSranb  fire,  *  33rait  (now  more  commonly  ber  or  bag 
33rdu,  and  cl.)  brewing,  SBraitd)  custom,  SBritd?  fracture,  33rud}  (74.  i),  23ug 
bend,  SBitnb  alliance,  $8uf$  bush,  Gfyor  (see  3,  below),  S)amm  dam,  SDampf 
vapor,  £)arm  intestine,  5)raf)t  wire,  2)rang  impulse,  strong  desire,  t£>rufcty 
thrashing,  S)uft  fragrant  odor,  S)unft  vapor,  B'aKfall,  jfang  catch,  tusk 
(of  boar),  tooth  (of  wolf),  talon,  claw,  $loi)  flea,  *  $Ior  crape,  gauze, 
frto§  (see  3,  below),  5'lucfy  curse,  ^lug  flight,  frlunf  hook,  fluke  (of  an 
anchor),  ftutfj  river,  $racf  (pi.  also  gracfg)  dress-coat,  Srofcfy  frog,  grofi 
frost,  ftuc^S  (S.G.  also  wk.)  fox,  &ujj  (83)  foot,  @ang  walk,  ©aft  guest, 
*®aucf)  (pi.  sometimes  wk.)  cuckoo,  fool,  *®aul  horse,  nag,  ©rimb 
ground,  reason,  ©ru§  greeting,  ®u£i  casting,  t«&ag  enclosure,  fence, 
grove,  «§at)tt  (earlier  in  the  period  also  wk.)  cock,  >§al3  neck,  4?ang 
declivity,  «§of  court,  <§ufc  lift,  <§ut  hat,  -ftatyn  boat,  J?amm  comb,  *Jtam£ 
(pi.  sometimes  wk.)  enclosed  field,  ^am^f  combat,  ^auf  purchase, 
•ftcwj  (earlier  in  the  period  also  wk._  and  and  cl.  str.)  brown  owl, 
fellow,  Jllang  sound,  tJtlapg  slap,  ^lo^  clod,  dumpling,  ^fo§  block, 
t^Ium^  (earlier  in  period  common,  still  in  use  in  N.G.  [in'n  .ftlump 
gefcfyoffen,  Raabe] ;  now  usually  ist  cl.  str.  in  the  form  Jtlumpett; 
both  forms  from  older  wk.  ^lunt^e)  lump,  dumpling,  Jtnaiif  knob, 
Jfrtaiig  (S.G.)  or  t^niiil  (N.G.)  heel  (of  a  loaf  of  bread),  Jtnopf  button, 
J?nuf  cuff  (blow),  ^oc^  cook,  ^og  land  wrested  from  the  sea,  Jtopf 
head,  ^orfc  basket,  ^ram  (now  usually  replaced  in  this  meaning  by 
•ftram&ube  or  Jtramlaben)  booth  (shop),  ^ram^f  cramp,  *  Jtran  (sometimes 
wk. ;  nom.  sometimes  ^ranen)  crane  (machine),  Jtrattj  wreath,  ^ro))f 
craw,  wen,  Jfrug  pitcher,  t^itmpf  (69.  I.  b),  Jiufj  kiss,  %a§  breast- 
cloth,  Sauf  (sometimes,  especially  earlier  in  the  period,  also  Sauft) 
course,  time,  Sofyn  reward,  2Ratft  market,  3Karfdj  march,  t2)?a^  Mat, 
little  fool,  2Ro£8  pug  dog,  t2Jhiff  (69.  i.  b\  9latf  bowl,  t^ac^t  (more 
commonly  a  wk.  fern.)  lease,  rental,  *$acf  pack,  $a£ft  pope,  t$af^ 
doublets,  $ajj  pass,  ty\$l  stake,  $florf  peg,  tyftuQ  plow,  $ftopf  (see  79. 
i.  a),  93Ian  (pi.  earlier  in  the  period  $Iane)  plan,  $la£  place,  $ott(N.G.) 
pot,  t^rofym  (69.  i,  b),  $ro£ft  provost(of  a  church),  rector,  *  $uff  thump, 
t^urn))  (69.  i.b),  Otanft  crust,  Otang  rank,  Otat  councillor,  *0iaud?  (pi. 
rare)  smoke,  £Haum  space,  0lau((^  intoxication,  3totf  coat,  9Rum£f 
trunk,  body,  @aat  room,  @acf  sack,  <Saft  juice,  @ang  song,  (Sarg 
coffin,  @a|  sentence,  <Saum  hem,  <£(^ac^t  (69.  i.  b),  *@c^aft  shaft, 
t@c^alf  (69.  i.£),  @c^a^  treasure,  t@^"t  (69.1.6),  (scfyaum  foam, 
@^Iaf  (pi.  rare)  sleep,  <&&)ltf  (usually  a  wk.  fern,  bte  @cf;Idfe)  temple 
(on  the  head),  <S$tag  blow,  @d^Iauc^  leather  bag,  t<Scf}Iot  chimney, 
t^tucf  (69.  i.  b),  <ScfyIunb  chasm,  <Scfytu£f  hiding  place,  (Scljturf 
gulp,  @cf)Iu§  close,  t  @cfema^  smack,  ScfjmauS  feast,  <2c^napg  whiskey, 
©ci^o^f  tuft  (of  hair,  feathers),  <2d?ofj  lap,  <£cfyranf  case,  press,  <£c^runb 
(also  wk.  fern,  bte  <£d?runbe)  cleft,  <2c^uO,  push,  <£djurf  scratch,  pit, 
opening  (min.),  ©c^itf  shot,  (Scfyitamm  sponge,  (Sctjnjan  (76.  3.  b)  swan, 
<8d?rcang  swing,  (Sc^njanf  prank,  farce,  (Sctyiuanj  tail,  ©c^rcarnt  swarm, 
crowd,  t<2cfyn>afc  gossip,  @c^irul|l  (in  the  first  meaning  also  fem. ; 
see  2,  below)  swelling,  bombast,  (2cfyn:'un9  flight,  soaring,  (Scfyrcur  oath, 
<Sof;n  son,  Span  shaving,  (Spafji  joke,  (Sprucfy  saying,  saw,  "Sprung  jump, 
bung,  @ta6  staff,  @taf;l  (69.  i.  b.  Note),  @tatt  stable,  (Stamrn 


71.2.      THIRD  CLASS  OF  STRONG  DECLENSION       83 

trunk,  tribe,  ©tanb  stand,  rank,  station,  (Btocf  stick,  cane,  <£tord)  (some- 
times wk.)  stork,  (Stojj  push,  pile,  <£trang  rope,  trace,  <8traud?  (pi. 
also  €>trducf)er)  bush,  shrub,  @traujj  (69.  i.  b\  <2trom  stream,  <3ttumpf 
stocking,  *<8trunf  stump,  <£tiu)l  chair,  <8tumpf  short  end,  stump, 
@turm  storm,  (Sturj  (earlier  in  the  period  2nd  cl.  str.)  fall,  @iim£f 
swamp,  $anj  dance,  $on  tone,  Sopf  pot,  t  Sorf  peat,  piece  of  peat, 
Sranf  drink,  $raum  dream,  $rog  trough,  Zrotf  (earlier  in  the  period 
wk.  and  sometimes  still  so)  simpleton,  £rug  (pi.  rare)  deceit,  $rum£f 
trump,  $urm  tower,  33ogt  governor,  steward,  2BaU  rampart,  SBanfi 
paunch,  SOBoIf  wolf,  2Bucb,3  growth,  tSBuIfl  (also  fern. ;  see  2,  below), 
SBunfcfy  wish,  QBurf  throw,  Safyn  tooth,  %anf  (pi.  usually  Sanfereien) 
quarrel,  %aum  bridle,  %ann  hedge,  fence,  $ott  toll,  3<^f  plait  of  hair, 
cue,  3U3  train. 

Note.  This  mutating  group  is  a  little  smaller  than  the  unmutating  mutatable 
group  in  69.  i.  b,  but  it  may  turn  out  to  be  much  smaller,  as  the  latter  group  may 
prove  to  be  larger  than  the  present  enumeration  shows,  as  explained  in  the  Note  under 
69.  i.  b.  The  mutating  group,  however,  contains  a  number  of  very  common  words, 
and  has  thus  naturally  from  the  earliest  historic  times  attracted  to  itself  words  from 
the  other  group.  It  has  thus  been  slowly  increasing  throughout  the  different  periods 
almost  up  to  our  own  time,  but  at  present  mutation  in  this  group  seems  to  be  losing 
ground,  and  a  number  of  words  have  gone  over  to  the  other  group  or  fluctuate  between 
them.  Compare  69.  I.  b.  It  has  also  not  the  prospect  of  attracting  foreign  mono- 
syllabics  that  seems  to  be  before  the  non-mutating  group.  The  former  inflection  of 
some  of  the  words  that  have  come  from  the  non-mutating  group  to  this  class  can  still 
be  seen  in  fossilized  proper  names :  .ftontgSljcfen  (dat.  pi. ;  see  88.  i).  The  pi.  of  Jjpcf 
is  now  elsewhere  uniformly  «£6fe. 

b.  Several  masculines  of  the  form  ®e* :  ©eBraud)  custom,  ©emij? 
enjoyment,  ©erud?  odor,  ©efang  song,  ©efrfjmacf  (pi.  often  ©efcfymdcfer) 
taste,  ©eftanf  stench. 

c.  A  few  derivatives  and  compounds,  the  final  component  of  which 
does  not  exist  as  an  independent  word,  or  as  such  does  not  have 
a  mutated  plural : 

(1)  Derivatives:   SBebadjt  (pi.  rare)  consideration,  93elag  slice  of 
meat  for  a  sandwich,  veneer,  coating,  SBeftanb  amount  on  hand, 
SBetrag  amount,    (Srtrag  yield,  return,  aSerbadfyt  (pi.  rare)  suspicion, 
3Serbru§  vexation,  SSertrag  contract. 

(2)  Compounds :  216*;  5lu§=,  (Sin*,  £anbebr:ucf  (see  £)ru(f  in  83),  Q16-, 
5lber*,  9[n»,  ©urcfc,  @in*,  SRad?Ia§  (6Q.2.a),  9(ntrag  offer,  *9lnroalt  attor- 
ney, SBcitrag  contribution,  £>tebflaf)I  theft,  (Sinrcanb  objection,  •Mpangrourfl 
(69.  2.  b),  sfyanS  Johnny  in  compounds  (as  $rat)U)ang  braggart),  «§erjog 
(earlier  in  the  period  wk.,  later  2nd  cl.  str.,  now  also  3rd  cl.  str. ; 
still  wk.  in  compound  names  of  places,  as  £erjogen&ufcfy)  duke,  earlier 
in  the  period  in  its  original  meaning  leader  of  an  army,  leader, 
captain,  «§odjmut  (pi.  rare)  pride,  2Kar|'c^att  (early  N.H.G.  SWatfdjalfj 
pi.  also  2)iarfcfyaU3)  marshal,  33orrccmb  pretext,  Swefaitf  (69. 2.  b). 

2.  The  following  feminines  :  Qlngjl  (see  a,  below)  anxiety,  3lrmBrufl 
cross-bow,  Qlrt  ax,  33anf  bench,  35raut  bride,  3?runft  fire,  heat,  desire, 
lust,  SSntft  breast,  Saufl  fist,  >ftufyt  in  the  compounds  5lu8fluctyt  evasion, 
3ufUtct)t  (pi.  rare)  refuge,  as  a  simple  noun  and  elsewhere  in  com- 
pounds wk.,  §Iufy  (Swiss ;  see  also  c,  below)  wall  of  rock,  precipice, 
5rud)t  fruit,  ©anS  goose,  ©efcfynnilfl  (less  commonly  Sdjreuljt)  swelling, 
©ruft  vault,  <§anb  hand,  $aut  skin,  JUuft  (sometimes  wk.)  cleft,  .ftraft 

G  2 


84  STRONG  DECLENSION  71.2. 

strength,  Stufy  cow,  *funft  in  compounds  (as  in  ©infunft  income),  J?unft 
art,  JJaug  louse,  Cuft  air,  £ufi  pleasure,  Sftacbt  might,  SWagb  servant 
girl,  SKaug  mouse,  9tacbt  night,  Iftafyt  seam,  9lot  (see  a,  below)  need, 
necessity,  strait,  91ii£i  nut,  @au  (usually  wk.  ;  see  83),  (sdjtucfyt  or  the 
rarer  form  @d)Iuft  (the  former  now  usually  wk.)  defile,  cleft,  ©cfynur  (pi. 
sometimes  wk.)  string,  <Stabt  city,  <Sucbt(Hauptmann's  Heinrich,  i,  i. 
p.  6  ;  usually  wk.)  malady,  2Banb  wall  (of  a  room),  9BuIfl  (also  masc.  2nd 
or  3rd  cl.)  pad,  bustle,  roll,  SSurft  sausage,  Sucfyt  (wk.  in  the  first  two 
meanings)  breed,  brood,  modest  act  that  shows  good  breeding,  3»nft 
guild. 

a.  The  regular  dat.  pi.  9loten  is  used  in  many  idiomatic  expressions,  and  its 
frequent  use  has  led  to  the  erroneous  idea  that  the  plural  throughout  is 
SRoten,  which  is  thus  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  regular  form  9lote.    For 
the  same  reason  we  also  find  the  pi.  Slngjicn  instead  of  Slngfte. 

b.  A  few  irregularities  indicate  a  different  declension  in  a  former  period  : 
abfyom'bm  (dat.  pi.)  lost,  mislaid,  ttotfym'fcen  fetn  to  exist,  bei  §anben  fein  to  be  at 
hand,  and  other  such  fossilized  expressions  ;  2Betfyna<f)tm  (dat.  pi.)  Christmas  ; 
SRadjt  is  regularly  wk.  in  the  two  compounds,  Dfjnmacfct  swoon,  9$o((macfyt  full 
power  to  act  in  all  cases.     In  Goethe's  day  the  simple  word  could  be  wk.  : 
%iit  Sftacfyten  fyruble,  duell',  aug  bemett  Jjjo^tm  (Goethe). 

c.  In  M.H.G.  the  sing,  of  these  feminines  was  not  uninflected  as  now,  but 
the  gen.  and  dat.  added  e  and  the  vowel  suffered  mutation.     This  former 
inflection  can  still  be  seen  in  proper  names,  also  in  a  few  compounds  in 
which  the  first  component  is  a  gen.  :  Jt(au3  »on  bet  glue  (dat.  of  glut))  a 
character  in  Schiller's  Tell  ;    ©attfefcber  feather  of  a  goose,  goose-quill.     In 
a  few  isolated  cases  both  the  nom.  and  gen.  (or  dat.)  forms  of  a  simple  noun 
have  been  preserved,  but  they  are  not  felt  as  nom.  and  gen.,  for  they  have 
become  independent   nouns  with  differentiated  meanings  :    ftafyvt  journey, 
drive,  5af)tte  track,  trace,  scent. 


3.  Two  neuters  :  rHof?  (sometimes  masc.)  raft  and  GHjor  part  of  the 
church  where  the  choir  sit,  also  in  popular  language  crowd,  gang. 
The.  masc.  ber  (Sfjor  is  used  for  the  body  of  singers  and  also  for  the 
song  they  sing.      Here  belongs  often  the  neut.  SSoot  (pi.  SBoote  or 
SSote)  boat  and  sometimes  SBrot  loaf  of  bread,  Sftofyr  pipe. 

4.  A  few  foreign  words  with  accent  upon  the  final  syllable,  but 
sometimes  after  German  fashion  upon  the  first  :  5lltar'  (and  in  earlier 
N.H.G.  OH'tar,  pi.  also  5U'tare)  altar,  SBtfty'of  bishop,  Gfcoral'  hymn, 
©eneral'  (pi.  in  choice  language  more  commonly  ©enera'Ic)  general, 
.Ranal'  canal,  Jtaplan'  chaplain,  JCarbinal"  cardinal,  SKorafl'  (pi.  also 
9Worafte)  morast,  $alaft'  and  ^al'aft  palace.    In  these  words  it  is  the 
second  vowel  that  suffers  the  mutation  :   ber  Qlltar,  pi.  bie  5(Itdre. 
Sometimes  other  foreign  words,  as  5lt>mtral  admiral,  join  this  group, 
but  present  feeling  is  opposed  to  the  mutation  of  foreign  words. 

72.    Models  of  Inflection  for  Third  Class  : 

Singular. 

©otyn  son,  m.  Slof?  raft,  n.  4?anb  hand,  f. 

N.       ber  <Sofyn  bag  5Io§  bie  4?anb 

G.       beS  @o^n(e)3  be8  fttojjcS  ber  <§anb 

D.       bem  @ol)n(e)  bent  ftlofj(e)  ber  -§anb 

A.       ben  @on    '  bag  5lop  bie  «&<mb 


74.1.     THIRD  CLASS  OF  STRONG  DECLENSION        85 

Plural. 

N.     bte  (Sofyne  bie  ftlofie  bte  «§dnbe 


G.     ber  @of)ne  ber  516§e  ber  <§dnbe 

D.     ben  <8of)nen  ben  516§en  ben  «§dnben 

A.     bie  (Soljne  bie  Jlojje  bie  -§dnbe 

FOURTH  CLASS  OF  THE  STRONG  DECLENSION. 

73.  This  class  adds  er  to  form  the  nom.  pi.  and  mutates  the 
root  vowel  if  it  is  capable  of  it  :   bag  93ud;  book,  beg  SBucbg,  pi.  bie 
SBiicfyer.     Those  ending  in  turn  mutate  this  suffix  instead  of  the  root 
vowel  :  bag  -getjogtum  duchy,  pi.  bie  ^erjogtumer. 

a.  The  ending  tw  now  found  in  the  pi.  of  these  words  was  once  sir,  and 
hence  the  mutation.     This  ;ev,  however,  is  probably  not  a  case  ending,  but 
a  derivative  suffix,  and  was  in  earlier  periods  also  found  in  the  sing.     It 
finally  disappeared  in  the  sing,  and  was  then  felt  as  a  pi.  ending.      That 
this  er  is  not  an  inflectional  ending  can  still  be  seen  in  the  pi.  when  the 
diminutive  suffix  ?d)m  or  4cin  is  added  :  Jtinbcfyen  children  or  usually  Jtinbercfyeii. 
In  the  latter  example  cr  would  have  to  follow  d)en,  instead  of  preceding  it,  if 
it  were  really  a  case  ending.   The  cr  is  still  found  in  the  sing,  in  a  few  deriva- 
tives, where,  however,  its  force  is  no  longer  felt  ;    see  245.  II.  3.  a.  Note. 

b.  This  ;cr  as  pi.  ending  is  a  very  popular  one,  and  is  often  used  in  dialect 
or  familiar  humorous  language  with  words  of  the  2nd  or  3rd  class  instead 
of  the  regular  ending  of  those  classes,  as  (Eteiner  for  (Steine  stones,  &c.     A 
number  of  words  fluctuate  between  the  second  class  and  this  class  even  in  the 
literary  language,  as  is  mentioned  in  particular  under  each  class.     Perhaps 
the  forms  in  ft  are  choicer  than  those  in  ;er,  even  sometimes  bordering  upon 
the  poetic,  but  they  are  often  much  less  common  :  £)enfmale  and  £>enfmdlcr, 
©ewanbc  and  ©ewdnbcr.    A  number  of  words  which  now  are  firmly  fixed  here 
were  in  earlier  periods  in  the  second  class,  lacking,  however,  endings  in 
nom.  and  ace.  pi.  ;  see  69.  5.  Historical  Note,  and  74.  i.  a. 

74.  To  this  class,  which  has  no  feminines,  belong  : 

i.  All  other  native  German  neut.  monosyllables  not  found  in  the 
second  class  in  69.  5.  c  and  the  few  in  the  third  class  in  71.  3  and  in 
the  mixed  declension  (see  79.  i.  b\  namely  :  9(ag  (pi.  also  -2lafe)  car- 
cass, Mint  office,  93ab  bath,  ®<ilg  (83),  <8anb  (83),  SBwjt  (pop.)  beast, 
domestic  animal,  93ilb  picture,  93Iatt  leaf,  33ort  (also  a  masc.,  in  3, 
below  ;  also  in  the  form  23orb,  see  69.  i.  a)  shelf,  99rett  (pi.  rarely  23rettc) 
board,  23riicf;  (also  masc.,  pi.  SBrucfye)  bog,  sJ3fid)  book,  S)ad)  roof, 
5>aug  deuce,  5)ing  (83),  £>orf  village,  @i  egg,  ftad)  compartment,  ftdjj 
barrel,  5db  field,  @elb  money,  ©id)t  convulsion,  ©tag  glass,  ®lteb  link, 
©rab  grave,  ©rag  grass,  ©ut  property,  <£aii£t  head,  £aug  house,  >£>emb 
(79.  i.  b),  £0(3  wood,  £orn  horn,  «£ufen  fowl,  Jtalb  calf,  J?inb  child, 
^t(ett)  dress,  Jtorn  grain,  ^raut  herb,  Sainm  lamb,  Sanb  (83),  JMcfat  (83), 
Sib  eyelid,  Steb  song,  Socfy  hole,  £of)  (69.  i.  b),  £ucfy  (sometimes  2nd 
cl.  str.)  marsh,  SKafyl  (69.  5.  c),  2M  (69.  5.  c),  SDiaul  mouth  (of  animals), 
STOenfdj  (83),  Dtefl  nest,  $fanb  pledge,  Oftab  wheel,  3Heig  shoot,  Olicb 
(pi.  usually  3u'ebe)  reed,  Otinb  beef,  <2cfyett  (83),  <Scfytlb  shop  sign, 
©djlofj  castle,  <8d?wrt  sword,  (Stift  endowed  institution,  Sal  (in  poetic 
language  sometimes  and  cl.)  valley,  £ucfy  (83),  &telj  (collective  noun, 
hence  usually  without  pi.  ;  sometimes  referring  to  an  individual, 
occasionally  with  pi.  SIMefje,  but  more  commonly  Q5ie^er  animals,  fig. 
Otinb)?ie(;er  stupid  fellows  ;  colloq.  and  pop.  pi.  33iecfyer  beasts,  'critters') 


86  STRONG  DECLENSION  74.  i. 

cattle,  3SoIf  people,  2Bamg  (sometimes  masc.)  waistcoat,  2Bet6  woman, 
QBort  (83).  Here  also  belongs  Stumm  (also  masc.)  ruin,  fragment. 
Its  plural  is  usually  Sritmmer,  and  only  rarely  Sritmnie  and  Xrumtne. 
The  sing,  is  very  little  used,  and  hence  its  form  is  not  vividly  felt. 
This  has  given  rise  to  new  formations  in  the  sing.  The  usual  plural 
form  is  often  taken  for  a  sing.  This  new  sing,  is  either  fern.,  masc., 
or  neut.  The  pi.  formed  from  this  new  sing,  is  of  course  wk.,  i.  e. 
Srununern,  if  it  is  regarded  as  fern.,  and  is  ist  cl.  str.,  i.  e.  drummer,  if 
it  is  felt  as  a  masc.  or  neut. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  a  number  of  these  words  did  not  suffer  mutation  in  the 
plural  and  were  inflected  after  the  model  of  the  2nd  cl.,  as  described  for  the 
early  N.H.G.  period  in  69.  $.  Historical  Note.  This  can  still  be  seen  in  many 
fossilized  forms,  as  in  Jpaupt  in  names  of  places,  as  Sergfyaupten  (dat.  pi. ;  see 
88.  i) ;  also  in  the  dat.  pi.  form  £duptm  in  a  few  set  expressions,  as  gu 
£duvten  (be$  58ette3,  &c.)  at  the  head  (of  the  bed,  £c.).  In  early  N.H.G. 
•frontyt  had  as  a  rival  the  M.G.  form  £diipt  (O.H.G.  houbit,  and  hence  muta- 
tion), which  still  in  such  expressions  as  the  preceding  survives  in  its  early 
N.H.G.  dat.  pi.  form  «£>dupteu,  which,  however,  in  meaning  has  now  the  force 
of  the  sing.  The  pi.  form  here  is  probably  after  the  analogy  of  ju  5ufjen, 
where  the  plural  has  a  real  meaning. 

2.  All  in  *t\\m,  of  which  two  only  are  masc.  (Srrtiuu  error  and 
9teid)tum  wealth}  and  the  rest  neut. :  bag  Sljrifientum,  &c. 

3.  A  few  isolated  masculines :  SBort  (see  i,  above),  9B6feitid)t  (pi. 
now  perhaps  more  commonly  SBofenricfyte)  rascal,  £>orn(83),  ©etfi  spirit, 
©ott  God,  god,  «£unbgfott  (pi.  «§unbgfotter)  scoundrel,  £etb  body,  9)iann 
man,  2Jhmb  (69.  i.  b\  Drt  (69.  i.  b),  Ouacf  youngest  child,  'kid/  dtanb 
edge,  6traucfy  (71.  i.  a),  ©traiifj  (69.  i.  b),  SSormunb  (in  early  N.H.G. 
wk.  with  form  9Sormunb(e),  later  str.  with  pis.  SSormunbe,  more  com- 
monly QSornumbe,  most  commonly  SSornmnber)  guardian,  2Balb  (see  b) 
forest,  SBurm  (pi.  rarely  SBitrme ;  see  83). 

a.  Masculines  did  not   originally  belong  to  this  class.      Some  of  these 
masculines,  as  £)rt,  ®ott  (M.H.G.  der  got  God,  but  daz  abgot  idol),  were  once 
neut.  as  well  as  masc.,  and  later  retained  the  neut.  pi.  form,  although  they 
dropped  the  neut.  article  in  favor  of  the  masc.      Several  masculines  were 
attracted  into  this  class,  assuming  the  neut.  pi.  after  the  analogy  of  neut. 
nouns  of  a  similar  meaning  :  SBdlber  woods  after  the  analogy  of  ^toljcr  woods  ; 
©eiftev  spirits  after  the  analogy  of  ©otter  gods ;  2Rdnner  men  after  the  analogy 
of  SBetber  women. 

b.  2BaU>  was  formerly  in  the  second  class,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  fossilized 
proper  name  Unterttalben  (dat.  pi.  =  untec  ten  SSdtbern). 

4.  A  few  neuters,  exceptions  to  the  2nd  cl.  (69. 5.  b) :  ©efyatt  (earlier 
and  sometimes  still  masc.  with  pi.  ©exalte)  salary,  ®emad)  room  (of 
a  house),  ©ernut  disposition,  ©eftytecfyt  (poet.  pi.  ®efc!bled)te)  generation, 
©eftd)t(83),  ©efyenft  ghost,  ©eiranb  (pi.  Sometimes  ©ercanbe)  garments, 
©eirolfc  (usually  ©ercotfce,  ist  cl.  str.)  vault. 

5.  A  few  foreign  words :  (i)  exceptions  to  2nd  cl. :  bag  .ftamifof 
(now  usually  2nd  cl.  str.)  jacket,  bag  J?apitaf  or  Jt aptteti'  (both  forms 
usually  2nd  cl.)  capital  of  a  pillar,  JloUett'  (usually  2nd  cl.)  doublet,  ber 
^ennal'  (pi.  sometimes  $ennale,  $ennale;    nom.  sing,  also  ^knndler) 
gymnasium  student,  bag  ^rafent7  (usually  2nd  cl.)  present,  bag  Sftegi* 
ment'  regiment,  bag  @pitalr  or  «§ofpitar  hospital ;  (2)  ber  SBif ing  (pi.  also 
2nd  cl.;  nom.  sing,  also  SBiftnger)  viking. 


76.1.3-  FOURTH  CLASS  OF  STRONG  DECLENSION    87 

75.  Models  of  Inflection  for  Fourth  Class : 

Singular. 

SBucf)  book,  n.  Srrtitm  error,  m.  SBilb  picture,  n. 

N.       bag  $811$                     bet  Srrtitm  bag  SBtlb 

G.       beg  SBu$(e)8                 beg  Srrtuntg  beg  9Bitt(e)g 

D.       bem  aSitdj(e)                 bent  Srrtum  bent  2Bttb(e) 

A.       bag  SBud?    '                 ben  Srrtum  bag  SBilb 

Plural. 

N.  bie  93ud)er  bie  Srrtttmer  bie  SBitber 

G.  ber  Slider  be*  Srrtitmer  ber  SBilber 

D.  ben  SBudjern  ben  Strtumern  ben  9Bitt»ern 

A.  bie  23utf?er  bie  Srrtitmer  bie  SBtlber 

WEAK  DECLENSION. 

76.  I.  The  weak  declension  ends  in  =n  or  *en  (see  61.  b]  in  every 
case  sing,  and  pi.  except  the  nom.  sing.,  and  never  modifies  the  root 
vowel  in  the  pi. :  ber  ^nafce  boy,  beg,  bent,  ben,  pi.  bie,  ber,  ben,  bie  Jtnafcen. 
Feminines  not  being  declined  in  the  singular  have  only  the  plural  of 
this  declension.    To  the  weak  declension  belong : — 

1.  All  the  native  and  foreign  fern,  nouns  in  the  language,  with  the 
following  few  exceptions  :  (i)  2JJutter  and  Softer  in  theirs/  class;  (2) 
those  ending  in  *n\3  and  *fal  in  the  second  class }    (3)  the  list  in  the 
third  class  (see  71.2) ;  (4)  a  few  foreign  words  (see  80.  i  and  69.  4). 

a.  Foreign  fern,  in  ?a  and  t\8  drop  these  letters  in  the  pi.  and  add  ;tn : 
bie  Strata  firm,  pi.  bie  ^inneu  ;  bie  Siafa,  pi.  bie  23afen.  All  in  =tn  double  the 
n  in  the  pi. :  giirfitn  princess,  pi.  SurfHnnen. 

2.  All  masculines  of  two  or  more  syllables  ending  in  unaccented 
*e,  provided  they  represent  persons  or  other  living  beings :  ber  Jtnafce 
boy,  ber  $reu§e  Prussian,  ber  llon:e  lion,  &c.     Also  three  names  of 
lifeless  things  belong  here  :  ber  9Bud)fta(?e  (see  68),  ber  <§trfe  (also  ist  cl. 
str.,  often  with  shortened  form  in  dialect  ber  <§irg;  now  more  com- 
monly fem.  bie  ^ir(e)  millet,  ber  3^nte  tithe.    The  list  of  lifeless  things 
was  once  much  larger ;  see  67. 

3.  The  following  list  of  masculines,  which,  having  no  *e  in  the 
nom.  sing.,  or  having  lost  there  the  e  which  once  belonged  to  them, 
cannot  now  be  recognized  by  an  ending :  Qlfyn  (79.  i);  *2llf  (sometimes 
and  cl.  str.)  elf;  SBdr  (str.  sometimes  in  sing.)  bear ;  SBaijer  Bavarian ; 
SSlaji  (SBIejj ;  also  2nd  cl.  str.)  blazed  horse ;  2?ult  (69.  i.  b) ;  2?urfcr/ (pi. 
not  infrequently  SBitrfcfye)  or  9Burfd?e  young  fellow,  student,  servant ; 
SSufc  (also  3Bu|e  and  SBu^cn  [ist  cl.  str.])  core ;  (Sfyrtji  (but  2nd  cl.  str. 
in  the  meaning  Christmas  present)  Christian ;   SDotmetfd)  (sing,  also 
uninflected,  pi.  also  £)olmetfd?e ;    usually  replaced   by  the  str.  Sot* 
metfcfyer)  interpreter ;  5)rofl  (also  2nd  cl.  str.)  magistrate ;  2)rub  night- 
mare ;  (Sfyefyalt  (early  N.H.G.  and  still  used  in  the  South)  servant ;  <£If 
elf;  5arr  or  more  commonly  ftarre  (both  words  now  little  used)  bull, 
bullock,  in  S.G.  also  draught-ox ;    ftaun  (usually  2nd  cl.  str.)  faun ; 
§er  (more  commonly  2nd  cl.  str.)  fool ;  ftilj  (rarely  wk.,  usually  2nd 
cl.  str.)  miser ;  &ittf  finch ;  granf  (sing,  also  str.,  pi.  also  Sranf gr  nom. 


88  WEAK   DECLENSION  76.1.3. 

sing,  in  Switzerland  8ran!en,  ist  cl.  str.;  see  also  67,  towards  end) 
franc  (coin);  8ra£  (also  str.  in  sing.)  silly  fellow ;  frurft  ruling  prince, 
prince ;  ©ecf  (earlier  in  the  period  also  and  cl.  str.)  vain  fellow ;  ©efeli 
workman,  fellow,  and  with  the  exception  of  ®emafyl(69.  2.  a],  ©efyan 
(69.  2.  a),  and  sometimes  ©efponS  (69. 2.  a)  all  other  masculines  of  this 
form  (i.e.  beginning  with  ®e=  and  not  ending  in  *e)  representing 
persons ;  ©nont  gnome ;  ©raf  count ;  ©reif  (also  2nd  cl.  str.)  griffin ; 
<§ageftofy  (also  2nd  cl.  str.)  bachelor ;  <£>elb  (sometimes  still  2nd  cl.  str. 
as  in  M.H.G.)  hero;  «§err  (fceg  £errn,  pi.  bie  <§erren)  Mr.,  gentleman, 
lord,  master;  «§trt  shepherd;  <§af)enjoller  (also  str.  in  sing. ;  the  form 
>£>of)enjoftern  is  also  used  as  a  collective  noun  inflected  as  a  proper 
name  :  <§ot)enjoftern§  £aten  [Wildenbruch's  Quitzows,  3,  12]  the  deeds 
of  the  family  of  Hohenzollern)  a  member  of  the  House  of  Hohen- 
zollern  ;  Jlafer  (79.  i.  a) ;  JMerla?  (see  79.  i.  a) ;  ^um^an'  (usually  2nd 
cl.  str.)  companion ;  £eu  (dat.  and  ace.  sometimes  £eu;  poetic  word  for 
£6rce)lion;  Sftenfcfy  human  being;  2ftofyr  Moor;  SRitfelmcm  (or  2){iifetmann, 
gen.  *§,  pi.  ^manner)  Mussulman ;  iftacfyfatyr  (sing,  sometimes  str.)  succes- 
sor, descendant ;  0hrr  fool ;  Dfcer ft  (or  more  rarely  Dfcrtfi ;  sometimes 
str.  in  sing.)  colonel ;  DcfyS  ox ;  $arb  panther;  $faff  priest,  parson  (con- 
temptuously) ;  $fau  (also  2nd  cl.  str.)  peacock  ;  ^Jommer  Pomeranian ; 
$rinj  son  of  a  ^iirft ;  $to&  vulgar,  conceited  man  of  wealth ;  Sfteif  (79. 
1.0);  <Scfyecf  dapple  (horse);  <8d}elm  (earlier  in  the  period  wk.  and 
sometimes  so  still ;  now  usually  2nd  cl.  str.)  rogue;  <8dtyenf  cup-bearer; 
@cfyo£§  (usually  2nd  cl.  str. ;  only  rarely  wk.  as  a  simple  word,  but 
regularly  so  in  compounds,  as  in  ©cfyo^fenfleifd))  wether ;  ©enroll  rude, 
coarse  fellow;  (Scfyulttyeifj  mayor  (especially  of  a  small  place);  <8d?icaD 
(69.  5.  c) ;  <8#a£  (also  2nd  cl.  str.,  but  usually  mixed)  sparrow ;  <8pon3 
(now  rare,  usually  found  in  humorous  language)  fiance ;  @£ro£i  (79. 

1.  a) ;    <8teinme£  stone-cutter;    @tieglt|  (usually  2nd  cl.  str.)  gold- 
finch ;  @torr  or  <Storren  (ist  cl.  str.)  stump ;  @to£  or  @to|en  (ist  cl. 
str. ;  both  forms  now  S.G.)  stump,  block  of  wood ;  £ater  (also  ist 
cl.  str.)  gypsy;  $or  fool;  $to£f  (71. 1.0);  ^ritcfyfef?  formerly  one  who 
placed  food  before  his  lord ;  33orfaf)r  (sometimes  str.  in  sing.)  prede- 
cessor, ancestor;  £Beif)  (sometimes  2nd  cl.  str.)  and  2Beit)e  (also  a  wk. 
fern.)  kite  (bird);  SBelf  Guelph;  3^  (sometimes  2nd  cl.  str.)  czar; 
3tt>et£5  (rarely  wk.,  in  compounds,  however,  often  so,  as  in  3^er* 
genfonig — Wildenbruch's  Kb'nig  Laurin,  i,  2,  i ;  usually  2nd  cl.  str.) 
dwarf;  also  a  few  names  of  nationalities  and  famous  families  which 
are  usually  found  only  in  the  plural :  2lngeln  Angles,  Stmfcern  Cimbri, 
0ZiMitngen  (pi.  sometimes  SRtbetunge  as  in  M.H.G.)  Nibelungs,  &c. 
Most  of  the  weak  nouns  denoting  nationalities  have  e  in  the  nom. 
sing,  (as  ber  2)dne  Dane,  ber  9fluffe  Russian,  &c.),  and  hence  belong  to 

2,  above. 

a.  Also  others  sometimes  drop  the  e  of  the  nom.  sing.,  as  bcr  <2>d)ranj  or 
©cfjtanje,  &c.     £irfdj  stag,  Seng  (poetic)  spring-time,  SKai  May,  5Karj  March, 
<&<&m  young  salmon,  Star  starling,  and  ©traufj  ostrich,  are  occasionally  weak, 
but  are  more  commonly  2nd  cl.  str.,  2J?ai  and  2JMrj,  however,  are  still  more 
commonly  uninflected  (see  85.  a},     gudjgyfor  is  sometimes  weak  in  S.G. 

b.  Some  of  the  words  which  used  to  belong  here,  especially  names   of 
living  beings,  after  throwing  off  the  ;e  which  distinguished  them  as  weak, 
drifted  over  into  the  strong  declension,  but  still  show  their  original  weak 


76.  II.  i.  WEAK   DECLENSION  89 

inflection  in  compounds  :  ©reifenatter,  ^afynenfujj,  ©djtoanengefang,  ©ternenfyimtwl, 
&c.,  from  ®mS,  £aljn,  €>d)tt>an,  (Stern,  &c.,  all  now  3rd  cl.  str.  except  the  first 
and  last,  which  are  in  2nd  cl.  str.  For  fuller  statement  see  249.  II.  I.  B.  a. 
Provincially,  especially  in  the  S.W.,  some  of  these  words  which  represent 
animals  are  still  as  simple  nouns  inflected  weak  when  used  as  names  of 
taverns  ;  „  ju  ben  brei  <Scfytt»anen  "  (on  a  sign)  '  At  the  Three  Swans,'  im  -§irf($en 
(see  a,  above),  &c.  The  frequent  use  of  the  oblique  case  ending  ;en  of  these 
weak  nouns  after  prepositions  has  left  the  impression  that  the  words  also 
in  the  nominative  end  in  en,  hence  such  forms  as  ber  <§itfd)en,  bee  ©djttxirje 
IBaren,  bet  '^fatten  (Spitteler's  Conrad,  p.  204),  all  names  of  taverns. 

c.  There  is  a  tendency  for  some  of  the  above  list  of  weak  nouns  to  become 
strong,  which  especially  manifests  itself  in  the  ace. :  !Da  taiterte  einft  ber  nnlbe 
Urgermaue  auf  ben  jotttgen  33dr  (instead  of  93dren)  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap.  xiii). 
Less  frequently  in  the  gen.,  but  sometimes  also  there :  mit  beg  2J?arfgrafg 
2Beib  (Hauptmann's  Schluck  und  Jau,  p.  24),  but  be$  iungen  SWarfgrafen 
SBeib  (ib.). 

4.  Many  masc.  foreign  nouns  : 

a.  Those  ending  in  accented  ag;  ard),  aft,  at,  ct  (ft),  et,  if,  it,  ift, 
it,  itf),  tt,  ng,  og,  om,  op,  oft,  ot,  \fy,  pt,  rb,  tt,  urg,  ut,  only,  however, 
when  they  represent  persons  or  other  living  beings  :  #egat'  legate, 
$ilct'  pilot,  &c. 

Note.  The  following  exceptions  occur :  *pebeu"  (and  cl.  str.  or  wk.)  beadle, 
•§ippogttj£f)'  (2nd  cl.  str.  or  wk.)  hippogriff,  fieopoW  (sometimes  2nd  cl.  str.)  leopard  ; 
the  following  masculines,  which  are  wk.,  though  they  represent  things :  !$)enbrtt' 
dendrite,  JHpJjtfySng'  (also  2nd  cl.  str.)  diphthong,  Jtontet'  comet,  Sftagnet'  (usually  2nd 
cl.  str.)  magnet,  SKoncfftl)'  (also  2nd  cl.  str.)  monolith,  *JJlanet'  planet,  (Satefltt' 
satellite  ;  the  plural  Slnna'len  annals. 

b.  Names  of  peoples  having  a  consonantal  ending  which .  is 
accented  upon  the  last  syllable :  Jtofaf  Cossack,  <§>araje'n(e)  Saracen, 
SBulgoV  Bulgarian,  £c.     A  few  which  have  the  accent  upon  the  first 
syllable  or  on  either  (see  61.  b} :    Un'gar  (sometimes  str.  in  sing.) 
Hungarian,  Coffer  (see  79.  i.  a),  £a(r)tar'  or  $a(r')tar  Tartar. 

c.  Masculines  ending    in   accented    anb,  enb,   ant,  ent,  i3f,  grapfy 
representing  persons  or  things  :  SKuIti^Itfanb'  multiplicand,  2>of toranb' 
one  who  is  passing  his  doctor's  examination,  Jtonfomint'  consonant, 
Dftant'  octant,  ©tubent'  student,  Ouottent'  quotient,  Dteltgf  obelisk, 
Selegrap^7  telegraph,  &c.     Neuters  having  these  endings  belong  to 
the  and  cl.  str. :  Jlompltmmt',  &c. 

Note.  The  above  lists  of  endings  are  not  complete,  but  in  general  all  foreign  nouns 
accented  upon  the  last  syllable  which  represent  persons  or  living  beings  are  weak 
except  those  in  69.  7.  b.  In  familiar  conversation,  however,  this  declension  is,  as 
a  whole,  on  the  decline,  especially  in  the  sing. 

5.  Only  several  isolated  neuters  are  weak  :  QlutograVl)'  (also  in  2nd 
cl.  str.)  autograph,  Ouabru^cb' (also  in  2nd  cl.  str.)  quadruped.  This 
group  was  once  larger;  see  General  Note  under  69.  7.  c. 

II.  i.  In  an  earlier  period  of  the  language  and  often  as  late  as  early 
N.H.G.  the  feminines  were  also  inflected  in  the  singular,  and  forms  showing 
weak  inflection  here  are  often  still  found  in  poetry,  in  prose  in  a  very  few 
set  expressions,  such  as  auf  (Srben  itpon  earth,  and  quite  commonly  in  some 
dialects :  (Sin  werfcret  •£>«!  ftnbet  nicfyts  guts?  |  £>itb  ber  uerferetet  Butigcn  ijl  |  tmrb 
in  vuglurf  fallen  (Prov.  xvii.  20).  Sat)  eitt  Jtnab'  etn  JKoSlcin  fteljn,  |  OfcSfetn  auf  ber 
•§etben  (Goethe's  Hetdenroslein).  In  S.G.  dialect  the  n  of  the  oblique  cases 
has  spread  to  the  nom.,  so  that  singular  and  plural  end  in  en :  @cJ)arf  auf 
ten  £tfd)  fallen  lajfen  mup  cv  ja  bos  ^Bugeteifen,  fonjl  toirb  bte  £ofctt  nid)t  gtatt 


90  WEAK   DECLENSION  76.II.I. 


(Rosegger's  Der  Bauernspottler).  Btoifdjen  IjeraB  gogen  bie  tangen  9?tffeit  (timber- 
slides)  (id.,  Stadt  im  Wald}.  The  dropping  of  the  weak  endings  in  the 
singular  of  feminines,  according  to  usage  in  the  literary  language,  resulted 
originally  from  the  confounding  of  the  feminines  of  the  weak  declension  with 
those  of  the  second  class  strong,  which  always  remained  uninflected  in  the 
sing.  Thus  in  a  strict  sense  there  is  to-day  no  weak  declension  of  feminine 
nouns,  but  only  a  mixed  declension,  as  they  are  usually  strong  in  the  singular 
and  weak  in  the  plural.  In  the  same  manner  the  feminines  of  the  third 
class  strong,  which  were  once  inflected  in  the  sing.,  as  described  in  71.  2.  c, 
became  uninflected  there  after  the  analogy  of  the  second  class,  and  thus  all 
feminines  have  become  uninflected  in  the  sing.  On  the  other  hand,  of  the 
large  number  of  feminines  which  were  originally  in  the  strong  declension 
the  large  majority  have  become  weak  in  the  plural,  leaving  in  the  strong 
declension  only  the  few  that  have  already  been  enumerated  under  the  first 
three  classes. 

2.  Earlier  in  the  period  strong  nouns  have  not  infrequently  the  weak 
genitive  ending  ttn  in  the  plural  :  »ofi  fiijjer  SBorten  itnb  ©ittenfpriicfyen  (Goethe). 
3d)  bin  fo  frof)  unb  guter  3Mngen  (Chamisso).  This  usage  has  entirely  disappeared 
except  in  a  few  adverbial  expressions  :  atterortm  everywhere,  »ielerortert  in 
many  places,  aKertoegen  everywhere,  always. 

77.  Models  of  Inflection  for  the  Weak  Declension  : 

Singular. 

ftnabtboy,  m.         ©recount,  m.       $rau  woman,  f.  fteber/^w,  f. 

N.    ber  Jtnafce  ber  ®raf  bte  8rau  bie  S'eber 

G.     beg  Jlnafcen  beg  ©rafen  ber  Stau  ber  Sreber 

D.     bem  Jlnafcen  bent  ©rafen  ber  ^rau  ber  Stber 

A.     ben  .ftnafcen  ben  ©rafen  bie  8rau  bie  Seber 

Plural. 

N.     bie  .Knafcen  bie  ©rafen  bie  Srrauen  bie 

G.     ber  Jtnafcen  ber  ©rafen  ber  Srauen  ber 

D.     ben  Jtna&en  ben  ©rafen  ben  Straiten  ben  ^ebern 

A.     bie  Jtnafcen  bie  ©rafen  bie  ftrauen  bte  ftebern 

MIXED  DECLENSION. 

78.  This  declension,  which  is  a  mixture  of  the  preceding  and 
foreign  declensions,  falls  into  two  groups  —  one  strong  in  the  sing. 
and  weak  in  the  pi.,  the  other  also  strong  in  the  sing,  but  with  the 
foreign  ending  s  in  the  pi.  :  ber  €>taat  state,  beS  <£taat(e)3,  pi.  bie  ©taaten  ; 
bag  (Sxfyo  echo,  beg  (ScfyoS,  pi.  bte  ©cfyoS.     There  are  but  few  native 
German  words  in  the  mixed  declension,  but  a  large  number  of 
foreign  nouns  in  both  groups,  among  which  there  is  a  tendency,  not 
now  so  marked  as  earlier  in  the  period,  to  drop  sometimes  the  S 
of  the  gen.  sing.  :   bag  2)rama,  beg  5)ramag,  or  occasionally  S)rama. 
Foreign  words  in  this  declension  do  not  so  frequently  take  the 
accent  upon  the  last  syllable  as  in  the  other  declensions. 

79.  To   the  group  that  forms  the  sing,  strong  and  the  plural 
weak  belong  : 

i.  A  few  native  German  or  naturalized  words  : 

a.  Masculines  :  Qlfcn  (also  wk.)  ancestor,  Qllf  (pi.  also  2ttfe)  auk,  93auer 
(also  wk.;  always  str.  in  the  compounds  SKafcfoinenbauer  machinist,  DrgeU 
baiter  organ-builder,  ©cfyipfcauer  ship-builder,  £c.,  where  it  is  felt  as 


79.  i.  A.  MIXED   DECLENSION  91 

derived  from  Bauen  to  build)  peasant,  SBrofam  (poetic;  sometimes 
neut.  ;  pi.  sometimes  SSrofame  ;  nom.  sing,  sometimes  93rofamen  ; 
rarely  fern,  with  the  form  SBrofame,  which  is,  however,  historically 
the  correct  form,  and  still  survives  in  the  usual  pi.  SBrofamen)  crumb, 
s-Bur  Boer,  29utt  (69.  i.  b)  turbot,  S)orn  (83),  frlaunt  down,  hair  (on  the 
face  when  beginning  to  appear),  flitter  (pi.  also  str.  ;  sometimes 
fern.)  gaudy  thing,  fforft  (pi.  often  S'otfte,  rarely  ^orfte;  also  fern.) 
well  kept  forest,  frtafc  (also  wk.)  silly  fellow,  ®au  (69.  i.  b),  ©eoatter 
godfather,  «§aber  old  rag,  «§alm  (pi.  usually  Ratine)  blade  (of  grass), 
«§olf  and  -§ulf  (both  also  2nd  cl.  str.  ;  also  neut.)  hulk,  barge,  «§ubel 
(also  ist  cl.  str.)  rag,  good-for-nothing  fellow,  Rummer  (also  ist  cl. 
str.)  lobster,  Staffer  (also  wk.  ;  used  only  contemptuously)  peasant, 
Staffer  (also  wk.)  Kafir,  Jtaferlaf  (sing,  also  wk.)  albino,  £or6eer  laurel, 
£ump  (sing,  also  wk.,  pi.  also  £um^e)  shiftless,  worthless  fellow, 
2)?ar3  (also  fern.)  top  (naut.  term),  3)U]t  (pi.  also  2J?afte)  mast,  2)hi3fel 
(sometimes  fern.)  muscle,  9tadj6ar  (sometimes  wk.)  neighbor,  0Zero 
(sometimes  wk.;  also  a  wk.  fern,  bie  9Jer»e)  nerve,  Dberjt  (76.  1.  3),  $fau 
(sometimes  wk.,  sometimes  2nd  cl.  str.)  peacock,  $fro£f  (nom.  also 
;  pi.  $fro£fe,  ^fropfe,  perhaps  more  commonly  ^fro^fen)  cork, 
psalm,  3la§  (83),  Sfteif  (pi.  sometimes  3ftetfe  as  in  early  N.H.G.  ; 
sometimes  wk.  ;  used  especially  in  the  first  meaning  ;  nom.  sing. 
also  SReifen  [ist  cl.  str.],  especially  in  the  second  meaning)  ring, 
hoop,  circle,  ©cfymerj  (beS  <£cfymerje8,  &c.  ;  earlier  in  the  period  nom. 
also  (Scfymerje  or  ©cfymerjen,  Sen-  ^cfynterjeng,  dat.  €;cfymerjen,  ace. 
(Sdjmerjen)  pain,  <2ee  lake,  (Sinn  (from  early  N.H.G.  almost  up 
to  our  time  pi.  <8inne  and  €>innen,  now  usually  the  former)  sense, 
@po§  (sometimes  wk.  and  2nd  cl.  str.)  sparrow,  <2$>orn  (pi.  usually 
(Sporen,  but  also  sometimes  (gtyornen  and  @^orne,  the  latter  always 
when  it  refers  to  persons,  as  «§eipfporne  hot  spurs)  spur,  <S£rojj  (pi. 
also  <SvrofT^  rarely  (Sjnroffe,  also  wk.,  bcr  (Svrojfc)  shoot,  offspring, 
®taat  state,  ©tac^iel  sting,  ©trafyl  beam,  ray,  jet  (of  water,  &c.),  Ungar 
(usually  wk.)  Hungarian,  llntertan  (sometimes  wk.)  subject  (of  a  king, 
&c.),  better  (sometimes  wk.)  cousin,  3C^  (sometimes  wk.  and  2nd  cl. 
str.  ;  more  commonly  a  wk.  fern.,  bie  3efye)  toe,  3ie*rat  (pi.  also  3if*™te  ; 
sometimes  fern.)  ornament,  3in3  (pi.  sometimes  3i"(e/  earlier  in  the 
period  also  a  wk.  fern,  bie  3»ifO  interest  (on  money),  and  often  %ic$d 
(perhaps  more  frequently  ist  cl.  str.,  sometimes  fern.)  tile.  We 
often  find  a  wk.  sing,  or  a  wk.  case  in  the  sing.,  especially  the  gen., 
with  some  of  these  nouns,  as  they  were  formerly  wk.  The  wk. 
plural  in  other  cases  is  partly  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  words 
are  also  fern. 

Note.  In  the  language  of  the  common  people  many  words  that  belong  to  the  ist  cl. 
str.,  especially  those  in  ;tl  and  ;ct,  are  inflected  according  to  this  group.  This  arises 
from  the  feeling  that  the  plural  ought  in  some  way  to  be  distinguished  from  the  sing. 
This  tendency  appears  occasionally  in  good  authors:  fptfce  ©tebfttt  (Goethe).  £>a<J 
einjige  ©clafj,  toelcfcetf  no<$  Sfitftent  fyatte  (.Immermann).  £)ie  fcblintmfjtm  ©cuniTertS: 
ffrupeln  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap,  xxiii).  2)ie  ©pattern  |  lerbrccbenber  @d)dfte  (Scheffel). 
Jtltmnb  ficgen  bie  ©ptittetn  beg  SBurfgefcfiicfi'eg  (Raabe).  The  plural  ©tiefeln  boots  is 
<^uite  common,  but  not  so  much  so  as  a  little  earlier  in  the  period  :  ba3  S4}aar  neuet 
(S>tiefeln  (Raabe),  tin  $aar  Ijeljet  ©tiefetn  (Spielhagen's  Faustulus,  p.  45). 


b.  Neuters  :  Qlitge  eye,  SBett  bed,  6nbe  end,  ®att  (pi.  also  ©atte,  ©attg) 


92  MIXED   DECLENSION  79.i.£. 

hole,  passage,  ©or  (N.G.  ;  also  a  wk.  fern,  bie  ©ore)  a  little  child, 
urchin,  brat,  «6emb  (rarely  4th  cl.  str.)  shirt,  =fant  in  compounds  with 
the  force  of  *ecf  (as  SSierfant  square,  &c.),  ^tei'nob  (pi.  Jtletno'men,  also 
.ftleino'be,  always  when  figurative)  jewel,  2etlacb  (69.  5.  d),  2N6fcel  (pi. 
earlier  in  the  period  SKobelg  and  SMofceln,  of  which  the  latter  is  still 
used,  but  is  being  gradually  replaced  by  Sftobel)  article  or  piece  of 
furniture,  £>t)r  ear,  <Sd}ott  (69.  5.  c\  @£ant  frame  (of  ship),  @pinb  or 
(Spinbe  (pi.  also  @:pinbe,  the  first  form  is  also  masc.  and  the  second 
is  also  fern.)  case  (for  clothes,  books,  &c.),  2Batt  (69.  5.  c),  9Befy  (in 
M.H.G.  also  wehe,  a  wk.  masc.,  the  plural  of  which  still  survives; 
also  a  wk.  fern,  bie  SBetye  in  the  meaning  throe  of  birth)  pain,  pang, 
throe,  and  «£erj  heart,  which  inflects  :  N.  and  A.  bag  «§erj,  G.  t>eg 
£er$eng,  D.  bem  «§ergen,  pi.  bie,  ber,  ben,  bie  «§er$en. 

Note.  In  Austrian  and  Bavarian  dialects,  nouns  with  the  diminutive  suffix  ;et  are 
declined  according  to  this  group  :  bag  ^ettbel  chicken,  pi.  bit  ^)enbctn  ;  bag  SWattbl 
male  fowl,  pi.  bie  2Ranbeln;  bag  SBetbel  female  fowl,  pi.  bie  SBeibeln,  &c.  Even 
sometimes  in  serious  prose  :  eineg  ber  launiojlen  fitebeln  ber  ©ammlung  (A.  Bettelheim 
in  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  29.  Nov.  1901,  p.  i). 

2.  Many  foreign  nouns  : 

a.  Masculines  ending  in  *on  and  *or  (both  short  and  unaccented 
in  the  sing,  and  long  and  accented  in  the  pi.)  :  ber  2)of'tor  doctor,  pi. 
bie  5)of  to'ren  ;  ber  2)d'mon  demon,  pi.  bie  S)dmo'nen. 

Note.  Sometimes  those  in  t$n  take  a  pi.  in  tiint  :  bie  JDattto'tte  instead  of  the  more 
common  IDdmc'ltett.  Of  course  words  in  accented  tct  and  ;on  (see  69.  7.  b)  belong  to 
the  2nd  cl.  str.  :  ber  3Kajor_'  major,  beg  9JJaj[org',  pi.  bie  2Wajo're;  ber  Canton'  canton, 
beg  Wantons',  pi.  bie  .Ranto'ne. 


b.  Masculines  in  sig'muS  :    ber  ,f  atecfnS'muS,  be8  ^atec^tg'mug,  pi. 
bie  Jlatecfyi8'men.     They  do  not  add  an  additional  0  in  the  gen.  sing., 
and  they  change  in  the  pi.  =mu3  to  *men. 

c.  Neuters  in  ==a  which  often  drop  the  8  of  the  gen.  sing,  and 
usually  change  *a  in  the  pi.  to  *en  :  ba3  £)rama  drama,  beg  3)rama8  or 
beg  £>rama,  pi.  bie  2>ramen.     Sometimes  0  is  added  to  form  the  pi.  : 
bie  £>rama8. 

d.  Neuters  ending  in  »e'um,  =ium,  imm,  =on  (unaccented)  and  mas- 
culines in  unaccented  =it3  and  =iuS,  all  of  which  take  8  (except  those 
in  ug  and  tug)  in  the  gen.,  or  sometimes  remain  unchanged,  and 
change  in  the  pi.  *\im,  =on,  and  =u3  to  *tn  :  bag  2ftufe'um  museum,  beg 
SD^ufe'umg,  pi.  bie  3Kufe'en  ;  bag  $orti  jt'pium  participle,  beg  ^artt^piumg, 

§1.  bie  $artijt'}rien  ;  bag  Snbttit'buum  individual,  beg  SnbtttfDiutmg,  pi.  bie 
nbioi'buenj  bag  2Dtfttcfyon  distich,  beg  2>tflictjong,  pi.  bie  2Hfu'cfyen  (als,o 
2)i|licl)a),  &c.  Those  in  *ug  and  4ug  usually  remain  unchanged  in 
the  gen.  sing.  :  ber  SRuntiug,  beg  hunting,  pi.  bie  0}untien.  A  number  of 
very  common  nouns  in  =ug  are  manifesting  a  decided  tendency  to 
add  the  endings  of  the  2nd  cl.  str.  to  the  foreign  ending  =u3,  more 
frequently,  however,  in  the  pi.  :  ber  «f  rof  ug,  beg  Jtrofug,  pi.  bie  Jtrofuffe  ; 
ber  Dnmtbug,  beg  Dmnibug  or  Dmnibuffeg,  pi.  bie  Dmni&uffe  or  Omntbug  ; 
like  Jtrofug  also  5ofug,  Jtaftitg,  ©lobug  (pi.  also  ©tofcen).  This  tend- 
ency is  also  marked  in  a  number  of  proper  names  in  =iig,  *eg,  *ag, 
whether  used  as  proper  names  or  as  common  class  nouns  :  Srutug, 
«£erfuleg,  3ubag,  pi.  bie  Svutuffe,  »&erfuleffe,  Subaffe.  A  number  of  words 


80.i.  MIXED    DECLENSION  93 

may  drop  the  foreign  ending  in  the  sing.,  and  then  add  g  in  the 
gen.  sing,  and  ten  in  the  plural,  or  may  be  inflected  according  to 
the  and  cl.  str.:  bag  $artt$i:|/,  beg  $artijtyg',  pi.  bie  ^artigt'pien  or  bic 


Some  neuters  in  turn  take  g  in  the  gen.  and  change  urn  to  a  in  the 
plural  :  bag  3fta3tult'nuin,  beg  Sftagfuli'numg,  pi.  bie  SWagfuli'na.  Some  of 
these  nouns  often  drop  the  =um  of  the  sing.,  then  take  g  in  the  gen., 
and  change  the  a  of  the  pi.  to  en  :  bag  23erfc  or  93erbum,  beg  93erfcg 
or  SSerbumg,  pi.  bie  93er6en  or  33er6a.  A  few  of  these  neuters  in  «um 
take  g  in  the  pi.  :  bag  Qllfnmt,  beg  9ll&um8,  pi.  bie  Qllbumg  (also  QUfcen, 
Alburn,  QU&ume). 

e.  Neuters  formed  from  neuter  adjectives  which  in  the  Latin  end 
in  e  in  the  sing,  and  ia  in  the  pi.    The  German  nouns  drop  the  e  of 
the  sing.,  thus  ending  usually  in  ==Tl'  and  *&[',  and  change  the  Latin 
pi.  ia  into  ten:    bag  ftoffil'  fossil,  beg  ftoffilg',  pi.  bie  ftoffi'Iien;    bag 
Mineral'  mineral,  beg  Sftineralg',  pi.  bie  SWinera'lien,  &c.     A  number 
of  these  words  are  drifting  toward  the  and  cl.  str.  :  bag  Mineral,  beg 
SKineralg,  pi.  bte  Sftineralien  or  SJfinerate. 

f.  A  number  of  isolated  foreign  words  :  the  masculines  Qlntaront' 
(also  and  cl.  str.)  amaranth,  Qlfyeft'  view,  omen,  Qlu'gur  (also  wk.  ;  pi. 
sjlu'gurn  or  5litgu'ren)  augur,  93erfcer  (also  str.)  Berber,  SBrtflant'  (also 
wk.)  brilliant,  Gentaur'  (also  wk.)  centaur,  (Dejem'inr  (also  wk.)  decem- 
vir, (Diamant'  (also  wk.  ;    poet,  form  2)emant  usually  and  cl.  str.) 
diamond,  Safan'  (also  and  cl.  str.)  pheasant,  ©rofjmogul  (pi.  also  =g) 
Great   Mogul,   Jtonful  consul,   Jtorfar'  (also  wk.)  pirate,   $antoffel 
(also  ist  cl.  str.)  slipper,  $apaget'  (sometimes  wk.  and  and  cl.  str.) 
parrot,  $rdfef  t'  (also  wk.  and  and  cl.  str.)  prefect,  Ohtfctn'  (usually  and 
cl.  str.)  ruby,  (Sattyr  (also  wk.  and  and  cl.  str.)  satyr,  Sribtm'  (also 
wk.)  tribune  (magistrate),  Xrium'uir  (sometimes  wk.)  triumvir;  the 
neuters,  Sn-feft'  insect,  3ntere|v(e  interest,  Surcel'  (sometimes  and  cl. 
str.  ;  sometimes  masc.  and  cl.  str.)  jewel,  (Statttt7  statute. 

g.  A  number  of  neuters  in  *eng'  remain  unchanged  in  the  sing. 
and  change  in  the  pi.  *eng  to  $ien  (tien):  bag  Oteageng'  reagent,  beg 
3Heageng',  pi.  bie  Oteagen'jten  (JHeagentien). 

h.  A  number  in  unaccented  =og  and  =ag  remain  usually  unchanged 
in  the  sing,  and  change  in  the  pi.  the  stem  and  shift  the  accent  upon 
the  suffix  :  ber  ^e'rog  hero,  beg  ^e'rog,  pi.  bte  «§eri/en  ;  ber  J?uf'  tog 
custodian,  beg  Jtuftog,  pi.  bie  JlujVDen  ;  ber  ^It'Iag  atlas,  beg  Qttlag 
or  beg  "•Mt'Iaffeg,  pi.  bie  QU'Iaffe  or  ^Ittan'tenj  ber  ^rt'mag  primate, 
beg  SPri'mag  (or  beg  ^rima'ten),  pi.  bie  ^rima'ten,  ^rt'ntag,  or  $rt'maffe  ;  but 
bag  Otfyino'jerog  rhinoceros,  teg  Ofl^ino^erodTeJg,  pi.  bte  Sftfyun/jeroffe. 

80.  To  the  group  that  takes  the  g  in  the  gen.  sing,  and  throughout 
the  pi.  belong  : 

i.  A  large  number  of  masc.  and  neut.  words  from  the  French, 
English,  and  other  modern  languages  that  are  still  felt  as  foreign 
on  account  of  their  foreign  sound,  accent,  or  endings  (often  a,  o,  it,  i  ; 
the  French  nasal  vowels,  ain,  ein,  im,  in,  om,  on,  urn,  un,  for  which  see 
25  ;  a  vowel  before  a  silent  final  consonant)  that  cannot  easily  be 
fitted  into  the  German  declensions  :  ber  (Domino  domino,  beg  £>ominog, 
pi.  bte  £>ontinoS  ;  bag  Otefiaitrant  (/?es/a-./?ay')  restaurant, 


94  MIXED   DECLENSION  80.  i. 

pi.  We  ateflauwntS' ;  ber  paletot  (pabtoS),  beg  paletots',  pi.  bie  paletots'. 
Also  a  few  feminines  belong  here  :  bie  Sabty,  pi.  bie  £at>tyg ;  bie 
pi.  bie  STOamaS' ;  bie  SKijj,  pi.  bie  2tfiffeg  or  Stiffen;  We  SSifla,  pi.  bie 
or  QSiflen. 

In  the  choice  language  of  our  time  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to 
replace  the  foreign  pi.  ending  g  by  German  e  in  case  of  masculines 
and  neuters,  and  thus  place  these  words  in  the  and  cl.  str.,  or  in 
case  of  feminines  to  inflect  according  to  the  weak  declension.  A 
number  of  these  words  are  already  entirely  or  partially  naturalized, 
especially  words  from  the  Low  German  and  English :  bag  £)o(f 
(English),  beg  £>ocfg,  pi.  bie  S)ocfg  or  2)ocfe.  The  words  ending  in  a 
vowel  sound  or  the  French  nasals  offer  the  most  stubborn  resistance. 
Where,  however,  the  nasal  vowel  has  been  replaced  by  a  German 
vowel  plus  lingual  n,  the  words  may  be  inflected  according  to  and 
cl.  str. :  bag  23ataitton  (bataljo:n'\  pi.  bie  Satattlo'ne.  If  the  nasal  has 
been  replaced  by  a  vowel  +  palatal  n  (y)  the  words  resist  German 
inflection  :  bag  SBaffin  (basty)  basin,  pi.  bie  Safftng. 

a.  Sometimes  the  g  drops  out  in  the  sing,  of  the  masculines  and  neuters, 
but  it  stands  oftener  in  the  plural:  bag  plateau  (plato:'),  beg  *plateaug  or  some- 
times plateau,  pi.  bie  Splateaug. 

2,.  A  few  German  words  not  really  substantives  may  take  an  g  in 
the  gen.  sing,  and  throughout  the  pi.,  such  as  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
exclamatory  particles,  other  parts  of  speech  used  as  substantives,  or 
the  syntactical  fragment  of  a  sentence  or  a  whole  sentence  used  as 
a  loose  compound  (see  249.  11.2;  for  rule  as  to  gender  see  98.  2. 
C.  e) :  bag  91  the  letter  a,  beg  918,  pi.  bie  S(g  ;  bag  3a  the  word  yes,  beg 
Sag,  pi.  bie  Sag;  bag  21$  the  exclamation  Oh!,  beg  5ld)g,  pi.  bie  9C<$8. 
2)o  gifct'g  ©utentogg  unb  ©utenabenbg,  ba§  fein  (?nbe  ifi  (Goethe).  (Sin 
gating  «§eer  tton  ftreilicfyg,  £>enno$g  unb  9t6erg  (Gutzkow). 

The  authors  of  our  own  time  seem  to  prefer  non-inflection  here  : 
bag  91,  beg  91,  pi.  bie  9t.  2)ag  SBilb  eineg  freemen  Sumcfjtgut  (Fontane's 
Vor  dent  Sturm,  IV.  19) ;  afle  $f;artfaer  unb  ©ernegrofj  (id.,  Stechlin, 
XXXII). 

In  a  number  of  cases  there  is  a  tendency  more  or  less  strong  to 
inflect  such  formations  according  to  the  regular  declensions :  atlc 
if;re  <£teflbitf;eine  (rare)  (J.  Paul),  £augenicfytfe  (nom.  pi.;  very  common), 
bie  Sunicfytgute  (Fontane's  Pag-.,  VI 1 1),  QSergtfjmetnnicfyte  (nom.  pi. ;  quite 
common) ;  meineg  ©egenitberg,  &c.  See  69.  2.  e  and  6. 

3.  Many  words  in  the  regular  declensions  take  colloquially  this 
g  in  the  pi.,  especially  so  in  N.G. :  We  -Kabcfyeng  the  girls,  bie  fttau* 
leing  the  young  ladies,  and  even  in  case  of  wk.  nouns :  bie  «§etreng 
the  gentlemen,  bie  Sungeng  young  chaps. 

a.  This  8  was  used  in  Gothic  to  form  the  pi.  of  all  masc.  and  fem.  words, 
but  it  had  disappeared  in  H.G.  before  the  O.H.G.  period.  Although 
this  plural  ending  is  now  supported  by  universal  usage  in  French  and 
English  and  also  the  Low  German,  and  is  much  used  colloquially  in  the 
North  by  those  speaking  High  German,  it  is  carefully  avoided  in  choice 
language. 


83.  MIXED   DECLENSION  95 

81.   Models  of  Inflection  for  Mixed  Declension : 

Singular. 


(Btaat  state,  m.  2)rama  drama,  n.  $ru££  troop,  m.  23ifla  villa,  f. 

N.  ber  <Staat  bag  £>rama  ber  Sritjpp  bie  SSitta 

G.   beg  (Stoat(e)g  beg  2)rama(g)  beg  Srit^g  ber  SSifla 

D.  bem  @taat(e)  bem  2)rama  bem  £ru££  ber  33iUa 

A.  ben  (Stoat  bag  2)rama  ben  £ru£p  bie  SSitta 

Plural. 

N.  bie  @taaten  bie  5)ramen  bie  $ru££8  bie  Q3ittag 

G.   ber  (Staaten  ber  2)ramen  ber  Xru^g  ber  93 (flag 

D.  ben  @taaten  ben  £>ramen  ben  $ru^))g  ben  SSittag 

A.   bie  <Staaten  bie  £>ramen  bie  ^ruttg  bie  23iKag 


FOREIGN  WORDS. 

82.  A  few  foreign  words  that,  on  account  of  the  retention  of  their 
foreign  endings  (us,  is,  um,  o,  &c.),  cannot  be  declined  in  any  of  the 
preceding  declensions  remain  as  they  are  found  in  their  native 
language,  the  form  of  the  nom.  sing,  being  used  throughout  the 
sing.,  and  the  nom.  pi.  throughout  the  pi.,  the  article  alone  marking 
the  other  cases  :  ber  (beg,  bem,  ben)  2)iiijtfug  musician,  pi.  bie  (ber,  ben,  bie) 
SWuftci ;  ber  gcifug,  pi.  bie  6afu8,  &c. 

Scholars,  however,  often  prefer  to  decline  Latin  words  through- 
out as  in  the  original,  more  frequently  so  earlier  in  the  period : 
Smperfectum,  Smperfecti,  &c.  This  is  most  common  with  grammatical 
terms. 

a.  Note  the  following  irregular  formations :  ber  SljeruB,  be3  (£Ijerub3,  pi.  bie 
Gljentbim  (also  Sfjerube,  SfyerubS,  (Sfjerubi'nen) ;  ber  (Serapfy,  be$  <Serapl)g,  pi.  bie 
©erapljtm  (also  ©eraplje,  @erapt)g,  ©erap^in,  (Sera^t'nen). 

DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS. 

83.  Many  nouns  have  two  forms  and  may  be  declined  according  to  the 
one  or  the  other.     This  redundancy  may  assume  one  of  four  forms  :  (l)  The 
noun  may  have  two  genders  for  the  same  form,  as  ber  or  more  commonly 
bie  -Spirfe  millet.     (2)  There  may  be  two  forms  for  the  same  noun,  each  with 
a  different  gender,  as  ber  duafl  tassel  or  bie  duajle.     (3)  The  noun  may  have 
only  one  form  for  the  sing.,  but  two  in  the  pi.,  as  ber  Drt  place,  pi.  Deter  or 
more  commonly  Drte.     (4)  The  same  word  may  have  in  different  dialects 
the  same  gender,  but  different  forms  or  declensions  or  both,  which  often 
pass  from  their  respective  dialects  over  into  the  literary  language  with  or 
without   differentiated  meaning :    ©djluft  (H.G.,  but  now   little   used)   and 
<5cfylu(i)t  (L.G.,  but  now  well  established  in  the  literary  language)  cleft,  gorge  ; 
ber  93runncn  well,  fountain,  SBorn  (L.G.  and  M.G. ;  poetic)  fount,  well-spring. 
Redundant  forms  occur  often  in  the  spoken  and  written  language,  and  it 
is  frequently  difficult  to  choose  between  them,  and  no  harm  will  be  done 
if  the  one  or  other  be  chosen,  unless  usage  at  last  settles  down  upon  one 
of  the  forms,  as  in  bog  2)iinbet  bundle,  ber  £>o<f)t  wick,  ber  ©arcuuS  finishing 
stroke,  ber  Jlaftg  cage,  &c.     Double  forms  have  always  existed  in  the  language 
and  have  resulted  in  good,  for  many  of  them  have  been  put  to  use  by  the  people 
who,  led  by  an  economic  instinct,  have  given  to  each  form  a  slightly  different 
shade  of  meaning.   Words  also  which  have  only  one  form  for  different  mean- 
ings and  applications  tend  to  develop  different  forms  for  the  different  meanings 
and  applications.     Also  nouns  which  are  derived  from  the  different  forms  of 
the  same  verb  or  other  word  tend  toward  a  distinct  differentiation  in  meaning. 


96    DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS  88. 

Either  the  difference  in  gender  or  in  the  form  of  the  noun  in  the  singular 
or  plural  may  cause  the  difference  of  meaning,  as  can  be  seen  by  the 
following  illustrative  examples  : 

35ec  §Ift  act  (in  a  drama),  pi.  Slfte;  bie  Slfte  act  (of  parliament  or  some  other 
authority),  document,  pi.  bie  Slften. 

2)ie  (Goethe's  Egmont,  5 ;  this  attempt  at  differentiation  has  not  been 
generally  sustained,  now  usually  bag)  Slrgermg  anger ;  bag  Slrgernig  that  which 
causes  anger,  i.e.  offence. 

!Dev  93atg  skin ,  pi.  93dtge ;  in  the  meanings  child,  thing  (in  familiar  language 
referring  to  a  child,  boy,  or  girl),  also  in  a  bad  sense  brat,  ber  Sklg,  pi.  ffldlge, 
but  now  also  frequently  neuter  with  plural  93d(ger,  following  the  analogy  of 
baa  J?inb. 

JDet  93a«,  pi.  33dtte  ball ;  ber  fflaUen  bale. 

3)er  93anb  volume,  pi.  33dnbe ;  bag  33anb  ribbon,  pi.  93dnber ;  bag  S3anb  tie  (of 
friendship,  &c.),  fetter,  pi.  S3anbe. 

3)ev  33auer  peasant ;  bag  (also  ber)  33cmer  bird  cage. 

3)et  93vunnen  -well,  fountain,  ordinary  prose  word ;  ber  93orn  -well-spring, 
fount,  poetic  word. 

3)er  33unb  alliance  ;  bag  93unb  bundle. 

S)er  (Sfycr  song  sung  by  the  choir,  or  the  choir  itself ;  bag  (Sfyor  place  in  the 
church  where  the  choir  sits. 

£>er  Gfyrift  (pop. ;  also  in  Faust,  Abend)  Christmas  present,  beg  (Sfjrifteg,  pi. 
bie  (Sfyrifte ;  ber  Sfyrijl  Christian,  beg  (Sfjriften,  pi.  bie  Sfjrijlen. 

JDag  JDenhnal  monument,  pi.  usually  35enfmd(ev,  but  often  2)enfmate  in  choice 
language. 

!Der  SMenftmann  man  on  the  streets  who  carries  bundles  for  hire,  vassal ;  pi. 
bie  Sienftmdnner  in  the  first  meaning  ;  pi.  bie  SDienfUeute  servants  of  a  house  ;  pi. 
bie  ©ienftmannen  vassals. 

35ag  3)ing  thing,  pi.  SMnge ;  pi.  Singer  when  speaking  of  the  young  of  animals, 
birds,  or  of  girls  (as  '  queer  things ') ;  bag,  ber,  or  bie  iDing,  or  more  commonly 
2)ingg  (a  genitive  used  now  for  all  cases;  see  255.  II.  i.  H.  6-)  ba  (when 
memory  fails  to  recall  a  thing  or  person)  what-you-may-call-it,  what-you- 
may-call-him  or  -her.  The  form  Stngg  is  also  used  of  girls :  bag  Heine  3)ingg 
(Storm's  Ein  Doppelganger,  p.  215). 

5)er  !Dovn  thorn  ;  pi.  bie  3)ornen  used  of  the  bush  ;  pi.  bie  35orne  with  reference 
to  different  varieties,  as  bie  £age*,  Jtreu^,  @<i>tt>arji,  SBei^borne ;  pi.  Corner  and 
3)orne  of  the  individual  thorns,  and  also  in  the  mechanical  arts  of  a  punch, 
tongue  of  a  buckle,  &c.  Usage  in  all  these  points,  however,  is  not  yet 
firmly  fixed. 

3)ei-  !Dru(f  print,  pressure,  pi.  of  the  simple  form  usually  bie  JDrucfe ;  pi.  in 
compounds  usually  unmutated  where  the  word  is  felt  as  belonging  to  brucfm 
to  print,  as  in  bie  QwSlftxx&t pirated  editions*  bie  Slbbrwfe  reprints,  bie  0ieubrucfe 
reprints  ;  pi.  in  compounds  usually  mutated  where  the  word  is  felt  as  belong- 
ing to  briicf en  to  press,  as  in  bie  Slbbmcfe  impressions  (by  stamping),  proofs  (of 
photos),  copies  (of  books),  Slugbriicf e  expressions,  (Sinbwcf e  impressions  (of  the 
mind),  ^dnbebriicfe. 

5>et  Sffeft  effect,  impression,  pi.  bie  dffefte ;  pi.  Sffeften  effects,  movables, 
stocks. 

2>ei-  (Srbe  heir  ;  bag  (Srbe  inheritance. 

£>ie  (Srfenntiu'g  perception,  comprehension ;  bag  Srfenntnig  decision  of  a 
judge  ;  bie  Srfenntnig  ber  ©djulb  gefjt  bent  (£rfenntnig  beg  OJidjterg  »oran. 

£>ie  (Srfpavnig  saving,  pi.  SrfparnijTe ;  bag  (Srfyarnig  that  which  is  saved,  pi. 
(Srfparniffe.  This  differentiation  is  not  yet  established. 

i>er  gaben  thread,  pi.  bie  gdben ;  ber  gaben  fathom,  pi.  bie  8uben. 

©ec  glecf  and  ber  glecfen  both  have  the  meanings  stain,  spot,  blemish,  place, 
and  large  village,  but  the  tendency  is  to  use  Slerfen  in  sense  of  village  and 
glecf  or  $lerfcn  in  the  other  meanings.  In  the  compound  SRavftflerfen  market- 
town,  borough  the  form  in  ftn  is  always  used. 


83.   DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS    97 

35er  (sometimes  bie)  ftiwc  entrance  hall  of  a  house,  pi.  bie  5htte  if  masc. ;  bie 
hir  field  (poetic),  pi.  bie  ftluren. 

5)er  gufj  foot  (of  a  person),  pi.  bie  $u$e ;  jtoci  gu§  (see  96.4.  (i))  (ang  two  feet 
long;  gujje  »erfd)tebenet  £ange  feet  (standards  of  measurement)  of  different 
length. 

2)ie  ©ang  goose,  pi.  bie  ©dnfe ;  bag  ©ang  word  goose,  pi.  bie  ©ang  or  ©anfeg  :  !Dag 
erfie  ©ang  ijl  nidjt  fo  fdjpn  gefdjrieben  wie  bag  jjtoeite.  Thus  any  noun  of  any  gender 
becomes  neut.  when  it  stands  not  for  a  person  or  object  but  for  the  written 
word  which  represents  it. 

2kr  ©efyalt  intrinsic  worth  or  value,  also  bet  <Safggef)att  beg  SBajfevg,  &c. ;  bag 
(sometimes  still  ber,  in  accordance  with  older  usage)  ©efyalt  salary,  pi.  bie 
©efydlter  (sometimes  as  formerly  ©efjalte). 

SDag  ©cfdjrei  cry,  clamor ;  bog  ©efdjreie  continued  disagreeable  screaming ; 
see  b,  below. 

£>ag  ©eftd)t  face,  pi.  bie  ©cftdjter ;  bag  ©eftdjt  vision,  pi.  bie  ©eftdjte. 

2)ag  ©ettxmb  garment ;  pi.  bie  ©etodnber ;  pi.  bie  ©eroanbe  (poetic) ;  see  also 
78.6. 

25ie  ©ift  (rare  except  in  the  compound  bie  SDHtgift)  present ;  bag  (see  100.  l) 
©iff  poison. 

35ev  Jpaft  clasp  ;  bie  £aft  arrest. 

2)er  ^»alt  support,  halt,  halting-place,  pi.  bie  Jpafte ;  ein  (neut.)  §att  a  stop  or 
end,  as  in  cin  £att  gebieten  to  put  a  stop  to.  This  is  a  case  of  only  seeming 
differentiation.  The  second  form  is  in  fact  the  imperative  of  the  verb  fatten, 
which  is  here  used  as  a  noun,  and  hence  is  neut.  according  to  rule  (see 
98.  z.  C.  e). 

!Der  ^>eibe  heathen ;  bie  Jpeibe  heath. 

2)ag  $om  horn,  pi.  bie  Corner  ;  pi.  bie  J&orne  kinds  of  horn. 

2>er  Jput  hat ;  bie  £ut  guard,  bie  SKorfyitt  vanguard. 

2)ec  3ube  Jew,  in  popular  language  ber  3ube  (Raabe's  H'oxter  und  Corvey, 
chap.  xiv). 

2)er  ^olbett  gunstock,  piston ;  bie  Jlotbe  facetiously  for  head. 

35er  ^unbe  customer  ;  bie  ^unbe  information. 

3)et  fiaben  shutter,  pi.  bie  Saben  (also  Sdben) ;  ber  Saben  store,  shop,  pi.  bie 
?dben. 

2)ag  ?anb  land,  pi.  bie  Sdnber ;  pi.  bie  Sonbe,  the  older  pi.  form,  which  still 
remains  (i)  in  poetry,  as  in  uber  atte  fianbe  (in  prose  fianber) ;  (2)  in  proper 
names,  as  in  bie  9tieberlanbe  the  Netherlands,  bie  iRfyeinlanbe ;  (3)  to  designate  the 
different  divisions  of  one  political  whole  :  bie  beutfcfyen  Sanbe. 

£)ag  Si^t  light,  candle ;  pi.  bie  £id)ter  lights  ;  pi.  bie  Sidjtc  candles. 

2>er  £itm£  poor,  ragged,  worthless  fellow,  pi.  bie  Swnpen,  also  fiunt^e;  bet 
Sunken  rag. 

2)er  9i)ianit  man,  pi.  bie  SWdnner  ;  pi.  bie  SRannen  warriors,  vassals  ;  pi.  SWann 
(see  96. 4.  (i) ) ;  pi.  4eute  (see  96. 9). 

SDer  3Renf^  human  being  ;  bag  2fienfcf)  wench,  pi.  bie  SRenfdjer. 

2)er  9)?ittag  noon  ;  bag  (also  ber)  2JHttag  dinner. 

5£>er  foment'  moment  (of  time) ;  bag  SKoment'  moment  (consequence,  weight). 

$)er  3Wcnb  moon,  satellite,  month,  now  2nd  cl.  str.,  was  also  weak  earlier  in 
the  period.  The  weak  gen.  still  occurs  in  the  first  meaning  in  compounds  in 
poetic  style,  as  in  SDJcnbenglanj.  In  the  last  meaning  SWonb  is  still  sometimes 
weak  in  poetic  style,  especially  in  the  plural. 

!l)ag  9Kocg  moss,  pi.  bie  2Roofe ;  bag  3J?ccg  (or  Oiieb)  swampy  land,  pi.  SKofer 
(SJiete). 

!Die  SDhtttct  mother,  female  screw  ;  pi.  bie  SKutter  mothers,  bie  3Ruttern  (earlier 
here  also  2J?utter)  female  screws. 

£>er  Dfl  east  wind,  9lorb  north  wind,  <Sub  south  wind,  &c.,  all  with  a  pi.  in 
e  ;  ber  Often  the  East,  aBejlen  the  West,  9lorben  the  North,  ©ufccn  the  South, 
all  indicating  a  section  of  country.  Both  forms  may  also  often  be  used  for 
the  points  of  the  compass,  the  shorter  forms  especially  in  maritime  expres- 

H 


98    DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS   83. 

sions :  35et  SBinb  fam  vein  au3  Dfl(en).    In  plain  prose  it  would  be  more  common 
to  say  Dftoinb,  SBejhvinb,  &c.  for  the  winds. 

35et  (sometimes  bog)  $acf  or  $acfen  pack ;  bag  $acf  rabble. 

3>ie  -$firf(i)cfje  or  more  commonly  ber  ^firftdj  (pi.  bie  $Pfttftd)e)  peach  (fruit) ; 
ber  ^ftrftd)  peach-tree,  more  commonly  $ftrftd)baum. 

2>a3  sprobuft'  production,  pi.  bie  *)hobuf'te  productions  of  the  mind ;  pi.  bie 
*|3robuften  productions  of  the  soil,  produce.  This  distinction  is  common  in 
familiar  language,  but  the  pi.  ^Brobufte  is  the  only  form  used  in  the  literary 
language  for  all  these  meanings  except  in  compounds  :  *]8robufte,  but  s,)3robuftens 
£dnbler,  -)3robuftenmarft. 

S5te  {Ratte  (or  less  frequently  SRafce)  rat ;  ber  9fafc,  now  usually  broader  in 
meaning  than  Statte,  including  animals  of  a  similar  nature. 

$)er  {Refl  that  which  is  left,  ruin,  pi.  bie  (Refte,  pi.  bie  Qieficr  or  Oiefte  remnants 
of  cloth  in  a  dry  goods  store. 

3Me  ©au  sow,  pi.  bie  ©due  (early  N.H.G.)  sows,  swine,  in  the  latter  meaning 
still  ©due  in  expressions  following  more  or  less  accurately  biblical  utterances, 
as  in  Sftan  mujj  bie  $etlen  nidjt  »ot  bie  ©due  toerfen  (G.  Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap, 
xxxiii);  (eighteenth  century)  pl.bie  ©due  sows, domestic  swine, <&men.wild  swine; 
now  the  wk.  pi.  is  usually  used  for  domestic  sows  and  wild  swine. 

2)ag  ©djeit  piece  of  wood ;  pi.  ©djeite  or  ©Better  pieces  cut  for  a  purpose,  as 
to  burn,  &c.,  pi.  ©Better  pieces  broken  by  violence  :  bod  ©djiff  geljt  ju  ©d^eitern. 

£er  @d)enf  cup-bearer  ;  bie  ©cfjenfe  beer  house. 

25er  ©cfjilb  shield  ;  bad  ©djilb  shop  sign. 

25ie  ©d)hmlfl  swelling,  or  more  commonly  bie  ©efdjrtwtjl ;  ber  ©d)toulfi  bombast. 

2)er  ©d^urj  apron  for  men,  pi.  ©djitrje ;  bie  ©t^iirje  apron  for  women  and 
children. 

!Der  @ee  lake,  pi.  bie  ©een ;  bie  @ee  sea, 

£)ie  ©patte  (sometimes  ber  ©patt  in  the  first  meaning)  split,  column  (in  a  news- 
paper) ;  ber  ©patt  (pi.  bie  ©patte)  split  in  a  figurative  sense,  contentious  divi- 
sion, quarrel,  especially  common  in  the  compound  Btotefyalt  dissension. 

3>er  ©proffe  or  ©prof  offspring,  scion  ;  bie  ©proffe  round  of  a  ladder. 

3)er  ©tocf  stick,  cane,  story  (of  a  house),  pi.  bie  ©tocfe  canes,  pi.  ©torfe  or 
©tod  stories  :  ©pagterfiocfe  walking  sticks,  but  ein  £aus  »on  bret  ©tocfen  or  ©torf 
a  house  of  three  stories,  and  2)a3  Jpau3  tji  bret  ©tocf  t>oc^. 

35et  Setl  part ;  ba$  Xetl  share. 

35et  Sropfen  drop ;  ber  £ropf  dull,  stupid  fellow. 

2>et  Xrupp  gang,  unorganized  crowd,  pi.  bie  £rupp3  (or  Xruppe) ;  bie 
organized  company  or  troop. 

3)ai3  £ud)  piece  of  cloth  (handkerchief,  shawl,  &c.),  pi.  bie  £udjer;  pi. 
kinds  of  cloth. 

(Sine  Ufjr  a  clock,  watch,  pi.  bie  Uljren  ;  ein  (neut.,  uninflected)  tlfyr  (uninflected) 
one  o'clock,  pi.  gtoei  llf)r  two  o'clock,  &c. 

2)er  93erbien(l  wages  ;  bus  SSevbienfl  merit,  desert. 

3)ie  aBalnii§  (pi.  SBalnujfe)  walnut  (fruit) ;  ber  S&alntift  (pi.  aBalniiffe)  or  more 
commonly  ber  SBalnuf  baum  walnut  (tree). 

!Die  9Bef)r  defence  ;  baa  SBeljt  dam  (in  a  river). 

35a$  SBort  word  with  reference  to  meaning  in  connected  discourse,  pl.bie2Bcrte ; 

§*..  bie  SSorter  words  apart  from  their  meaning  :  @c  fprac^)  in  fcerebten  SBorten,  but 
a^  Xetegrantnt  t)at  16  SBorter.  This  distinction  is  not  yet  universally  observed, 
SBorte  seeming  to  be  the  favorite  in  both  meanings. 

35er  SBurm  worm  ;  bag  Sunn  helpless  babe,  '  poor  thing '  (man  or  woman). 

£a3  Seng  material,  substance,  stuff,  bo3  3eug3  (gen.  now  used  for  all  cases ; 
see  255.  II.  i.  H.^)  stuff"m  a  contemptuous  sense. 

The  similarity  in  form  is  sometimes  merely  accidental :  bad  £or  gate,  ber 
£or  fool ;  bie  QRarf  mark  (coin),  bag  3Karf  marrow,  &c. 

a.  There  is  a  tendency  to  make  a  difference  between  the  neut.  pi.  in  *e  and 
that  in  m,  when  they  both  occur  with  the  same  word.  The  former  has  in 
a  number  of  cases  collective  force,  denoting  a  number  of  connected  parts  or 


84.    DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SUBSTANTIVE  FORMS    99 

related  individuals,  the  latter  form  has  separating,  individualizing  force : 
bag  SBort  word  ;  pi.  SBorte  words  in  connected  discourse  with  reference  to  their 
meaning  ;  pi.  2B6rter  words  as  individuals  without  reference  to  their  connection 
in  one  sentence,  as  SOBortetbud),  lit.  word-book,  dictionary ;  bag  3knb  tie, 
ribbon,  pi.  33anbe  ties  of  affection  which  bind  us  together,  pi.  93dnbet  ribbons. 
Thus  also  bag  Sanb  country ;  pi.  8anbe  different  divisions  of  one  country,  pi. 
Sanber  countries.  Thus  also  a  number  of  words  found  in  the  above  lists. 
The  difference  between  words  in  w  and  ?e  is  also  sometimes  merely  a  matter 
of  style  ;  see  73.  b.  The  forms  in  *e  are  older  than  those  in  ;er,  and  hence 
often  naturally  incline  to  use  in  poetical  or  less  common  expressions.  Some- 
times the  older  and  newer  form  for  the  pi.  are  both  used  without  difference 
of  meaning,  contrary  to  the  above  mentioned  tendencies,  but  in  accordance 
with  former  usage  :  ein  £elegtamm  »on  16  SSortcn  (or  more  commonly  2B6rtetn). 

b.  There  is  a  tendency  to  distinguish  between  the  meaning  of  words  of  the 
form  ©e  —  e  and  on  the  other  hand  ©e  — .    The  form  ©e  —  e  (never  mutating 
the  stem  vowel)  has  a  more  abstract 'meaning,  indicating  a  repetition  or 
continuation  of  some  action,  or  often  inlying  contempt  or  dislike  for  the 
performance,  and  hence  on  account  of  its  abstract  nature  without  a  pi.,  while 
the  form  ©e  —  (always  mutating  the  stem  vowel  if  capable  of  it)  has  a  more 
concrete  meaning,  and  admits  thus  of  a  plural :  bag  ducflertgeraufcfye  the  noise  of 
the  murmuring  spring  (which  unceasingly  murmurs  on),  bag  ©eMirre  bet  i£ajfen 
ttnb  <£d)ufjcln  the  rattling  of  the  cups  and  dishes  (in  washing),  bag  ©eftnge 
tedious  singing  ;  bag  ©etue  an  affected  noisy  manner  that  proceeds  about 
doing  something  unimportant,  as  if  it  were  of  great  importance  (not  always, 
however,  in  a  disparaging  sense  :  3()t  23eneljmen  war  ein  toenig  fccf,  bag  fonnte  et 
ftdj  nidjt  fcerfjefyten,  abet  tone  (o  ganj  frei  »on  2)teiftigfeit  irat  biefe  .ffedfljeit,  wit  fo  ganj 
ofyne  ©efa(lfud)t  tfyt  gefafligeg  ©etue  unb  ©efyabe— Wildenbruch's  Die  heilige  Frau, 
p.   130),  bag  ©eflopfe  a  continual   unpleasant  knocking  or   hammering,  bag 
©etaufe  a  continual  unpleasant  running  to  and  fro,  but  bag  ©erdufcfy  the  noise, 
pi.  bie  ©eraufdje,  &c.     The  form  ©e — e  is  usually  made  directly  from  the 
stem  of  the  verb  without  mutation,  but  if  the  verb  itself  is  mutated  the 
vowel  of  the  derivative  noun  must  of  course  also  be  correspondingly  modified : 
bag  ©efyammete,  &c.  from  fyammern,  &c.    The  -,t,  however,  sometimes  distin- 
guishes the  one  form  from  the  other,  although  the  distinction  cannot  appear 
in  the  stem  vowel :  bag  ©efifyreie  continued  disagreeable  screaming,  but  bag 
©efdjret  a  cry,  clamor,  &c. 

Note.  But  the  distinction  between  these  forms  cannot  be  made  throughout,  as, 
according  to  present  usage,  b,  b,  Q,  and  usually  f,  do  not  as  a  rule  stand  as  a  final 
letter  in  these  formations,  and  hence  e  must  be  added,  thus  destroying  in  all  words  not 
capable  of  mutation  the  difference  of  form  and  hence  the  possibility  of  making  a  dis- 
tinction in  meaning:  ©ettetbe  grain  with  e  although  with  concrete  meaning,  &c.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  e  of  the  abstract  form  usually  drops  out  after  itl  and  ;er,  according 
to  the  general  rule  that  e  cannot  stand  after  ?et  and  «et,  and  thus  the  abstract  form  cannot 
here  be  distinguished  from  the  more  concrete :  ©eflitltper  drumming  (upon  the  piano). 
The  e,  however,  is  now  often  added  here  in  spite  of  the  rule,  as  it  seems  necessary  to 
preserve  the  shade  of  meaning:  bag  ©eftinfele  (Immermann),  ©efydmmere  (Fontane). 

c.  There   is  a  tendency  to  differentiate   the  meaning  of  words  in  tnit 
according  to  their  gender,  the  feminines  assuming  more  abstract,  the  neuters 
more  concrete  meaning:    bag  $inbernig  obstacle,  but  bie  58cfugni«  authority. 
Compare  also  (Srfenntnig  above.     There  is,  however,  much  irregularity  and 
fluctuation  here. 

INFLECTION  OF  PROPER  NOUNS. 

84.  Proper  nouns  as  well  as  common  nouns  were  once  inflected  str.  and 
wk.,  but  almost  all  traces  of  the  wk.  declension  in  names  of  persons  have 
disappeared  from  the  literary  language  except  the  rather  colloquial  dat.  and 

H  2 


100  INFLECTION   OF   PROPER   NOUNS  84. 

ace.  ending  en  (see  87)  and  the  corrupted  gen.  ett3  (80.2.a),  which  is  in  fact 
a  str.  gen.  added  to  a  wk.  gen.  Other  weak  forms  are  still  occasionally  found  : 
2Bag  ifl  bie  gan$e  f$bavi{|«$otfl*teif<$e  ®efdnd?te  neben  bet  ®efd)td)te  beg  2Uten  grifien  ? 
(Fontane's  Der  Tunnel  iiber  der  Spree,  chap.  iv).  2»it  beg  alien  grifcen  etgen; 
ijdnbigem  Jftucfjiocf  (id.,  Vor  dem  Sturm,  III.  chap.  ii).  3J?it  be«  §eqogg  2flori|en 
Dberflen,  bem  £emt  ©ebafiian  »on  3Balttnfc  (Raabe's  Unseres  Herrgotts  Kanzlei, 
chap.  vi).  @t  rebete  and)  ben  jiingften  Ur$(euen,  fein  $aten=  unb  ©nfelfinb,  on  in  emet 
2Betje,  bie  nttd)  befonbevfl  betufUgte  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xi).  The  old 
weak  gen.  has  also  been  preserved  in  a  number  of  compounds :  Dttenborf, 
Suifenftvajje.  Outside  of  these  compounds  the  gen.  of  these  names  is  Dttcg, 
£utfe(n)$.  A  few  other  traces  of  weak  inflection  in  the  names  of  persons  and 
families  are  given  in  93.  i.  b.  (6).  The  ending  ;en  is  best  preserved  in  the  dat. 
and  ace.  of  unmodified  names  ;  see  87.  Though  this  form  in  ;en  is  now  felt 
as  a  weak  case  form,  it  was  originally  in  all  strong  masculine  proper  names 
an  ending  borrowed  from  the  ace.  of  the  strong  adjective  declension,  as 
in  biefen,  guten.  Later  it  spread  to  the  dat.,  as  it  was  taken  for  a  weak 
case  ending,  which  is  the  same  for  the  ace.  and  dat.  This  misconception 
was  all  the  more  natural,  as  many  masculine  and  feminine  proper  names 
were  originally  weak  and  hence  had  ;en  in  the  dat.  and  ace.  Thus  this  ttn, 
now  used  uniformly  in  the  dat.  and  ace.  of  masc.  and  fern,  proper  names,  had 
a  twofold  origin. 

The  str.  declension  has  also  been  much  reduced,  and  there  is,  as  will  be 
seen  below,  much  fluctuation  in  present  usage,  pointing  to  still  farther  decay. 
There  is  a  general  tendency  in  all  classes  of  proper  nouns  and  in  titles  to 
drop  the  $  of  the  gen.  whenever  preceded  by  an  article  or  other  modifying 
word  that  marks  distinctly  the  case.  With  names  of  persons  this  can  now 
be  considered  a  rule. 

85.  Those  proper  nouns  that  have  the  article  always  before 
them — i.  e.  the  names  of  natural  divisions  of  the  earth's  surface  (as 
rivers,  lakes,  seas,  mountains,  plains,  forests,  &c.),  the  names  of 
countries  of  the  fem.  or  masc.  gender,  names  of  newspapers,  works 
of  art,  months,  nations,  peoples,  parties,  dynasties — were  originally, 
and  in  part  are  still,  common  class  nouns,  and  hence  are  in  general 
declined,  as  common  class  nouns  of  the  same  form  would  be : 
ber  Sft&etn  (i.e.  the  river)  the  Rhine,  beg  Seeing,  £c. ;  ber  23rocfen  (peak 
in  the  Harz  Mts.),  beg  SSrocfeng,  £c. ;  bie  Oilmen  the  Alps,  ber  2ll£en, 
&c. ;  bie  ©cfcrcetj  Switzerland,  ber  ©cfyiveij,  £c. ;  in  ben  Ie§ten  Sagett 
beg  3luguflg  (Raabe) ;  ber  $reu§e  the  Prussian,  beg  $reujj en,  &c. ;  ber 
Jtarolinger  Carlovingian,  beg  .ftaroltngerg,  &c. 

a.  The  names  of  months,  newspapers,  works  of  art,  literary 
productions,  organizations,  now  more  generally  drop  the  3  of 
the  gen. :  $lm  2lbenb  beg  22.  9liigitft  (Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung, 
18.  Sept.  1901);  ber  Oiefafteur  beg  Goriolan,  beg  3Bunb,  &c.,  editor  of  the 
Coriolan,  Bund,  &c. ;  ber  2>tcfyter  beg  Sauft  the  author  of  Faust ;  ber 
@ru§  beg  K@c^u6ert6unb"  the  greeting  from  the  Schubertbund  (musical 
organization),  &c.  Also  foreign  names  of  rivers  and  mountains  as 
a  rule  drop  the  g  in  the  gen. :  bie  <§6(}en  beg  SKonte  (Saoo  the  heights 
of  Monte  Cavo,  bag  $al  beg  untern  3ftf)6ne,  &c.  This  usage,  though 
strongly  condemned  by  grammarians,  is  spreading  even  to  German 
geographical  names  :  fiir  etnen  Qlnreofyner  beg  <5tecbltn  (lake)  (Fontane's 
Stechlint\Il\«tf  tern  @i£fel  beg  <&ol)enjlaufen  (Raabe's  Pechlin,  chap,  xiv), 
am  Ufcr  beg  iHecfar  (ib.,  II,  chap,  vii),  beg  (Speffart  (forest),  &c.  Examples 
can  even  be  found  in  textbooks  on  geography.  It  is  a  natural 


86. 2.  a.      INFLECTION    OF   PROPER    NOUNS  101 

impulse  towards  uniformity,  as  all  other  proper  nouns  drop  8  in 
the  gen.  when  preceded  by  an  article  (see  86.  i). 

b.  The  names  of  the  months  often  drop  the  article  and  remain 
uninflected  after  Qtnfang,  Wittt,  ©nbe :  @nbe  9Wai  the  last  of  May.     See 
94.  3.  A.  b. 

c.  The  great  mass  of  foreign  names  of  peoples,  and  tribes  have 
been  conformed  to  German  inflection,  but  those  which  still  retain 
endings  (a,  t,  o,  it,  &c.)  which  resist  inflection  according  to  German 
models  take  an  8  in  the  gen.  sing,  and  throughout  the  plural,  or 
perhaps  more  commonly  remain  uninflected,  especially  in  the  plural, 
the  article  alone  indicating  the  case  and  number :  ber  (£8fimo,  be8 
<J8fhnc(e),  pi.  bte  <?gftmo(8). 

86.  i.  Names  of  persons  and  all  political  divisions,  as  countries, 
states,  counties,  cities,  and  the  like,  do  not  in  general  take  an 
article  except  when  modified  by  an  adjective.  They  take  an  8 
(never  e6)  in  the  gen.  sing,  when  they  are  not  preceded  by  an 
article  or  pronominal  adjective,  but  take  no  ending  when  an  article, 
pronominal  adjective,  or  appositive  precedes :  SBilfyelmS  «§ut,  but 
ber  «§ut  be8  fleinen  SBtltyelm;  ^(nrta8  £ut,  or  ber  «§ut  ber  Qtnna;  bic 
Unitterfttaten  2>eutfd?tanb8,  but  bte  ^Irnteen  be8  mddjtigen  £)eittfcfylanb ;  bic 
(Sinrcoijner  ber  4?aitptftabt  Serlin ;  ba8  Jtinb  be8  @cfyuf)macber8  ©cfymtot.  . 

If  the  person  has  two  or  more  names,  the  last  one  only  takes  the 
8 :  bte  3Regterung  griebrid?  9lu'gufl8 ;  2ftarie  son  ©bnersdffcfaenfcad.^  gefamutelte 
(Sd)riften,  &c. 

a.  If  a  masculine  noun  in  the  genitive  modified  by  a  preceding  article  or 
other  pronoun,  adjective,  or  an  appositive,  precede  the  noun  upon  which  it 
depends,  it  usually  takes  an  8,  unless  it  ends  in  a  vowel  or  a  sibilant :  bfg 
grojjcn  .ftatte  Jatcn  (but  bte  £aten  beg  grrfjen  Jtar(),  beg  ?lbolf  S3urgerg  £aug,  beg 
»etratencn  Slrtfyurg  93atev  (Lienhard's  Konig  Arthur,  5),bc3  ^aj^or  ^rtcfcrti^S  <£ot)it, 
but  bc3  gclicbten  ©oet^e  Steber,  beg  ^d^lt^en  Xl)erjtteS  @d>mdl)ungcn.  We  still,  however, 
sometimes  find  the  e  in  the  genitive  also  when  it  follows  the  noun :  (Sr  (bev 
SRonb)  flttrfte  tnitb  in  bte  ^ittfd^e  beg  je^nten  Jtarlg  (Charles  X  of  France)  (Raabe's 
Hungerpastor,  chap.  vi).     The  $  in  the  genitive  in  all  these  cases  is  the 
survival  of  an  older  usage  which  always  required  an  g  in  the  genitive  of 
strong  masculine  names  (see  89).     Now,  however,  not  even  the  above  men- 
tioned remnant  of  this  rule  is  observed  closely  :  bc3  £etnsl  Gutter  (Meinhardt), 
bf8  altcn  (Sparr  Slugen  (Wildenbruch),  tee  alten  ^eterfeit  Softer  (Fontane). 

In  case  of  neuter  names  of  countries,  continents,  and  cities  the  genitive 
ending  is  much  better  preserved,  occurring  not  infrequently  even  when  it 
follows  the  governing  noun :  au3  einet  atofjeven  @tabt  beg  mittlercH  ®eutfd)(anbg 
(Storm's  Eine  Malerarbcit,  vol.  ii.  p.  65),  bte  brei  berufymteften  ©entcn  beg  je^tgm 
(Suropag  (Lienhard's  Munchhausen,  \).  ^>ter  (in  L'Adultera)  bctritt  cr  (Fontane) 
ben  5i3obcn  beg  mobernen  JBerling  (A.  Bartel's  Deutsche  Dichtung,  p.  214). 

b.  If  a  proper  name  is  used  as  a  common  class  noun  it  may,  like  class 
nouns,  be  inflected  in  the  sing,  and  pi. :  bte  SReben  nnfcreg  (Stcerog  the  speeches 
of  our  great  orator  (lit.  our  Cicero),  bic  Stcerog,  bte  GromtocKe  unb  QMgmarde  ber 
Suftmft.    But  like  a  proper  noun  it  is  often  uninflected  after  an  article :  etne 
alte  ?lnflage  beg  23abefet  (Rodenberg's  Klostermanns  Grundstuck,  III). 

2.  For  names  of  persons  and  places  not  preceded  by  an  article, 
the  following  variations  of  the  general  rule  for  the  formation  of  the 
gen.  occur : 

a.   Names  of  persons  ending  in  a  sibilant  8,  £,  fd),  i,  \,  may 


102  INFLECTION   OF    PROPER   NOUNS      86. 2.  a. 

remain  unchanged  in  the  gen.  sing.,  adding,  usually,  however, 
the  apostrophe :  23of}'  ©ebicfyte,  nad)  $enfc'  2Betfung  (Fontane),  t>on 
3neg'  fleinen  fraftigen  <§dnben  (Storm),  bie  ©timmen  i?on  ^elir'  Jtameraben, 
Qlgneg'  «£>o<%ett  (G.  Hirschfeld),  bag  SBilbnig  aug  bem  bitnfeln  SBinfel  ber 
(Stubierftube  9lfcam  Dleariug'  (Jensen),  Sfolbe  <ftur$,  bie  Softer  Hermann 
Jtitrj'  (Bartels'  Deutsche  Dichtung,  p.  202).  Many  prefer  g  after  those 
in  8  and  f$ :  93ufd?'g  @rja$Iung  (Minor),  beim  Qlnblid  ©robifcfcfy'g  (Hart- 
leben).  Some  use  in  case  of  all  sibilants  the  mixed  gen.  ending  eng, 
a  form  once  common,  but  apparently  much  less  used  to-day,  more 
frequent,  however,  with  Christian  names  than  surnames :  an  Subicig 
^ietfcfyeng  <£eite,  bie  <£timme  ^elfreng,  «£anfeng  unb  ber  (Romantif er  „  SBalbein* 
famfeit"  (Raabe),  auf  £anfeng  23itten  (Hauptmann). 

Note.  In  case  of  names  which  follow  the  governing  noun  the  gen.  3  is  sometimes 
avoided  by  using  the  article:  bie  93udjer  beg  S^ltX.  In  S.G.  the  article  and  »on  is 
used  in  colloquial  language :  bie  93ud)er  ttoitt  2Sar.  In  general,  however,  the  article 
is  avoided  before  an  unmodified  name,  although  it  is  regularly  used  if  modified :  bie 
23ud)er  beg  fleirten  Selir.  In  case  of  surnames  the  use  of  the  article  becomes  natural, 
when  a  title  or  some  descriptive  noun  is  inserted  between  the  article  and  the  name : 
bie  SReben  beg  9Utertwrtgforfcf?er$  (5urtiu$. 

b.  Fern,  in  *e  may  add  =3  or  *m0  :  SKarieg  or  STOarieng  «§ut. 

c.  Foreign  nouns  ending  in  a  sibilant  usually  prefer  the  article, 
and  thus  remain  uninflected,  as  bie  ©ermanta  beg  3,acitug  the  Germania 
of  Tacitus ;  or  they  may  less  frequently  be  treated  as  a  German 
word,  Sacttug'  ©ermanta,  or,  in  case  of  a  few,  having  thrown  off  their 
foreign  ending,  may  take  eng:  «£>ora$eng  Dben  the  odes  of  Horace, 
instead  of  bie  Dben  beg  4?oratiug ;   Qtne'eng,  gen.  of  ^tne'ag,  &c. 

d.  Foreign  names  of  persons  do  not  now  retain  their  original 
Latin  or  Greek  declension  except  in  a  few  biblical  names :  N.  3efu8 
gfyrifhil,  G.  3e(u  SfrtfH,  D.  3efu  (J^rtpo,  A.  Sefum  S^rifium ;  bag  @»an* 
gelittm  SJJatt^ai  the  gospel  of  Matthew,  &c.     Even  here  the  rule  for 
German  nouns  is  often  preferred  :  Gl^rtjhig'  ©eburt,  &c. 

e.  As  it  is  not  customary  for  names  of  places  to  insert  en  before  g 
of  the  gen.,  such  names  of  places  as  end  in  a  sibilant  form  no  gen., 
but  express  this  relation  by  the  prep,  tton  of:  bie  ©trajjen  ton  ^Jarig, 
but  bie  Strafjen  «§amtwrgg,  or  «§am6urgg  (Strafen.     In  poetry,  however, 
the  apostrophe  may  be  used  after  sibilants  :  an  Jlolcfytg'  jtiifie  (Grill- 
parzer's  Argonauten,  2),  fiir  «§ettag'  <§eil  unb  ©liitf  (ib.). 

87.  Names  of  places  and  persons  take  no  sign  for  the  dat.  and  ace.  in 
choice  language,  but  earlier  and  still  in  the  classical  period  the  ending  ;en 
for  dat.  and  ace.  sing,  was  quite  common  in  case  of  unmodified  names  of 
persons.     This  *en  survived  in  the  colloquial  language  and  has  again  become 
quite  common  in  recent  literature  which  reflects  colloquial  speech  :    £>a3 
tvanfm  wit  imnter  bet  93i$uiavcfen  (Sudermann's  Es  lebe  das  Leben,  p.  60).     9ll3 
ftraii  3mme  offuete,  ftanb  Ohibotf  auf  bem  Hetnen  ghtr  unb  fagte,  baf  er  patent  tjolen 
fo((e  unb  J&ebnrigen  audj  (Fontane's  Stechlin^  chap.  xiv).     For  the  origin  of  the 
forms  in  :m  see  84. 

88.  In  a  number  of  instances  words  which  are  in  an  oblique  case  are  not 
felt  as  such,  and  are  inflected  as  if  they  were  simple  stems  : 

I.  The  many  geographical  names  in  ;en  are  in  fact  datives :  Dfruenfirdjen, 
@ad)fen,  from  older  ze  (=  ju)  der  niuwun  kirchun,  ze  den  Sachsen.  They 
originated  in  prepositional  phrases,  later  the  preposition  and  article  disap- 


92.i.a.      INFLECTION   OF   PROPER   NOUNS  103 

peared  and  the  dative  became  the  stem  of  the  new  form  :    bie  ^ 


2.  Thus  an  original  gen.  is  often  not  felt  as  such  and  treated  as  a  simple 
stem  :  2Bir  tterben  ung  ndd)fien  Soljamu  (St  John's  day)  uneber  fpred)en  (Spiel- 
hagen's  Was  will  das  werden,  II.  ii).  93ig  funftige  3ol)anni6.  Here  Sofyanni, 
or  3ofyannig,  is  a  masc.  gen.  treated  as  an  ace.,  the  gender  being  masc.  after 
the  analogy  of  the  word  £ag  understood,  or  fern,  after  the  analogy  of 
2Betl)nad)tSjeit  Christmas-time,  ^jxngfyeit  Pentecost. 

89.  Formerly  and  still  in  the  classical  period  the  gen.  which  was  preceded 
by  an  article  usually  took  an  6  :  3Me  fieiben  beg  Sungen  JSertfyerg  The  Sufferings 
of  Young  Werther  (title  of  one  of  Goethe's  works). 

90.  Colloquially,  especially  in  the  North,  masculine  and  feminine  common 
nouns  (the  latter  of  which  according  to  the  general  rule  are  not  inflected  in 
the  sing.)  are  often  treated  as  proper  nouns,  the  substantive  dropping  the 
article  and  taking  an  g  in  the  gen.  and  sometimes  (e)n  (see  87)  in  the  dat.  and 
ace.,  when  it  refers  to  a  definite  person  :  93ater  fcmmt.    2Benn  jte  J?aifevg  ©eburtg; 
tag  feiern  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap.  yii).     £>u  bifl  SBatevg  £od)ter  (Hauptmann's 
Michael  Kramer,  Act  i).     3a,  beine  £od)tet  imb  Saterg  bin  id)  (ib.).     9tad)bar$ 
£dngd)en,   @d)ufterg  2)ortd)en,  2J?amag  (2J?utterg,  £anteg)  3itnmer.    3d)  toetbe  bag 
5Kuttevn  fagett.    §l(g  Srau  Sntme  offnete,  ftanb  OJubolf  attf  bent  fteinen  %\\\x  unb  fagte, 
ba^  er  SBotern  Ijcten  fofle  iinb  ^ebtoigen  and)  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  chap.  xiv).     3d) 
luerbe  ©rojjmutter  bitten.     Likewise  fern,  titles  :   SKajejidtd  93efe^I  His  Majesty's 
order. 

A  title  with  a  preceding  article  is  sometimes  treated  as  a  name,  if  it  is 
used  as  such  :  beg  !Defan  (Marriot's  Der  geistliche  Tod,  chap,  ii),  ntit  ben  @ad)en 
bed  35oftot  (Hauptmann's  Friedensfest,  p.  15),  but  more  commonly  with  in- 
flectional 6  :  bie  (Stimme  beg  2>oftcr$  (ib.,  p.  48),  beg  SDoftorg  £anb  (ib.,  p.  52). 

91.  The  residence  of  an  individual  is  often  written  in  one  word  with  his 
name  :    -§ert  Sammer&SSremen   Mr.   Lammers  from  Bremen  ;    35ireftor  SBirtfys 
^Ic^enfee  bci  33erltn  Director  Wirth  from  Plotzensee  near  Berlin.     Formerly 
»on  was  placed  before  the  name  of  the  place.     The  ton  is  not  now  used,  as 
it  might  be  construed  as  representing  a  title  of  nobility. 


INFLECTION  OF  TITLES. 

92.  A  full  treatment  of  the  proper  titles  which  must  be  given  to 
people  of  different  social  standing  can  be  obtained  in  any  of  the 
numerous  -Brief jlefler  which  usually  treat  this  delicate  subject. 

The  leading  points  as  to  the  inflection  of  these  titles  are  as 
follows  : 

i.  When  a  title  (or  titles)  not  preceded  by  an  article  stands 
before  a  name  of  a  person,  the  name  alone  is  inflected,  except 
the  one  title  «£>ert  Mr.,  which  is  always  inflected :  J?atfer  SBtlfyelmS 
(gcfylofj  Emperor  William's  castle,  ^rofeffot  2)r.  5(.  JtuIjnS  ^orlefungen 
the  lectures  of  Professor  A.  Kuhn,  Ph.D.  S)aS  £e6en  ^erjog  93ern* 
tyarfcS.  ©r  faracfy  sou  $rdfibent  ©rant,  son  ©raf  9ftecl;berg.  But  «§errn 
(SdjmtbtS  «&ut,  ber  <§ut  be3  ^errn  @d;mit)t,  ber  ©otyn  beS  JtaufmannS 
«§errn  <Sd)mibt.  Earlier  in  the  period  «£err  was  treated  like  other 
titles  and  was  left  uninflected  when  not  preceded  by  an  article  : 
3ttad;e  (5r  «§err  Sitjlen  (see  87)  ben  Jlopf  nid;t  njarm  (Lessing's  Minna, 
1,2). 

a.  Exceptions  occur  not  infrequently  when  a  gen.  follows  its  governing 
noun.  Here  the  title  and  also  the  name  if  the  latter  has  an  appended  title 


104  INFLECTION   OF  TITLES  92.  i.  a. 

(see  3,  below)  and  does  not  itself  end  in  a  sibilant  have  quite  frequently 
inflection  instead  of  the  name  alone  having  it  :  bie  SDfebaitten  $apfte  (Siemens 
be<5  ©iebenten  (Goethe),  etn  SBrief  .RonigS  Subtttg  (Kolnische  Zeitung),  ate  9lad^ 
folgcr  toeUanb  @r$erjog«  2Bitf)elm  (Uber  Land  und  Meer),  bie  Softer  beg  alten,  al« 
Ijalb  to((  befannten  -£etrn  tton  <£parr,  beS  Sdgermeifietg  toeUanb  Jhtrfiirflen  3oacfyun$ 
beg  (gvflen  (Wildenbruch),  bis  jum  2)?onumente  ^cnig3  3Rar  II.  (Hans  Hopfen). 

2.  a.  When  the  title  or  other  similar  modifying  noun  standing 
before  the  name  is  preceded  by  an  article,  it  may  be  inflected, 
or  more  commonly  remains  unchanged,  the  name  itself  usually 
remaining  without  inflection  :  bie  SBerfe  beg  $rofeffbrg  or  $rofeffor 
<5cfymit>t,  bie  ^odjflubten  beg  Srdulctn  Jllara,  ber  SSrief  beg  £%im  ©runefcaum 
(Raabe),  mit  «§ulfe  beg  Dljeimg  ©rimefcaum  (ib.),  unter  bem  Jtommanbo 
etneg  ^duptling  nameng  Stamen  (Kdnische  Zeitung\  an  SSorb  beg  ©cfyiff 
(or  ©d^iffeg)  SKotce,  obertyalb  beg  ^at»  SBigmarcf,  bag  @i  beg  3Soget  0toc^  im 
Sftarcfyen  (Sinbbabg  beg  <Seefa^rerg  (Raabe). 

When  the  gen.  precedes,  the  name  sometimes  has  g  and  is 
sometimes  without  it  :  meineg  Sreunbeg  ^ap^bop  jRegenfc^irm  (Raabe's 
Fruhling,  chap,  iv),  beg  Dnfel  £etnrid)g  (Sttmnte  (Storm's  Carsten  Curator, 
p.  144),  beg  (Stafcgtrompeter  Oiapmann  S3Iafen  (SchefFel's  Trompeter,  6. 

Stack). 

Inflection  of  the  title  is  more  common  in  the  wk.  declension  : 
ber  @ofen  beg  ©rafett  0ted?6erg,  but  an  9Borb  beg  ..^rinj  3BaIi>emar"  (boat). 

Earlier  in  the  period  and  sometimes  still  we  find  inflection  of 
both  title  and  name,  even  when  the  gen.  follows  :  bie  Sobfarttcfye 
beg  Jturfitrfien  5Hf>red}tg  (Lessing),  auf  ber  ftau&igen  (S^auffee  beg  SCetterg 
SBaffertreterg  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap,  xxxvi).  Sometimes  we  find  the 
inflection  of  the  name  alone  :  ber  JUang  ber  4?aitgglocfe  beg  2)oftor 
5)ad;reiterg  (Raabe's  Pechlin,  II.  chap.  xix). 

Note.  In  the  rare  case  where  a  title  in  the  gen.  is  preceded  by  a  dependent  gen. 
which  is  modified  by  an  article  or  pronominal  adjective,  the  governing  title  must  of 
course  drop  its  article.  In  this  case  usage  does  pot  commonly  require  a  gen.  ending 
on  the  governing  gen.,  as  the  force  of  the  article  or  pronominal  adjective  before  the 
preceding  dependent  gen.  is  felt,  but  more  conscientious  writers  use  the  gen.  ending 
here  :  an  S3otb  (Seiner  SWajeftat  @$tff  (instead  of  <£<$iff$)  5W6n?e,  ber  ItebenStourbige 
Jtcntmanbant  ©.[einer]  9K.[aieflat]  Jlreujerg  Satfe  (Kolnische  Zeitung).  Others  prefer 
here  to  replace  the  governing  gen.  by  a  dat.  after  »cn  :  an  S3otb  »on  (Seiner  2Raiejidt 
Sdjiff 


b.  If  several  titles  preceded  by  an  article  stand  before  a  name, 
usually  only  the  first  title  is  inflected,  but  there  is  here  much 
fluctuation  in  usage,  the  tendency,  however,  being  towards  non- 
inflection  :  bie  SSorlefungen  beg  $rofefforg  >§ofrat  ©cfymibt  ;  beg  «§errn 
(Staatgnuntfterg  »on  @tein;  bie  SKttteilung  unfereg  bereft,  rten  «£>errn  $)tref« 
torg  Softer  9Rofenberg  (Hirschfeld)  ;  beg  «§errn  ^rofeffor  9}teberm6fl?t 
(M.  Dreyer);  bag  gro§^erjige  ©ntgegenfomnten  beg  ©efeeimen  SKebijinalratg 
^rofefforg  Dr.  .ftitlj  (  Weser  Zeitung)  ;  an  ©tefle  beg  ©e^etmen  2)?ebijtnalrat 
$rof.  Dr.  «§enoc^  (National-Zeitung}  ;  ber  Sob  beg  Dr.  SSaron  3aromir 
5Kunbi).  The  title  -§err,  as  in  the  second  and  third  examples,  is  always 
inflected,  as  is  also  an  adjective  which  stands  in  the  title,  as  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  examples. 

3.  An  appended  title  is  inflected  whether  the  preceding  name  is 
declined  or  not  :  bie  lange  Diegierung  $riebrtd?g  beg  ©rojjen,  or  bie  lange 


92.6.  INFLECTION  OF  TITLES  105 

SRegierung  beg  .Ronigg  ^rtebrid)  beg  ©rofjien.  Some  prefer  to  drop  g  in 
the  first  example,  as  the  inflection  of  the  appended  title  clearly 
marks  the  case  relation :  ber  93rubet  Sriebrid)  beg  ®ro§en  (Fontane's 
Vor  dem  Sturm,  II.  14).  The  title  alone  may  be  inflected  in  case 
of  junior,  fenior :  auf  bent  SBette  SSu^entann  juniorg  (Raabe's  Deutscher 
Adel,  chap,  xx),  0ha6e  jumorg  <stimtne  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  p.  157). 
We  also  often  hear:  bie  ©tinnne  Otaa&eg  junior.  If  the  name  is 
preceded  by  an  article  the  title  here  remains  uninflected :  bag 
«£ocl)jettggefd;enf  beg  £ertn  (Scfart  junior  (Baumbach's  Der Schwiegersohn, 
chap.  xi). 

4.  Such  words  as  Sreunb,  SSater,  £cv  are  often  treated  as  titles: 
£>ag  ift  frreunb  SDiuflerg  5rau. 

5.  The  name  following  t>on  in  titles  of  nobility  originally  marked 
the  residence  or  locality,  but  it  has  largely  lost  its  force  to-day  and 
is  felt  as  a  part  of  the  name,  and  hence  the  g  is  appended  to  it : 
Otto  »on  SBigmarcfg  Sfteben.     When,  however,  the  governing  noun 
precedes,  we  find  the  part  of  the  name  before  the  Son  inflected 
according  to  older  usage  :  bag  Se&en  ©o£eng  tton  SSerlicfyingen  (Goethe), 
bte   93raut   ftriebricfyg  son   ©limmern  (Raabe's  A.    T.,  chap,  xii),    ein 
3ugenbportrdt  UBiltyelntg  fcon  Dranten  (Kolnische  Zeitung,  No.  i,  1895). 
Present  usage  also  allows  here  inflection  at  the  end  of  the  entire 
name:  im  3eit«tter  Otto  son  Sigmarcfg  (Fontane's  Ce'cile,  XIII),  greet 
SBrtefe  SSil^elm  sjon  «§um6olbtg  (Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  1901, 
No.  84).    £>ag  ifl  eine  SBeteibigung  beg  Qtnbenfeng  imfereg  23aterd;eng  unb 
^rofeffor  t>on  Otangen^ofeng  (G.  Ompteda). 

6.  The  title  5rau  is  placed  before  the  name  and  rank  of  the 
husband,  and  Srau  or  Srauletn  before  a  designation  of  relationship, 
and  usually  alone  have  inflection,  if  the  article  or  a  pronominal 
precedes :  (fie)  8rau  <£d)mibt,  gen.  ber  8rau  <Sd)mibt,  &c.,  but  5rau 
(Sd^miftg  (so^n ;  (tie)  5rau  $rofe(for,  (cie)  grati  S)oftor,  (t>ie)  5rau  Oberji, 
&c. ;  3^)re  grau  Gutter,  3§re  5rau  ^ante,  3^)r  (3^re)  graulein  ^ante,  &c. 
Earlier  in  the  period  *in  was  often  added  to  the  title  and  still 
occasionally  occurs:  bte  8'tau  $rofefforin  (Goethe).     In  a  number  of 
cases  the  old  ending  *in  is  still  usually  employed :  (me)  ftrait  jHdtin, 
(Die)  ft'rau  @e()eime  3fid tin,  (bie)  grau  ©enatortn,  bie  ©rdftn  or  bie  ftrau  ©rafin, 
bie-^erjogin  or  bie  8rau  ^er^ogin,bie  ^onigin  or  bie  ^rau  Jtonigin,  bie  ^atferiu 
^rtebrid;  the  wife  of  Emperor  Frederic,  &c. ;  3^re  ^rau  ©ema^Iin,  3^re 
5rau  ©c^irdgerin,  3^)r  (5t)re)  ^rdulein  (Scfyrcdgerin,  &c.     If  the  title  is 
preceded  by  an  adjective,  as  in  the  second  example,  it  must  be 
inflected. 

Instead  of  Srau  or  Srdulein  the  fem.  article  is  often  placed  before 
the  name,  which  in  popular  language  often  adds  in  (usually  cor- 
rupted to  en)  and  in  N.G.  dialect  also  fdje :  bie  2NarIitt  Miss  Marlitt 
(the  pseudonym  of  a  well-known  authoress),  bie  ©cfyuljjen  (corruption 
of  <8d?ul$in)  Mrs.  Schulz,  bie  2?ecferin  or  SBecferfcfye  Mrs.  Becker,  bie 
8'tan  93aftovfd)e  ( Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap.  xxii).  Formerly  in  was  added 
to  the  name  also  in  the  literary  language :  bie  ©ottfcfyebin  (authoress, 
1713-62),  bie  Jtarfdjin  (poetess,  1722-91). 

In  case  of  males  •jperr  is  placed  before  the  designation  of  relation- 
ship or  rank,  and  is  always  inflected :  3tyr  «§ert  93atet,  3§reg  «£errn 


106  INFLECTION   OF  TITLES  92.6. 


33ater3  ;   3fyr  £err  33ruber,  &c.  ;   3$r  £err  ©entail,  &c.  ;   36r 

your  employer;    ber  £err  Dberft,  &c.,  £err  Dfcerft  (direct  address); 

ber  <§err  $rofeffor,  &c.,  £err  $rofeffor  (direct  address). 

PLURAL  OF  NAMES  OF  PERSONS  AND  PLACES. 

93.  There  is  considerable  diversity  of  usage  in  the  formation  of 
the  plural  of  names  of  persons  and  places  : 

i.  The  favorite  formation  in  familiar  language  is  either  to  add  3 
(often  en3  after  sibilants)  to  the  name  or  title  used  as  a  name,  or 
less  frequently  to  leave  the  name  undeclined  in  all  the  cases  : 
SKuflerS  |afceu  93efucfy  The  Mtlllers  have  company.  2Btr  gefyen  311 
©duetts,  ju  £>oftor8  We  are  going  to  Schulze's,  to  the  family  of 
the  doctor.  3rcei  SOBoIfS,  girei  3Karte3  (or  very  commonly  3#arien 
according  to  b.  (2)  below),  two  persons  by  the  name  of  Wolf,  Mary  ; 
bie  beibeu  (Jlifa6etfy3  or  glifabetlj  (or  often  (Slifatjetfcen  and  sometimes 
@Iifa6ett)e  according  to  b.  (2)),  but  usually  bie  fceiben  5tgneg,  3ne8  with 
non-inflection,  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  sibilant,  non-inflection 
being  also  more  common  here  than  the  form  in  *en  according  to  b.  (2); 
bie  bielen  Jthibrcig  in  ber  frcm^oftfcfyen  ©efdjicfyte,  im  ^amiltenfcaufe  ber  SBetylanb 
(Raabe's  Wunnigel,  chap.  i). 

Geographical  names  especially  remain  uninflected  in  the  pi.  : 
bie  fceiben  $ranffurt  the  two  cities  of  Frankfurt,  bie  fceiben  SRecflentnirg 
(or  SRecflenburgS)  the  two  Mecklenburgs. 

If  the  title  used  as  a  name  is  wk.,  the  plural  will  end  in  eng  : 
$rafibenteng  treten  tyeute  eine  fleine  3ftetfe  inS  ©e&trge  an  The  family  of 
the  president  starts  out  on  a  little  trip  into  the  mountains  to-day. 

a.  In  such  examples  as  2B[t  gefjen  ju  <&<f)u{je<J  the  e3  is  now  felt  as  a  plural 
ending,  although  the  noun  originally  was  a  gen.  dependent  upon  a  governing 
noun  understood  such  as  §auS  or  Sumtlie.     In  S.G.  popular  language  the 
gen.  of  the  sing,  article  in  the  reduced  form  of  '3  is  here  still  placed  before 
the  name,  even  though  the  verb  plainly  shows  that  the  noun  is  felt  as  a 
plural  :  '6  £arrmami$  begkiteten  un$.     In  other  cases,  however,  as  in  bie  beiben 
23erta3  the  $  is  a  real  plural  ending. 

b.  Many  prefer  to   inflect   names   of  persons  according  to   the  regular 
declension  for  common  nouns,  as  follows:  (i)  Most  of  the  masculines  end 
in  the  plural  in  e  :  bie  SBcIfe,  griebridje,  bcv  tefcte  bet  2Brt)fanbe  (Raabe's  Wun- 
nigel, chap,  ii)  the  last  of  the   Weylands,  &c.     Earlier  in  the  period  the 
plural  of  £ang  John  was  weak,  but  it  is  now  usually  $anff,  or  when  used  as 
a  common  class  noun  §dnfe  (see  71.  i.e.  (2)).     (2)  Most  feminines  take  the 
weak  plural  ending  en  except  those  in  a  and  i),  which  take  $  quite  uniformly  : 
bie  2#arien,  2JZat{)Uben,  SlbeUjetben,  but  bie  S3erta$,  $ftanuty<5,  &c.    Those  ending  in 
a  consonant  have  sometimes  a  strong  plural  according  to  the  2nd  cl.  :   bie 
(SUfabetfye  instead  of  the  more  common  wk.  form  (Slifabetfjert.     Diminutives  in 
tfytn  and  ;el  form  the  plural  according  to  the  ist  cl.  str.  :  bie  ^cmndjen,  SWartfyel. 
(3)  Those  masculines  ending  in  <t,  ttl,  *en,  ;er,  also  all  diminutives  in  ;cfjen 
and  ;e(,  take  no  ending  in  the  plural  :  bie  Sutler,  @cfy(egel,  Jlarldjett,  &c.     (4) 
Foreign  nouns  may  remain  uninflected,  but  may  also  add  ;g  or  ;e,  and  some 
in  tc  may  add  ;tten  or  ;ne  :  bie  9loaf),  SUba,  &c.  ;  bie  (SagUofhog,  &c.  ;  bie  93er$t(e, 
&c.  ;  for  those  in  ;a6,  ;e3,  ;ii3,  see  79.  2.  d  •  bie  ©atone,  6atoncn,  or  SatoS,  &c. 
(5)  As  a  rule  names  of  persons  are  not  inflected  according  to  the  3rd  and 
4th  classes  of  the   strong  declension,  as  there  is  at  least  in  the  literary 


93. 3.     PLURAL  OF  NAMES  OF  PERSONS,  ETC.         107 

language  an  aversion  to  mutation  here,  but  in  colloquial  speech  mutated 
plurals  can  also  be  found  after  the  analogy  of  common  nouns :  bie  2Bolfe 
tn  bet  @d>ule,  bie  dudfte  (pi.  of  Clitaft)  (Fontane's  Wanderungen,  vol.  I.  chap, 
©arj).  These  mutated  plurals  are  not  infrequently  used  in  a  sarcastic  or 
humorous  sense :  ©3  toitb  gettunfcfyt,  baf  famtltcfye  Jtothndnnet  (pi.  of  jfortntann)  in 
Bufunft  ifyte  un»etfd)dmten  3ubtingiid?feiten  gefafligfl  iintertaffen  (Stader).  @te  tji  eine 
©runebaum,  unb  bie  ©tunebdume  fonnen  im  SRotfall  bie  Bdljne  giifammenbeifien  (Raabe's 
Hungerpastor,  chap.  i).  (6)  Only  the  names  of  nationalities  and  a  few  famous 
families  are  inflected  weak ;  see  76.  1. 3  (toward  end).  Raabe  in  his 
Eulenpfingsteili  chap,  ix,  has  formed  the  plural  of  the  family  name  Rebelling 
weak,  perhaps  facetiously  after  the  analogy  of  the  mythical  dynasty  bie 
9libelungeu  (see  76. 1.  3,  toward  end).  Fontane  in  his  Vor  dem  Sturm  forms 
the  plural  of  the  family  name  93ifcenn{j  according  to  the  2nd  cl.  str.,  but  in 
one  place  (I.  l)  we  find  a  weak  plural  where  it  is  represented  as  a  part 
of  an  inscription  upon  a  house  of  the  year  1634 :  S)a3  i)}  bet  98i£enn£en  £au3. 
Some  N.G.  authors  employ  the  weak  plural  quite  commonly :  Sconie  besJ 
53eaur !  2Bie  flitigt  bit  bag  Boa  etnet  (Sdjneibertocfytet  fyiet  im  2anbe  bet  ^tifcen  unb 
^atlinen?  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs^.  71).  £>a3  irat  bie  (Stppfdjaft 
bet  Ufyten  (Frenssen's,/^r«  Uhl,  chap,  i,  and  often  elsewhere).  3)te  Ut6(euen  bet 
otten  3eit  roaten  »ie((eid)t  teligiofe  ©djwdtmet  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  ii). 

c.  The  names  of  countries  and  places  usually  form  their  plural  with  $  or 
remain  uninflected.  The  plural  of  bie  @d)tt>etj,  however,  occurs  with  the  ending 
of  the  2nd  cl.  str. :  2)ie  <5d)tt>eij\e  toetben  immet  fleinet  (Fontane's  Wanderungen, 
vol.  I,  chap.  Die  Ruppiner  Schtveiz). 

•2.  Some  make  a  shade  of  difference  in  meaning  between  the 
uninflected  plural  form  and  the  plural  in  3.  In  the  sense  of 
men  like,  all  proper  names  remain  uninflected  in  the  plural,  while 
they  end  in  3  to  designate  all  or  several  members  of  a  family : 
bie  €tf)erer,  bie  ©rtmnt  men  like  Scherer,  Grimm,  but  SBraung  ftnb  nicfyt 
retcfy  The  Browns  (a  definite  family)  are  not  rich.  Here  again  we 
find  a  difference  of  usage.  Sometimes  we  find  in  the  former 
meaning  also  plurals  in  e  and  8 :  bie  ©algmonne  men  like  Salzmann, 
bie  4?umbolbt3  men  like  Humboldt,  Heine  SHnbcmS  unb  29Iument^alS 
(A.  Bartels)  little  Lindaus  and  Blumenthals. 

Some  add  6  to  indicate  different  members  of  the  same  family 
and  inflect  the  name  according  to  the  regular  declensions,  to 
distinguish  different  families  of  the  same  name :  bie  <8cfynttbt3  the 
different  members  of  a  definite  family  by  the  name  of  Schmidt. 
©3  cjifct  t»tele  ©cbmibte  (or  (Scfymit't)  There  are  many  families  of  the 
name  of  Schmidt. 

3.  Several  names  are  often  found  in  the  singular  after  one 
plural  article,  which  indicates  the  case  of  each  of  the  proper 
names  and  by  its  plural  form  shows  that  all  are  included  in  the 
statement :  (Stcfyfyorn  icar  au3  ber  3cit  to  SefreiuncjSfriege  fyer  tefannt 
al8  etn  Sreunb  ber  Qlrnbt,  <Sd)teiermact?er,  $ertf;e§,  Otcimer.  £ie  fiinban 
unb  ©enoffen  Lindau  and  his  literary  following ;  bie  <£cfymibt,  ^atet 
unb  <£of)n ;  bie  teiben  <8ted?Un§,  SCater  unb  <8of;n  (Fontane's  Stechlin, 
chap,  ii) ;  and  also  without  the  article :  @trabni§  Q3ater  unb  <So^n 
(Marriot's  Seine  Gottheti,  chap,  vii),  »on  Mrnftetn  <8o^ncn,  2Bten(H.  von 
Hofmannsthal's  Der  Abenteurer,  p.  161). 

Sometimes  we  find  not  only  a  plural  article  but  also  a  plural 
adjective,  both  of  which  show  by  their  plural  form  that  they  apply 
to  all  the  proper  names :  S3et  (Steinau  jnjang  er  bie  &6Uig  ufcerrafctyten 


108       PLURAL  OF  NAMES   OF  PERSONS,  ETC.     93.3. 


5^urn  unb  SBufcna  ju  ftfyimpfTidjer  Capitulation.  The  article  in  each  of 
the  above  cases  has  collective  force,  and  hence  when  the  names 
are  to  be  taken  separately  the  article  must  be  dropped  :  0kd?fommen 
t»on  ©cfcfylecfytern,  beren  9hmen  mit  ben  Sagen  Jtarl  5Iuguft8,  $Imalia3,  ©oetfyeg 
fur  inimer  fcerfnupft  ftnb,  luottten  bie  neuerfrifcfyte  ©oetfyesarfcett  forbern. 

Instead  of  the  definite  article  before  a  number  of  names  we  often 
find  the  indefinite  with  the  force  of  such  men  (women)  as  :  3U  ton 
£)orfgefcijidjtener$d()Ietn  jieflen  irtr  fcfyliejjltd)  auc()  nod?  einen  2)id?ter,  ber  ntit 
fetnen  Jftatur*  unb  £anbfd?aft3fcfyilberungen  einen  gerciffen  ©egenfafc  ju  ben 
Jtultur*  unb  ©tttengemdlben  eitteS  Sluerfcad),  9ftanf  unb  Stofegger  btlbet,  2lbal= 
Bert  ©ttfter  (L.  Salomon).  5tuf  ber  anberen  <3eite  rcollen  inir  after  aud? 
nidjt  fcergeffen,  bajj  in  bem  Sanb  eineg  Qtlbert  93t£iu6,  eine§  ©ottfrieb  better 
unb  eine§  ^onrab  Serbinanb  9)iei)er  ber  beutfcfye  ®eifl  ntit  fetne  ^errltc^flen 
33Iuten  getrieBen  ^)at  (Hamb.  Correspondent,  July  5,  1902). 

4.  If  a  title  stands  before  the  name,  the  plural  form  depends  upon 
the  relation  of  the  title  to  the  name.  If  title  and  name  are  usually 
found  together  and  are  thus  felt  as  one  name,  the  combination  is 
accordingly  treated  as  a  single  name,  and  hence  8  is  added  to  the 
last  word  of  the  combination  :  bie  ^tciulein  <Sc(?imbt3  the  Miss  Schmidts. 
Usage  here,  however,  fluctuates  as  in  263.  1.  1.  a  and  also  in 
English,  and  hence  we  also  find  bie  Stduletn  ©cfymibt  the  Misses 
Schmidt,  especially  where  no  ambiguity  can  arise,  as  in  case  of 
a  modifying  word  or  a  plural  verb  :  bie  feeiben  ffrdulein  (Scfcmtbt.  2>ie 
$r<iu(ein  ©cfymibt  ftnb  franf.  But  even  where  there  is  no  ambiguity 
we  also  find  the  pi.  in  6:  bte  betbeit  grduteiu  ftelgentreug  (Fontane's 
Frau  J.  T.,  iv).  In  bie  Srau  SWutter  the  second  word  usually 
takes  the  pi.  form:  oon  ben  Srau  5Wuttern  (Raabe's  Deutscher  Adel, 
chap.  iii).  In  case  of  <§etr,  however,  both  words  are  inflected  :  meine 
lieben,  oerefyrten  <Qenn  £eutnant3  (Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  2.  3). 
Also  in  case  of  5tau  :  ntit  ben  grauen  SKuttern  (Raabe's  Gutmanns 
Reisen,  chap.  iv). 

If  the  title  or  other  appositive  does  not  necessarily  form  a  part 
of  the  name,  but  is  felt  as  containing  a  definite  important  modifica- 
tion of  it,  it  is  inflected,  while  the  name  itself  remains  uninflected  : 
bte  ftorfcfyungen  ber  6etben  QSettern  (Saraftn.  £>ie  ©efcruber  ©rimnt.  Both 
words  are  often  inflected  :  SWeine  23ettern  OlamfcergS  (Hartleben's 
Rosenmontag,  3.  5).  ©rafen  SBaffeboitg  Ijate  eS  im  Sanbe  gegeben,  fo* 
lange  2Kenf^en  juritctDenfen  !6nnten  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  209). 

PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS. 

94.  i.  Many  nouns,  especially  those  that  have  no  article  or  other 
modifying  word  before  them,  remain  uninflected  in  certain  rela- 
tions, described  briefly  as  follows  : 

a.  Unmodified  nouns  connected  by  unb:    bie  ©renje  ^nifc^en  $lffe 
unb  SKenffy  baS  33erf;dltni8  »on  £err  unb  <Sfta»e,  ein  2ftann  Son  ^erj  unb 
2Jhtt.     3Run  fc|e  bicfe  bat)in  gnnfd)en  %tn  unb  ^rau  2)orr  (Fontane),  but  in 
this  combination  also  with  inflection  :  Sort  serafcfcfyiebete  er  ftcfy  (ofort 
»on  %wn.  unb  5rau  Sefjmann  (Hirschfeld's  Das  grilne  Band,  viii). 

b.  In  a  list  of  unmodified  words  :  bie  <Stufen  »on  Sealing,  ©efett  unb 


94. 3- A.  PECULIARITIES  IN  NOUN  INFLECTION      109 

•JKeifter  the  different  stages  of  apprentice,  journeyman,  and  master. 
Adjective-substantives,  however,  must  always  be  inflected,  even  in 
such  lists  :  bie  (Srrettung  son  @d)iff,  SKannfcbaft  unb  Sfteifenben. 

c.  As  an  unmodified  objective    predicate  (262.  III. 2.  A):    2)er 
2Birt  nannte  mid?  ®raf  unb  bann  (Srjeflenj  (Immermann).     Sometimes 
inflection  occurs  here :  @8  rear  itngefdljr  fo,  icie  rcenn  @ie  auf  ber  S)urd;= 
reife  nad?  einent  onbern  (Stern  rcaren  ober  Son  einent  anberit  famen.    .fturj  rcaS 
man  fo  Sbealiften  nennt  (Wilbrandt's  Franz,  III). 

d.  As  an  unmodified  appositive :  bag  ©efcett  beg  fnurrtfdjen  «§off)unb3 
©enriffett  (Goethe's  Gtitz,  2,,  i).     2)em  Qluggeftofj'nen  feme  £ocbter  geben,  \ 
fyeifjt  feI6ft  ftd?  um  ben  Sftamen  3ubc  fcringen  (Gutzkow's  Uriel  Acosta, 
3,  4).     The  noun  which  the  appositive  explains  may  in  German  be 
suppressed  :  9Sa3  tterftefcen  <Sie  unter  (Sngel  ?    Qlfcer  fomnten  @ie  mir  nid?t 
mit  [bent  5Bort]  ftlugel  (Fontane's  />aw  Jenny,  chap.  ix). 

£.  Modified  or  unmodified  nouns  that  have  become  so  closely 
associated  with  a  verb  as  to  form  one  idea  with  it,  especially  in  the 
predicate  relation :  2Btr  flnb  nictyt  mefyr  <§err  liter  baS,  traS  entfprungen 
tfl,  a6er  reir  flnb  4?err,  eg  unfc^a'blic^  ^u  madjen  (Goethe's  Wahlverw. 
2,  12).  llnter  llmfidnben  fonnen  rctr  atte  2ftobefl  fein  (Hauptmann's 
Michael  Kramer,  Act  2,  p.  58).  9kd)  etnigen  SBodjen  fd;on  iraren  fte 
gut  Sreitnb  mit  ntir  (Marriot's  Seine  Gottheit,  chap.  ii). 

f.  In  case  of  an  unmodified  noun  that  stands  before  a  preposition 
and  is  repeated  again  after  it :  <Ste  rutyten  <£er$  an  <§erj. 

g,  Neut.  and  masc.  nouns  used  in  a  collective  sense  after  expres- 
sions of  weight,  measure,  extent,  or  quantity ;  see  96.  4.  (i). 

2.  An  unmodified  noun  in  the  singular  following  »on  in  a  phrase 
which  stands  as  an  appositive  to  a  preceding  noun  agrees  with  this 
preceding  noun  in  case  :  ein  armer  Seufel  »on  $fyilologe  (Schticking),  ein 
Sureel  »on  ^erjenSmenfcfy  (F.  Lienhard).     @r  fcfyalt   ,,ben  Pummel  oott 
3ungen,"  ber  uon  ,,^uten  itnb  9BIafen  ntd;tg  irufjte "  (Frenssen's  Jorn  Uhl, 
chap,  xviii).     In  the  plural  the  dative  form  is  required :   Itnb  meine 
•£wnbe  »on  Oleitern !  (Goethe's  Gtitz,  3,  13) ;  ictr  fceiben  bummen  Sungett 
Don   SWebijtnern  (Hartleben's  Das  Kalbscotelette).     If  an   article  or 
adjective  precedes,  the  dative  is  also  required  in  the  sing. :  ein 
@d;urfe  oon  einent  (Solbaten  (Lessing's  Minna,  3.  n). 

3.  A.    When   a  noun   modifies  a  noun   or  pronoun   denoting 
weight,  measure,  extent,  quantity,  or  kind,  and  forms  together 
with  it  the   idea  of  one  complete  whole,   it   stands   in  the   gen. 
only   in   a   rather  choice,    literary   style,    while    in   the   ordinary 
language  of  every  day  it  more   commonly  stands  in  apposition 
with  the  preceding  noun  of  weight,  measure,  extent,  or  quantity, 
except  when  that  preceding  noun  is  in  the  gen.  sing.,  in  which 
case  it  more  commonly  takes  the  form  of  the  nominative  :  ein  ^>funb 
frleifcfy  (instead  of  ftleifdjeS),  ein  ®IaS  guter  SBetn,  ber  $rei3  bcS  $funbeS 
^leifd?  (instead  of  §Ieifd?e§),  ber  $reig  einer  SBagentabung  fcfyteftfcfye  Jtotyte, 
fantt  einent  filter  ofterreidjifd^cm  2Bein,  mit  einent  S)u|enb  guten  Qfyfetn  (or 
often  guter  &$fel,  as  the  gen.  is  better  preserved  when  it  stands  in 
the  pi.  and  is  modified),  SSafen  aug  (made  out  of)  einer  5trt  ffyonem 
3)tonnor,   ein   (Stab   »on  40   Gentinteter  Sdngc,  fcielen  2!aufenb  2)cutfdjen 
befannt,  nad;  einer  @tunbe  3flafl,  nad;  Diet  Safyren  ?yri{l  after  a  period  of 


110      PECULIARITIES  IN  NOUN  INFLECTION  94.  3.  A. 

four  years,  6  Sage  6i3  i  (read  einen)  SKortat  ©efdngniS  from  six  days 
to  one  month's  imprisonment,  felt  2fttfltarben  Safyren.  (Sr  !aitft  ein 
£>itfcenb  gute  ©tafclfebern.  hartal  ift  etne  ©tunbe  (Jifenbafyn  t>on  ^onftan= 
tino'^el  mtfernt  Cartal  is  an  hour's  ride  by  rail  from  Constantinople. 
(5:r  6at  urn  etne  SKinute  gndbigeg  ©efyifr  He  begged  for  a  moment's  kind 
hearing. 

The  gen.  ending  8  of  the  noun  denoting  the  weight  or  measure  is 
often  suppressed,  while  the  dependent  word  has  the  regular  gen. 
form  :  jum  Stnfauf  eineS  <StiicE  SSie^g  (Raabe's  Die  Innerste,  chap.  i). 
The  gen.  ending  8  of  the  noun  denoting  the  weight  or  measure  is 
sometimes  suppressed,  while  the  following  noun  is  without  inflec- 
tion :  bte  «§dlfte  be§  tyal&en  (Scfyoppen  5Ipfeltt>ein  (Raabe's  Eulenpfingsten, 
chap.  x). 

It  must  be  noticed  that  in  case  of  a  pi.  noun  of  weight,  measure, 
or  quantity,  the  following  noun  in  apposition  can  sometimes  alone 
show  the  case,  as  the  noun  denoting  weight,  &c.  has  the  same 
form  for  sing,  and  pi.  and  cannot  distinguish  case  relations  in  the 
pi.  :  mit  jtrei  £>u£enb  &pfeln,  mit  brei  (ScfyocE  (item. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  weight,  measure,  &c.  some- 
times follows  the  dependent  noun  and  may  even  be  separated  from 
it  by  one  or  more  words,  in  which  case  words  modified  by  a 
pronominal  adjective  (see  B)  can  also  take  the  appositional  con- 
struction :  «§armomfcfye8  ®eton  rcar  reentg  bafcet  (Raabe's  Horn  von 
Wanza,  chap.  xvi).  <S>on$  tot  eg  (i.  e.  bag  ©ebicfyt)  angretfbate  ^itnfte 
bte  SKenge  (Fontane's  Vor  dent  Sturm,  I.  chap.  xvii).  (Jinfadje  %aty* 
aboerfcia  gibt  e§  nitr  rcenige  (Braune's  Althochdeutsche  Grammatik, 
p.  202).  ©olcfye  ftefcler  fonnen  bte  3Kenge  im  ^lintitS  fein. 


a.  Instead  of  the  appositional  construction  the  dependent  noun  often 
prefers  the  nom.  form  of  each  number  throughout  that  number,  except  in 
the  masc.  ace.  sing,  and  the  dat.  pi.,  where  the  appositional  construction  is 
the  rule  :  bet  ^reiS  eineg  §ut>«$  ojhrreidjtfdjer  SBein  the  price  of  a  fuder  (a  mea- 
sure) of  Austrian  wine,  famt  einent  Suber  oftermdjifdjer  SBein,  ein  5uber  (ace.) 
SSein,  bet  $teig  einee  *paat«  tcoKene  Sttiimpfe,  mit  einem  $aat  looUenen 


b.  With  names  of  streets,  months,  and  seasons  the  article  often  drops  out 
and   the  gen.  then   gives   way  to   the   appositional  construction,   or  more 
commonly  retains  the  nom.  form  throughout  :    @cfe  £cljer   @tetn»eg  on  the 
corner  of  the  High  Causeway,  mit  bem  Stnfang  3uli  with  the  beginning  of 
July,  Snbe  3)ejembet,  Slitggangg  ©ommer,  and  always  so  in  naming  the  day 
of  the  month  :  bet  etfie  [Sag  understood]  2Kai  the  first  of  May.     In  a  more 
careful  style  also  inflection  :  an  bet  @cfe  bet  93itcfcft>etfitajje  imb  be$  Suifenufeig, 
am  @nbe  bee  25e  jembet. 

c.  The  gen.  also  gives  way  to  the  appositional  construction  in  certain  cases 
of  proper  nouns  where  possession  is  not  to  be  emphasized,  but  where  it  is 
desired  to  show  that  the  proper  name  is  closely  identified  with  the  thing 
expressed  by  the  preceding  noun  :  bag  ?portrat  28.  Simmetmann  the  portrait  of 
(i.  e.  representing)  W.  Zimmermann,  bet  Slnttag  Qiumelin  the  motion  made  by 
Riimelin,  im  SSetlage  bet  befannten  .ftimflanjlalt  Slubolf  ©cfcufter,  fflcrlin  published 
in  the  well-known  art  institution  conducted  by  Rudolph  Schuster,  Berlin,  bet 
^tojefj  OJeinflbotff  the  law  suit  carried  on  by  or  against  Reinsdorff,  bag  »ot 
einigen  £agen  »orgefommene  £itefl  Jtofce5@djrabet  the  duel  which  took  place  a  few 
days  ago  between  Messrs.  Kotze  and  Schrader,  Qttbtnanb  @d)mtbt  9lad)fc!ger 
(on  a  sign)  Ferdinand  Schmidt,  now  followed  by  a  successor,  bet 


94.6.     PECULIARITIES  IN  NOUN  INFLECTION        111 


Gtyfen  (G.  Ompteda)  the  branch  of  the  Eysens  that  has  the  rank  of 
counts,  bie  Sltdje  9loal)  Noah's  ark,  bie  93iHa  ©dnrmadjer  the  villa  of  Mr.  S..  @ie 
fufyren  in  ben  23al)nf)cf  Jtaffel  (into  the  railroad  station  at  Cassel)  ein  unb,  ebenfalltf 
guicflidjertoetfe,  balb  better  (Raabe's  Gutmanns  Retsen,  chap.  iv).  STOetljcbe  Suites 
ntann  jut  Qrletnung  ber  engltfdjen  ©pradje  Schliemann's  method  of  learning 
English,  ba3  SKtntftertum  28inbifd)gtd|j  the  ministry  formed  by  prime  minister 
Windischgratz.  And  often  by  Luther  where  we  would  expect  a  gen.  :  bit  £od)ter 
$f)arao,bie  tSebern  Stbancn.  This  idiom  is  also  very  common  with  geographical 
names  after  the  word  Sum:  S)ag  (Slfdffifdje  erjhecft  jtdj  »cn  tiner  Sinie  3abern, 
2Beifjenburg,  ©elfc  fubttdrte  bi3  jut  flfteid^gtenje  The  Alsatian  dialect  extends  from 
a  line  passing  through  Zabern,  Weissenburg,  Seltz,  southward  to  the  boundary 
of  the  Empire. 

B.  The  gen.  alone  can  be  used  in  all  the  above  cases  if  the 
dependent  noun  is  modified  by  an  article  or  a  pronominal  adjective  : 
etn  $funb  guter  See  or  fcefferer  See,  but  beg  fceften  SeeS,  em  $funb  unfcreS 
See3,  &c.  The  dat.  after  tton  here  often  takes  the  place  of  the  gen.  : 
einer  fcon  btefen  SKannern.  For  an  important  exception  to  the  general 
rule  see  last  part  of  A. 

a.  The  gen.  is  also  still  used  in  case  of  infinitive-substantives  and  certain 
set  expressions  :  faum  eine  Ijalbe  ©tunbe  ©efyenS  entfant  scarcely  a  half  hour's 
walk  distant,  ein  ©tiinbdjen  2Bege3  a  short  hour's  walk,  &c. 

4.  Titles  of  books,  &c.  are  inflected,  or  more  commonly  unin- 
flected:  in  £au£tmann8  ..(Sinfamen  SKenfci^en/'  in  ,,2>er  ^lecf  auf  ber  (S^re." 
See  also  255.  III.  i.A.^-. 

5.  The  inflectional  ending  is  sometimes  affixed  only  to  the  second 
of  two  nouns  connected  by  unb,  to  emphasize  their  oneness  of 
meaning  (see  249.  II.  2.  F.  a):  ber  23eft§  etgenen  ®runb  unb  SobenS; 
tjon  ®ott  unb  JftedjtS  iregen  by  rights  ;    trofc  @turm  unb  aReqeng  ;    aug 
ber  SKttte  feineS  energtfc^en  Sun  unb  SretSenS  (Raabe's  P.M.,  xviii)  ; 
33ertiift  i^reS  -OaS  unb  ®uteg.     The  inflection  of  the  second  of  a  pair 
of  words  connected  by  unb  was  employed  freely  in  early  N.H.G.  : 
&mfc  ,J?orn  »nb  2Wofi3  nriUen  (Luther),  nut  gefcfyencf  onnb  gabenn  (id.),  or 
also  with  inflection  on  the  first  word,  ntit  gefefcen  ober  tcercf  (id.). 
This  usage  is  still   not   infrequent  in  the  classical  period  :   mit 
mancfyerlei  SKangel  unb  ©efcrecfyen  (Goethe);  an  Sier  unb  93ogeln  fe^It  e8 
nt^t  (id.,  Faust,  1.  238).     93on  @onn  unb  3CBeIten  rcetjj  ic^  nic^ta  ju  fagen 
(ib.,  1.  279).     With  the  exception  of  a  few  set  expressions,  as  those 
given  above,  it  is  now  rare  :  5)ann  fyort  man  fte  auf  Srcpp  unb  ©dngen 
^ofjnen  (Storm's  Im  Nachbarhause  links). 

6.  When  compound  nouns  have  been  formed  by  writing  as  one 
word  a  noun  and  a  preceding  modifying  adjective  which  enters  the 
compound  with  its  inflected  form,  the  adjective  is  declined  through- 
out as  if  it  stood  apart  from  the  noun  :   ber  £obe}mefier  the  high 
priest,  beg  £ol)enpriefter8,  ein  J&o^er^riefler.     If  such  a  compound  enter 
again  into  a  new  compound  of  which  it  is  itself  the  first  component 
element  and  another  noun  the  second,  the  inflected  adjective  of  the 
first  component  element  usually  agrees  illogically  with  the  second 
component  element  :   ber  arme  @unber  the  condemned  criminal,  but 
etn  bleicfyeS  QlrmeSfunbergeftdjt  a  paleface  of  a  condemned  criminal,  bag 
Heidje  Qlrmefimbergefldjt,  ju  ben  2lrmenfunbfrfrufyjuicfen  ;  Saufenb  unb  eine 


112        PECULIARITIES  IN  NOUN  INFLECTION    94.6. 


The  Arabian  Nights,  but  rote  etn  Sltenb  ou3  bent  Scutfenbunbetnen* 
nacfytfcucl?  (Raabe's  Zum  Wilden  Mann,  chap.  vii).  Such  compounds 
are  mere  syntactical  fragments  struggling  toward  the  estate  of  a 
true  compound.  The  adjective  is  inflected,  since  it  is  customary 
for  adjectives  to  be  inflected,  and  usage  here  as  elsewhere  requires 
inflectional  forms  to  follow  the  last  component.  A  more  logical 
system  of  inner  inflection  is  to  construe  as  often  as  possible  the 
first  noun  of  the  compound  as  plural  and  allow  the  adjective  of  the 
compound  to  agree  with  it  :  etn  Qlrmefimbergeftcfyt  a  face  such  as  poor 
condemned  criminals  have.  S3on  5lrmeleutemalerei  o(3  fimjttyiftorijtfjeni 
Segriffe  ijt  in  einem  eben  erfcfyienenen  >§efte  bie  9ftebe.  A  still  more  logical 
way  of  declining  such  compounds,  bound  to  triumph  though  in 
many  cases  not  as  yet  so  common  as  the  above,  is  to  form  them 
into  genuine  compounds  and  dispense  with  the  inflection  of  the 
adjective  of  the  first  element  :  bag  bteicfye  Qlrmfunbergeftdjt. 

In  many  cases  such  compounds  are  not  written  together  as 
forming  one  word,  although  they  are  entitled  to  such  recognition 
as  well  as  the  preceding  :  ber  fttberne  Jfreitjfcunb  Society  of  the  Silver 
Cross,  &c.  A  number  of  similar  formations,  as  ein  gerducfyerter 
8fifd$dnbler,  teitenbe  2lrttfleriefaferne  (inscription  formerly  upon  the 
barracks  near  the  '  Oranienburger  Tor*  in  Berlin),  ein  cutggeffovfter 
$terf)dnbter,  ein  roofylrtecfyenber  $Bafferfabnfant,&c.,  are  capable  of  a  comical 
construction,  a  smoked  fishdealer,  instead  of  a  smoked-fish  dealer,  &c. 
The  comical  feature  of  this  clumsy  construction  has  helped  to  bring 
it  into  disrepute  and  facilitate  the  movement  toward  the  form  of 
a  genuine  compound,  mentioned  above. 

7.  In  a  few  loose  compounds  (249.  II.  2),  which  in  reality  are 
each  only  a  fragment  of  a  sentence  written  together  as  one  word, 
that  element  of  the  compound  may  be  inflected  which  in  the 
syntactical  structure  of  the  sentence  would  be  inflected,  or  the 
compounds  may  remain  wholly  uninflected  :  bie  <§anbsofl  handful, 
pi.  gnjei  <£>dnbe  ttofl  or  <§anbOofl.     Some  of  these  compounds  are  now 
felt  more  or  less  as  true  compounds  and  hence  are  treated  as  such, 
the  final  element  alone  being  inflected  :  ber  <2tyrtngin§felb  romp,  beS 
<3pringtn6felb(eS),  pi.  (Springingfelbe.     See  80.  2. 

8.  A  fossil  noun  in  an  oblique  case  may  not  be  felt  as  such  and 
hence  construed  as  a  simple  stem  :  M.H.G.  ze  den  wihen  nahten 
(dat.  pi.)  on  the  holy  nights,  now  2BeU)nacfyten  construed  as  a  fern., 
neut,  or  masc.  sing.  ;    see  96.  i.     Compare  88. 

9.  Feminine  nouns  are  not  now  in  general  inflected  in  the  sing., 
but  the  following  exceptions  occur  : 

I.  The  following  groups  of  feminines  take  an  8  in  the  gen.  sing,  after  the 
manner  of  strong  masculines  and  neuters  : 

a.  Feminine  names  ;  see  86.  1  and  2.  b. 

b.  Names   of  relationships  and  feminine  titles   when  used   as  names  ; 
see  90. 

c.  Some  articleless  feminines  depending  upon  a  preposition,  prep,  phrase, 
or  an  adjective  which  governs  the  genitive  :    an  Sellings  ©tott  instead  of 
payment,  after  the  model  of  an  Jtinbed  <Statt  ;  »on  DbrtflfeitS  toegm  by  order  of 
the  authorities,  after  the  model  of  von  Slmts  toegen  officially  ;   franffyeitefyalber 
after  the  model  of  geiertags  fyal&er.     Slntttotte  (now  SlntWort)  genug  (Lessing) 


96.i.     PECULIARITIES   IN   NOUN   INFLECTION       113 

after  the  analogy  of  93rot3  genug  (Luther).     The  a  of  SlnttoorW  may  also  be 
explained  according  to  102.^. 

2.  Feminines  show  weak  inflection  in  the  singular  only  rarely  in  simple 
forms,  but  quite  frequently  in  compounds  ;  see  76.  II.  I  and  249.  II.  I.  B.  a. 

DECLENSION  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE-SUBSTANTIVE. 

95.  Nouns  made  from  adjectives  are  only  rarely  declined  according 
to  any  of  the  regular  declensions  for  nouns ;  see  111.  10.     A  few 
substantives  made  from  adjectives  have  no  inflection ;  see  111.  7.  h. 
They  are  usually  inflected  just  as  the  adjective  would  be  in  the 
same  position,  but  like  nouns  are  written  with  a  capital  letter: 
ber  QUte  the  old  man;    bte  5tlte  the  old  woman;    baS  "Sdjone  the 
beautiful.     For  declension  in  full  see  109. 

PECULIARITIES  OF  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS. 

96.  i.  While  in  general  the  sing,  denotes  one  and  the  pi.  more  than 
one,  in  certain  cases  the  opposite,  namely,  that  one  denotes  many 
and  many  one,  may  be  true.     A  number  of  objects  may  be  divided 
into  groups,  each  one  of  which  may  be  looked  at  as  a  unit,  a  whole  : 
ein   Saufenb  Gtigarren  a  thousand  cigars ;   ein  5)u^enb  a  dozen ;    em 
(£d}ocf  a  numerical  whole  consisting  of  60  units;    eine  2JJanbeI  a 
numerical   whole  consisting  of  15  units.      Thus  also   collective 
nouns,  as  bic  «§erbe  herd,  bie  5trmee  army,  £c.,  are  nouns  in  the 
sing,  denoting  many.      These  words  can  usually  form  a  plural 
as  naturally  as  any  common  noun,  but  some,  as  bag  93tel)  cattle, 
bag  ©efmbe  servants  taken  collectively,  cannot  form  a  pi.,  since  they 
are  conceived  of  in  a  general  way  and  not  as  divisible  into  distinct 
groups.     Thus  as  the  mind  can  conceive  of  individual  units  as 
a  whole  and   give  expression   to  this  conception    in   language, 
the  form  of  the  word  does  not  always  distinguish  between  sing, 
and  pi.,  and  colloquially  and  in  popular  language  we  can  even 
find  pi.  words  with  a  sing,  article :  em  jetyn  2)tat!  the  sum  of  ten 
marks,  ein  (also  eine)  8  Sage  a  period  of  a  week,  am  @nbe  ber  jnjetten 
acfyt  Sage  (Wildenbruch)  at  the  end  of  the  second  week.     Thus  also 
Dftent  Easter,  $fmgfien  Pentecost,  $BeU)nad)ten  Christmas,  though 
they  were  placed  in  the  pi.  on  account  of  these  festivals  each 
lasting  several  days,  may  also  be  regarded  as  a  fern,  (under  the 
influence  of  the  pi.  bie),   masc.  (under  the  influence  of  ber  Sag), 
or  perhaps  more  commonly  a  neut.  (under  the  influence  of  bag  5eft) : 
@o  icaren  trieber  $fingflen  gefommen,  a&et  nrie  traren  e3  bieSmal  anbere 
$ftng|ten!    (Stifter's  Stud.,   i.  154).      £>te  enrigen  Oftern  be3  £er$en8 
(Keller's  Seldwyla),  fcorige  SBettynacfyten  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap,  xi); 
jebe   SBeUjnacfyten   (Lewald).     ©ebenffl  bu  nod)  on  einen   3Beifynad?ten  ? 
(Storm's   Unter  dent   Tannenbaum,  vol.  I,  p.  180).     5tuf  ein  frotjeS 
ffiei^nadjten  (Fontane's  Unwicderbringlich,  chap.  vii).     Dftern  fdt(t  (or 
bie  Djtern  fatten)  biefeS  3a$r  fya't. 

Thus  also  23ud)  book,  literally  letters,  now  always  sing,  for  one 
object,  was  in  Gothic  and  O.H.G.  in  the  pi.  to  designate  one  book. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  pi.  is  so  associated  with  the  original  sing. 

I 


114       PECULIARITIES  OF  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS   96.  r. 

form  ©efdjttjifter  (in  Lessing's  Nathan,  i,  2,  still  used  in  sing.), 
a  collective  noun  meaning  brothers  and  sisters,  that  the  pi.  article 
is  now  used  (bte  ©efdjnnfter),  while  we  in  other  cases  use  the  sing, 
article  before  collective  nouns  of  the  same  form :  bag  ©ebrange  throng, 
bag  ©e&trge  mountain-system,  &c. 

2.  Names  of  materials  do  not  from  their  very  nature  admit  of 
a  plural  in  the  usual  sense,  but  may  take  a  plural  to  designate 
different  species,  varieties,  or  grades  of  the  same  thing :  ber  SBetn 
wine,  pi.  SSeine  different  kinds  of  wine,  Oifcetnireine  Rhine  wines, 
Ototreeine ;  bag  £olj  wood,  pi.  $6I$er  different  kinds  of  wood ;  bte  23aum= 
icofte  cotton,  pi.  bie  amerifamfdjen  93aumrcoflen  American  varieties  of 
cotton ;  feine  58teie  fine  grades  of  lead  (for  pencils,  &c.). 

a.  This  simple  pi.  is  often   replaced  by  compound   plurals,  formed  by 
adding  to  the  name  of  the  material  the  substantive  9tct  for  the  species  of 
life  or  growth,  or  kinds  of  manufactured  articles,  and  <£orte  for  different 
varieties  of  the  same  species  of  life  or  growth,  or  for  different  brands  or 
sorts  of  manufactured  articles,  or  by  adding  ©toffe  (or  3euge  or  ©etoebe)  to 
the  name  of  textile  goods :    ©etreibearten  different  kinds  of  grain,  ^oljarten 
different  kinds  of  wood,  ©tafjtarteu  different  kinds  of  steel ;  Jlaffeefortm  different 
sorts   of  coffee,  SJtannttteinfortett  different  sorts   of   brandy ;    ©eibenftoffe  or 
©eibenjeitge  silks,  SltfaSgeftefce  satin  fabrics. 

b.  Of  course  when  the  names  of  materials   denote  a  definite  portion  of 
the  material  a  plural  can  be  formed,  which  in  a  number  of  cases  (see  83)  has 
developed  a  different  pi.  from  the  form  indicating  different  kinds  of  the 
material :  bag  S3rot  bread,  loaf,  pi.  bte  93rote  loaves  ;  bag  £ovn  horn,  pi.  Corner 
pieces  of  horn,  horns  (of  an  animal),  pi.  £orne  kinds  of  horn  ;  bag  £ud)  cloth, 
pi.  £ud)er  pieces  of  cloth,  shawls,  pi.  !tud}e  kinds  of  cloth. 

3.  Names  of  persons  do  not  take  a  pi.  except  when  they  indicate 
that  a  number  of  persons  enjoy  a  common  name,  or  when  they 
assume  the  force  of  common  nouns :  ©oetfjeS  the  Goethes  (family), 
bte  ©oetfje  great  poets  like  Goethe. 

4.  (i).  An  important  group  of  words  have  an  uninflected  pi.,  in 
form  exactly  like  the  nom.  sing.,  when  they  are  used  in  a  collective 
sense  to  express  weight,  measure,  extent,  and  quantity — namely, 
all  neut.  and  masc.  nouns,  and  the  feminines  8'auft  or  £anb  hand, 
£anbt>ofl  handful,  Sftanbet  (pi.  also  Stfanbeln)  a  numerical  whole  con- 
sisting of  15  units,  2ftarf  mark  (coin) :  jrcei  5affer  two  separate  casks, 
but  jrcei  5ap  SGBetn  two  casks  (as  a  measure)  of  wine ;  grcei  9Biere 
two  kinds  of  beer,  but  jroei  93ter  two  glasses  of  beer;    jicei  <£ticfe 
two  (empty)  sacks,   but   jtcet   @acf    -Kefyl  two    sacks   of  flour;    ein 
©ercicfyt   *>on  140  Jtitogramm  (or  Jttlo)  a  weight  of  140  kilograms  ; 
400  SWann  Snfanterte  400  men  of  infantry  (who  move  as  one  man 
under  the  command  of  one  man),  but  4  2E£nner  four  men  (taken 
individually) ;  jefyn  pfennig  ten  pfennigs  in  one  piece,  but  $e$n  $fennige 
ten  one-pfennig  pieces ;  eintge  £)u£enb  ^abetten  several  dozen  cadets 
in  one  group,  but  2)ufcenbe  folcfyer  ^afle  dozens  of  such  cases ;    jtcei 
StRarf,  ein  $ferb  15  Sfaufl  ty$,  bte  bm  £anbt>ott  <£rbe.     2Her  SWanbel  gebeit 
ein  (Scfyocf. 

In  case  of  other  feminines  be  sure  to  place  the  noun  in  the  pi. : 
jtt>ft  5"Iafd)en  2Betn,  jwei  £affen  ^nffce. 

If  it  is  not  a  question  of  weight  or  measurement,  but  of  a  mode  of 


96.5-A.0.  PECULIARITIES  OF  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS  115 

weighing  or  measuring,  the  regular  pi.  form  is  used :  @in  Jlito  l?at 
greet  93funb  unb  bag  $funb  500  ©ramm  A  kilogram  contains  two  pounds 
and  a  pound  500  grams,  but  SSei  itnS  rciegt  man  nad)  $funben  In  our 
country  we  weigh  by  pounds. 

a.  This  usage  of  leaving  nouns  in  the  sing,  form  in  the  pi.  when  used 
collectively  started  with  the  neuters,  which  in  an  earlier  period  had  their 
regular  pi.  like  the  sing.,  as  in  English  one  sheep,  two  sheep.  Later  this 
plural,  which  in  form  was  like  the  sing.,  did  not  seem  to  suffice,  and  hence 
alongside  of  the  old  form  a  new  plural  was  formed  in  one  of  two  ways,  either 
by  adding  ir,  which  still  later  changed  to  the  present  form  er,  or  the  word 
took  on  the  common  masc.  pi.  ending  c,  and  thus  for  each  word  there  arose 
two  pi.  forms,  as  @(a$  and  ©Idfcr  glasses  ;  *pfitnb  and  ^fuube  pounds.  Later 
both  of  these  forms  were  put  to  a  good  use  in  that  a  different  shade  of  meaning 
was  given  to  each.  The  form  in  ec  or  e  was  applied  to  objects  taken 
separately,  the  one  that  took  no  pi.  ending,  in  accordance  with  its  apparently 
sing,  form,  was  invested  with  collective  force  to  express  weight,  measure, 
extent.  This  usage  was  found  so  convenient  that  it  spread  to  masculines 
and  to  the  few  feminines  above  mentioned. 

(2)  There  are  a  few  exceptions  to  the  rule  stated  above : 

a.  Foreign  nouns  and  native  masc.  take  sometimes  their  regular 
pi.  ending  to  express  weight,  measure,  and  extent,  or  may  remain 
uninflected,  apparently  without  any  difference  in  meaning  between 
the  different  forms :  jefyn  Xaleutc  10  talents,  cine  <Summe  $ou  30  Safer 
or  £alern,  10  $fenmge  or  pfennig,  $et)n  <£d)ritte  or  (gcfyrttt.     The  plural 
form  is  used  especially  to  give  individualizing  force  and  thus  often 
to  add  emphasis,  even  in  case  of  native  words  of  all  genders : 
ganje  ^cinbeaott  entire  handfuls.     (Sr  tyatte  ntc^r  al3  einmat  stele  Xattfenbe 
SBeitrag  gejafytt,  reenn  e3  gait,  bag  ^ortfcefMjen  trgenb  enter  S&otyltattgfettgs 
einridnung  ^u  ftcfyern  (G.  Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  ix). 

b.  Nouns  expressing  measure  of  time  may  be  inflected,  or  remain 
undeclined  after  numerals  except  in  the  gen.  and  dat.  pi.,  where 
they  are  always  inflected  :  jreet  SWonat  or  2)ttmate  two  months,  but  in 
greet  9Wonaten  in  two  months. 

c.  Originally  all  these  neuters  were  without  pi.  case  endings  only 
in  the  nom.  and  ace.,  in  the  gen.  and  dat.  taking  a  regular  case 
ending,  and  even  to-day  a  gen.  and  dat.  ending  can  occasionally  be 
found  :  reegen  jreeier  $funbe  <8alj,  tint  jreei  $funben  @alj. 

5.  A.  Abstract  nouns,  especially  neut.  adjective-substantives  and 
neut.  infinitive-substantives,  do  not  admit  of  a  plural  as  a  rule: 
ba3  ©cfyone  that  which  is  beautiful,  bag  ©tefjen  standing,  bie  2Bei3f;eit 
wisdom,  bie  <Scfy6nf)eit  beauty,  bie  greityeit  freedom,  bie  ©rope  great- 
ness, &c. 

a.  Abstract  nouns,  however,  take  a  plural  when  they  take  on 
concrete  meaning,  also  to  express  a  number  of  kinds  and  distinct 
actions  :  baS  <Scfyrei6en  writing,  in  the  abstract,  without  a  pi.,  but  ba8 
<£cfyretfceu  letter,  pi.  bie  ©cfyreibeu ;  bag  Qlnbenfeu  memory,  without  a  pi., 
but  bag  Qtnbenfen  present,  a  token  of  remembrance,  pi.  bie  5lnbenfen ; 
thus  also  <£d;6nf;citen  beauties,  Sreifyetten  liberties,  ©rofjen  sizes;  to 
express  kinds :  bie  Jlranffjeit  sickness,  pi.  bie  Jtranffyeiten  different 
kinds  of  sickness ;  to  express  different  acts :  ber  (Syning  jump,  pi. 
bie  <Sprimge  jumps,  &c. 

12, 


116  PECULIARITIES  OF  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS  96.5.  A.a. 


Note.  Fossilized  remnants  point  to  a  more  liberal  use  of  the  pi.  here  in  an  earlier 
period  to  give  emphasis  to  the  meaning  of  the  abstract  idea  or  to  show  that  the  idea 
continued  in  force,  or  was  repeatedly  expressed  :  in  ©naben  bet  jemanb  flefjen  to  be  in 
favor  with  some  one,  to  be  recipients  of  repeated  favors,  gu  Srjtett  iDtenjhn  at  your 
service,  Dfftflier  in  preilfjifdjen  &ienften  an  officer  in  Prussian  service.  In  some  such 
expressions  the  pi.  force  can  scarcely  be  felt,  and  is  in  fact  a  fossil  :  tnit  (ifyren  with 
honor,  ju  ©unjhn  in  favor  of,  ju  metnen  Ungitnften  cber  ©unfhn,  gu  <2d)anben  madjett 
to  destroy,  m  ©djutben  fotnmen  taffen  to  make  oneself  guilty  of,  &c.  Sometimes 
this  emphatic  pi.  is  retained  in  English  where  the  sing,  is  found  in  German  :  2Ran 
rj?gt  Jpofifnung,  93etbad)t  Hopes,  suspicions,  are  entertained. 

b.  The  plural  of  abstract  nouns  sometimes  expresses  a  part  of 
a  whole,  hence  with  less  extensive  meaning  than  the  sing.  :  2)er 
$urft  fcerliefy  bent  93olfe  ftatt  beg  Otecfytg  Oleefyte  The  prince  gave  the 
people  instead  of  justice  certain  rights.  Thus  also  bie  iQafyrtjett 
truth  is  broader  in  meaning  than  the  pi.  2Batyr|etten  truths.  In 
similar  contrasts  even  concrete  nouns  take  on  real  abstract  sense 
in  the  sing,  with  broad  generalizing  force,  while  the  pi.  is  more 
concrete  and  of  narrower  application  :  SCBuftlinge  rittymen  jfd)  ftolj  itnb 
mit  9ftecfyt,  fte  fertntett  bie  SBetfcer,  jarte  ©emitter  attein  fennen  unb  e^ren  bag 


B.  A  few  abstract  and  collective  nouns  can  form  no  pi.  in  the 
usual  way,  but  borrow  a  form  from  some  kindred  derivative,  or 
enter  into  a  compound  to  form  a  pi.,  which  of  course  in  the  case  of 
abstract  nouns  must  have  a  more  distinctly  concrete  meaning  than 
the  sing.,  as  no  strictly  abstract  noun  admits  of  a  pi.,  or  in  case  of 
collective  nouns  must  have  individualizing  force  : 


Singular. 

ber  95eruf  calling,  profession, 

bag  SSefireBen  effort, 

ber  3Betrug  deceit,  fraud, 

ber  23unb  league, 

ber  5)anf  thanks,  gratitude  ; 

titelen  2)anf !  many  thanks  ! 
bag  (Srfce  inheritance, 
bag  5euer.  fire,  conflagration, 
ber  ^riebe  peace, 

bie  Surest  fear, 

bie  ©eroalt  force,  violence, 

bag  ©liicE  luck,  fortune, 

bie  ®unfl  favor, 

ber  Summer  sorrow, 

bag  Men  life, 

bag  Seib  grief, 

bie  £tet>e  love, 

bag  £06  praise, 

ber  £of)n  reward, 

ber  2ftorb  (see  69.  i.  b}  murder, 

bie  9Rot  necessity,  distress, 

ber  9ftat  advice, 


Plural. 

SBerufgarten. 

25efrretwna,en. 

25etrugereien. 

SBttnbniffe. 

$)anrfagungen,  expressions  of  grati- 

tude. 

(5:r6fd)aften. 
^euergSrunfle. 
griebengfcfyluffe,  Srtebeng&ertrage  trea- 

ties of  peace. 
SBefitrcfytungen. 
©ewaltttittgfeiten. 

©lucf  gfatte  pieces  of  good  fortune. 
©unft&ejeigungen. 
Summer  ruffe. 
SKenf^enIe6en  lives. 
Seiben  (pi.  of  bag  iieiben). 
SteBf^aften  amours. 


93elol)niingen. 

SWorbtaten. 

SRottrenbigfeiten  necessities,   neces- 

sary things,  9Jote  distress. 
9tatfdjldge  counsels. 


96.7.6.  PECULIARITIES  OF  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS     117 

ber  Otaufc  robbery,  SRdufcereien. 

ber  <£d?mucf  ornament,  <Sd?mu<ffad?en. 

ber  (Scfynee  snow,  <Sd)neemaffen  heaps  of  snow. 

ber  @egen  blessing,  (gegnungen. 

ber  ©treit  dispute,  ©trettigfetten. 

ber  Sob  death,  Sobegfdfle  cases  of  death. 

ber  Srofl  consolation,  Srofiurtgen. 

bie  (sometimes  ber,  bag)  Unbifl,  less  Unbilben. 
commonly  bie  (bag)  Unfctlb,  bie 
Unbilbe  wrong,  injury,  inclem- 
ency, 

bag  Ilru3lu<f  misfortune,  Unglitcfgfdfle  unhappy  accidents. 

ber  23erbritfj  vexation,  33erbriefjltcfyfeiten. 

ber  23errat  treason,  SSerrdtereien  treacherous  acts. 

bie  93erteibigung  defence,  23erteibigunggn?erfe  fortifications. 

ber  33er$ug  delay,  33erj6gerungen. 

bie  23orftfyt  caution,  23orfld?t6majjrcgetu       precautionary 

measures. 

ber  2BaI)n  illusion,  2Gafyn£>or|ieflungeu. 

ber  3anf  quarrel,  3<*nfereien. 

bag  (ber,  bie)  %\rt>tf)bv,  or  less  com-  %\tfx$br 

monly  bie  3ufofyorbe  all  that  fcefyorungen  all  the  various  things 

belongs  to  a  thing,  which  belong  to  a  thing. 

Note.    35er  93cw  building,  though  not  an  abstract  noun,  forms  also  its  plural  with 
a  borrowed  form,  bie  S3ailten;  see  also  69.  1. 1>. 

6.  A  few  nouns  have  no  plurals  at  all :  bie  Qlfdje  ashes,  ber  23obenfa$ 
sediment,  dregs,  ber  <§afer  oats,  ber  4?opfen  hops,  ber  Snfyalt  contents, 
bag  llnfraut  (sometimes  also  in  pi.  Unfrduter)  weeds ;  and  the  names 
of  sciences  ending  in  if :  bie  SWatfyematif:  mathematics,  bie  SiKetap^ftf 
metaphysics,  bie  ^olttif  politics,  &c. 

7.  Some  nouns  are  only  used  in  the  plural : 

a.  Certain  words  which  were  originally  conceived  of  as  plural : 
Seriett  vacation,  holidays,  ftaften  lent;   sometimes  Dftern,  ^ftngften, 
SBeifynacfyten,  for  which  see  i  of  this  article.    Also  a  number  of  Roman 
festivals  usually  occur  in  the  pi. :  bie  SSacd^anoIien  bacchanalia,  $lora= 
lien  festival  of  Flora,  (Saturnalteu  festival  of  Saturn,  &c. 

b.  A  number  of  words  which  contain  the  idea  of  a  group  of 
distinctly  different  but  related  individuals  or  of  connected  parts 
have  usually  only  the  pi.  form,  though  occasionally  a  sing,  occurs  : 
-2lnnalett  annals,  ^Betnfleiber  or  ^ofen,  or  sing,  bag  2?etuftcib  or  bie  «$ofc 
trousers,  SBricffcfyaften  letters,  papers,  (Sinfunfte  income,  Gltern,  ©rof{* 
client  parents,  grand-parents,  (Srequien  obsequies,  8ort(d;rttte  progress, 
©efcriiwr  brothers  (as   partners  in   some  business),   ©efdlle   duties, 
revenue,  income,  ©erdtfc^aften  implements,  tools,  ©efcfyirtfier  brother 
and  sister,  or  the  children  of  a  family,  ©Itebmafjen  (replaced  in  the 
sing,  by  bag  ©Ucb,  or  the  name  of  the  particular  limb)  limbs,  4?aue 
(see    also    Note  2,    below)   flogging,   lit.    blows,    JtalDatmeu    tripe, 
Jtofleftaneen  collectanea,  Jtoflcn  costs,  expenses,  Jtrteggldufte  warlike 
times,  3«itldufte  times  (hard,  good,  £c.),  Saren  lares,  iJeute  (see  9, 


118      PECULIARITIES  OF  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS  96.7.*. 

below)  people,  Sftanen  manes,  3ftafern  measles,  SKolfen  whey,  9iatitralien 
productions  of  nature,  ^erfonalten  short  description  of  a  person, 
$cnoten  penates,  $ocfen  or  SBlattern  small-pox,  $rdliminarien  prelimin- 
aries, $retiofen  valuable  articles,  such  as  precious  stones,  jewelry, 
dtdnfe  intrigues,  Ototeln  German  measles,  (Scfylacfen  dross,  (Spefen  or 
Unfofien  transportation  charges  and  all  expenses  connected  with 
a  shipment  of  goods,  <£porteln  fees,  perquisites,  Xre&er  (sometimes 
Srefcern)  or  $refter  (sometimes  $reflern)  draff,  drummer  (see  this  word, 
74.  i)  ruins,  Umtrtefce  machinations,  Utenftlicn  utensils ;  also  geo- 
graphical names  just  as  in  English  :  bie  5ltyen  the  Alps,  bie  (Styllaben 
the  Cyclades,  bie  S)arbaneflen  the  Dardanelles,  bie  «§efcrtben  the 
Hebrides,  bie  SRieberlcmbe  the  Netherlands,  bte  $tyrenden  the  Pyrenees, 
bte  33ogefen  the  Vosges,  &c.,  but  these  plurals  do  not  correspond 
in  every  case  in  the  two  languages,  as  bag  ^elfengefctrge  the 
Rockies,  £c. 

Note  i.  Besides  the  more  common  words  in  the  above  list,  there  are  many  others, 
especially  those  scientific  terms  which  designate  classes  of  animal  or  plant  life :  bie 
Jgcrbiroren  herbivorous  animals,  Drdjibeen  orchids,  &c. 

Note  2.  The  sing,  is  often  used,  in  order  to  indicate  an  individual  of  a  class  or 
group,  or  a  fragment  or  portion  of  a  whole,  or  to  express  a  collective  idea :  bie  Sllpe 
a  single  range  of  the  Alps.  3Mefe  -§aue  (pi.  used  as  a  sing,  in  a  collective  sense) 
erfolgte  (Langenscheidt  Berl.  55).  Unter  biefen  2Bcrten  fcaten  fie  big  in  ben  ©arten 
gefonttnen,  an  etne  ©tette,  too  tnel  33udj3bainn  (sing,  used  in  a  collective  sense)  ftanb 
(Fontane's  Stechlin,  chap.  vi).  „  3Benn  alfo  ba3  @$tff —  a^rct5o3,  toag  fann  es  gelabcn 
^aben?"  ,,3ebenfa(l3  Bering, £err  Softer,  fat j en  unb  ^rifd^en"  (Spielhagen's  Faustulus, 
p.  60). 

8.  Several  very  common  words  are  sing,  in  German  (and  hence 
also  capable  of  a  pi.)  which  are  only  pi.  in  English :  bag  5tlmofen 
alms,  pi.  bie  Qllmofen  different  items  of  alms,  bte  53rifle  spectacles,  pi. 
bte  Written  the  pairs  of  spectacles,  bte  Jtnetpjange  nippers,  bte  fitd?tyu|e 
snuffers,  bte  SKeerenge  straits  (of  the  sea),  bag  etnjtge  3KttteI  the  only 
means,   remedy,   inelerlet   SWtttel  many  different  kinds  of    means, 
remedies,  bte  SRa^rtc^t  (piece  of)  news,  bie  neueflen  -iftacfyrtcfyten  the  latest 
items  of  news,  bte  <8d?ere  scissors,  bte  3«ll9^  the  tongs,  pi.  bie  3flngen 
the  pairs  of  tongs,  ber  Qirfd  pair  of  compasses. 

9.  The  pi.  of  =mann  in  compounds  is  usually  *Iettte,  which,  however, 
does  not  mark  sex  as  =mami  does  in  the  sing.,  but  may  include  both 
sexes,  and  thus  represent  people  not  as  individuals,  but  as  belonging 
to  a  distinct  class,  or  profession,  or  trade  :  ber  (Sbelmann  nobleman, 
pi.  (Scelleitte  people  of  noble  birth ;  ber  «§aupttnann  captain,  pi.  ^au^t* 
leute;    ber  ^aitfmann   merchant,   pi.   J?aufleute.      Thus    many    such 
plurals  :  SBergleute  miners,  ^ufyrfeute  drivers,  &c.     The  regular  pi.  is, 
however,  used  when   the  sex  becomes  prominent :    ber   @t;emanit 
married  man,  pi.  bie  @f;emdnner  married  men,  but  ©fyeleitte  married 
people.     Thus  also  when  the  persons  designated  are  not  so  much 
thought  of  as  belonging  to  a  class,  but  rather  are  conceived  of  as 
individuals  who  embody  the  idea  of  inner,  personal,  manly  worth  : 
ber  <££)renmann  man  of  honor,  pi.  bte  (S^renmdnner ;  ber  Jtraftmann  man 
of  power,  genius,  pi.  ^raftntdnner.    Thus  also  3Mebermdnner  honest 
men,  <2taatgmdnner  statesmen,  £aii!ptmdnner  leading  men,  but  «§ait£t* 
leute  captains.     Thus  sometimes,  as  in  the  last  example,  the  same 


96.  i4.  PECULIARITIES  OF  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS       119 

word  forms  a  plural  either  in  ^manner  or  *le\ite,  according  to  the 
meaning.  The  plural  in  *mdnner  is  also  used  with  reference  to  the 
exterior  form  of  men,  as  in  >§atnpelmdnner  jumping-jacks,  (Stfmeemdnner 
snow-men,  &c. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  geitte  is  the  collective  noun  bd3  SSotf  people  and  bte 
2Rertfd)en  people.  93olf,  as  its  use  in  the  sing,  would  indicate,  expresses  strongly  the 
collective  idea  with  many  shades,  as  ba$  beutfdje  SSptf  the  German  people,  bag 
Uterarifcfye  SSotf  literary  people,  »erlief>te3  SSclf  people  in  love,  bag  Qemetne  Sotf  the 
common  people,  ba0  Sanboolf  the  rural  population.  @g  ijl  fdjlecfyteg  SBolf  They  are 
a  bad  set,  &c.  8eute  may  also  refer  to  a  crowd  or  class  of  people,  but  rather  as 
individuals,  and  thus  the  collective  idea  in  it  is  much  weaker  than  in  93olf  :  bte  Seitte 
in  btefem  ^>aufe  the  people  in  this  house,  arme,  reid?e,  alte  fieute  poor,  rich,  old  people, 
frembe  Seitte  strangers,  ttteine  Setlte  my  servants,  factory  men.  Qs  toaren  nut  j»ei 
2eute  tm  Simmer,  a($  tdj  fam.  £>ie  Seute  fagen'g  People  say  so.  J?Ieiber  tnadjen  Seute 
Clothes  make  the  man.  Unfete  SSdter  ioaten  Seute  !  (Goethe's  Egmont,  2)  Our  fathers 
were  men  of  sterling  qualities.  As  can  be  seen  in  the  last  example  under  93olf  and 
the  last  two  under  fieute,  the  former  often  expresses  contempt  and  the  latter  honor  and 
importance.  SWenfdjeit  differs  from  Seitte  in  that  it  lacks  entirely  collective  force  and 
thus  refers  to  individuals  only  :  Slfte  2Wenf(f)en  (every  individual)  ntllffen  jhvbert,  but  9Ut£ 
Seitte  (as  a  class)  muffen  flerben,  junge  Seute  fonnen  fterben.  SKenfc^en  differs  from  SWdnner 
only  in  that  it  includes  males  and  females,  while  9J?dnnet  refers  only  to  the  former. 

Note  that  93olf  in  the  sense  of  nation  has  a  pi. 


10.  If  a  noun  is  modified  by  two  numeral  adjectives,  the  first 
indeclinable  with  pi.  force,  the  second  declinable  with  sing,  force, 
added  to  the  first  to  complete  and  make  more  exact  the  statement, 
the  noun  may  be  either  sing,  or  pi.     If  the  sing,  form  of  the  noun 
be  chosen,  then  the  second  adjective  must  agree  with  it,  but  if  the 
pi.  form  be  preferred,  which  is  more  common,  then  the  second 
adjective  like  the  first  remains  uninflected  :  Xaufenb  unb  etne  iJtatfyt 
The  Thousand  and  One  Nights  ('  The  Arabian  Nights  '),  ^unbert  unb 
ctn  Garnet  one  hundred  and  one  camels,  in  jrcet  unb  einem  fyalfceu  3al)r 
in  two  and  a  half  years,  bret  unb  eine  acfytet  3JJeile  three  and  one-eighth 
miles,  or  more  commonly  (except  in  the  first  example  in  this  one 
meaning)  in  jireiunbeinfyalb  Safyren,  bmunbetnadjtet  2)ietlen.     For  a  case 
where  the  noun  must  be  in  the  pi.,  see  121.  2.  d.  Note. 

11.  In  German  the  sing,  is  used  where  in   English  the  pi.  is 
employed,  in  that  case  where  a  pi.  noun  refers  to  as  many  different 
things  as  it  has  modifying  adjectives,  as  bte  engltfcfye  unb  bie  beutfcfye 
<£pracfye  the  English  and  German  languages,  bet  erfie  unb  greette  SSerS 
the  first  and  second  verses. 

12.  The  Germans  often  use  the  sing,  in  a  distributive  sense  (where 
we  use  the  pi.)  when  the  reference  is  to  a  single  thing  or  respect 
which  applies  alike  to  a  number  of  persons  :  S&iete  tyaben  bag  £efcen 
serloren  Many  lost  their  lives.     Qlfle  fyoben  bie  recite  -§anb  auf  All  raised 
their  right  hands.    2)er  Center  fyieb  ben  2Serurtetlten  ben  tfopf  afc.     3tyr 
miijjt  ben  Jtopf  gerabe  fatten. 

13.  The   sing,  is   much  used  with  generalizing   force   both    in 
German  and  English,  but  in  the  former  to  a  greater  extent  than  in 
the  latter  :  2)er  SKenfcfy  reitb  junt  llnglucf  gcboren  Man  is  born  unto 
trouble.     Often  this  generalizing  sing,  takes  on  real  abstract  force, 
as  is  described  in  5.  A.  b,  above. 

14.  For  the  words  which  have  different  plurals  with  differentiated 
meanings,  see  83. 


120  GENDER  OF  NOUNS  97. 


GENDER  OF  NOUNS. 

97.  Gender  in  German  is  not,  as  in  English,  determined  by  sex 
or  non-sex,  but  is  either  natural  or  grammatical. 

The  gender  of  nouns  is  natural  when  it  is  based  upon  sex. 
Natural  gender  is  confined  to  names  of  animate  beings.  Such 
nouns  are  masculine  if  they  denote  males,  and  are  feminine  if  they 
denote  females. 

Grammatical  gender  is  determined,  not  by  sex,  but  by  the 
meaning  and  form  of  the  word.  It  is  of  three  kinds— masculine, 
feminine,  neuter.  By  grammatical  gender  even  nouns  denoting 
things  and  abstract  ideas  are  often  masculine  or  feminine  by  virtue 
of  their  meaning  or  form  :  ber  ^erfcjl  autumn,  ber  frlufi  river,  bie  ftafytt 
drive,  bie  Oteife  ripeness.  The  origin  of  grammatical  gender  and  its 
original  relation  to  natural  gender  is  not  clearly  understood.  Some 
think  that  the  basis  of  all  gender  is  the  natural  sex  of  man  and 
beast,  which  originally  in  the  lively  play  of  the  imagination  was 
also  ascribed  to  lifeless  objects.  Others  with  greater  probability 
think  the  question  more  a  matter  of  form.  The  idea  of  masculine 
or  feminine  sex  could  attach  itself  to  certain  suffixes  which  occurred 
in  certain  words  denoting  males  or  females ;  or  these  suffixes  might 
coincide  in  form  with  the  endings  of  certain  pronouns  which 
referred  to  males  or  females,  and  thus  give  rise  to  the  idea  of  sex. 
Many  nouns  which  denoted  lifeless  objects  or  abstract  ideas  had 
the  same  form  as  these  nouns  denoting  animate  beings,  and  thus 
became  intimately  associated  with  them  and  were  treated  gram- 
matically in  exactly  the  same  way,  their  modifiers  being  required  to 
assume  a  masc.  or  a  fern.  form.  Also  words  which  had  a  meaning 
similar  to  these  latter  nouns  were  similarly  treated,  their  modifiers 
being  required  to  assume  a  masc.  or  a  fern.  form.  Thus  there  arose 
quite  a  large  number  of  words  which  were  masc.  or  fern.,  although 
they  did  not  represent  males  or  females.  In  the  present  period  of 
the  language,  and  probably  also  in  earlier  periods,  no  idea  of  sex 
was  associated  with  these  words  in  ordinary  language.  In  a 
limited  number  of  words,  however,  masc.  and  fern,  forms  have  led 
to  the  idea  of  sex.  Thus  popular  fancy  pictured  to  itself  the  moon 
as  a  shepherd  among  his  sheep  (stars),  starting  from  the  grammatical 
gender  of  (ber)  3)?onb.  The  imagination  may  also  in  a  limited 
number  of  words  have  directly  personified  things,  assigning  gender 
to  them  on  the  basis  of  some  fanciful  resemblance  to  animate 
beings. 

The  neuter  (i.  e.  neither)  gender  denoted  originally,  as  its  name 
signifies,  absence  of  gender,  and  has  arisen  to  the  dignity  of  a  third 
gender  only  by  its  difference  in  grammatical  form  from  that  of  the 
other  two  genders.  It  is  now  only  possible  by  the  aid  of  philology 
to  determine  the  different  forces  at  work  in  gender,  and  that  only 
imperfectly.  The  following  detailed  treatment  is  intended  only  as 
a  practical  guide  to  the  use  of  gender  as  it  is  to-day. 


98.2.B.(i).a.  GENDER  ACCORDING  TO  MEANING        121 


GENDER  ACCORDING  TO  MEANING. 

98.  i.  The  gender  of  nouns  indicating  animate  beings  is,  as  in 
English,  masc.  or  fern,  according  to  sex  :  ber  93ater  father,  bte  SWutter 
mother;  ber  SD?ann  man,  bte  5vau  woman;  ber  SBruber  brother,  bie 
€>d?nxjler  sister ;  ber  .ffnedpt  servant,  bie  QJZagb  maid-servant ;  ber  23ocf 
male  goat,  bie  3i*3*  female  goat ;  ber  Ddjfe  ox,  bie  Jtiu)  cow. 

There  are  a  few  exceptions : 

a.  A  few  isolated  words  :  bag  9Bei&  and  ftrauenjimmer  woman,  bag 
SKenfcfy  wench,  in  the  language  of  the  common  people  bag  Sftannfen 
man,  bag  SBeifcfen  woman. 

b.  Nouns  representing  not  an  individual  but  a  species  or  class 
are  not  of  uniform  gender,  some  being  masc.,  some  fern.,  some 
neuter :  ber  2ftenfd?  man,  ber  5lbler  eagle,  bie  $erfon  person,  bie  SBaife 
orphan,  bie  @d;real6e  swallow,  bag  $ferb  horse,  &c. 

c.  In  nouns  denoting  the  young  of  animals  and  also  of  human 
offspring  the  idea  of  sex  is  not  prominent,  and  hence  the  gender 
is  usually  neuter  :  bag  Jtalfc  calf,  bag  ^uflen  colt,  bag  Sunge  eineg  @d)afeg, 
eiu  ganj  ^leineg  baby,  &c, 

d.  All  nouns  representing  living  beings  become  neut.  when  they 
take  a  neut.  suffix :  Sraulein  Miss,  young  lady,  liebeg  fufjeg  £antd?en 
dear  good  Auntie. 

2.  The  gender  of  nouns  indicating  lifeless  objects  is  difficult  for 
the  foreigner  to  detect,  but  may  be  learned  in  part  by  the  following 
rules : 

A.  Masculines  are : 

The  names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  months,  seasons,  winds, 
points  of  the  compass,  mountains,  stones,  and  foreign  rivers  (see 
B.  a) :  ber  SDiontag  Monday,  ber  Sanuar  January,  ber  ^Gutter  winter, 
ber  $affat  the  'trade-wind/  ber  0lorben  the  north,  ber  SBrocfen  the 
Brocken,  ber  2)iamant  diamond,  ber  £)on  the  Don  (river).  Of  course 
if  such  names  are  compounds  they  are  not  necessarily  masc.,  but 
are  governed  by  their  last  component :  bag  ^ritfjjafjr  Spring,  bag 
2ftattert)orn  (peak  of  the  Alps),  &c. 

B.  Feminines  are  : 

(i)  The  names  of  most  German  rivers,  most  trees,  plants, 
flowers,  fruits  (except  ber  Qfyfel  and  ber  ^firftcfy,  the  latter  of  which 
also  has  a  fern,  form,  bie  ^ftrftc^e),  cigars  (see  b,  below),  postage 
stamps  (see  b,  below),  and  cardinal  numerals  used  as  substantives : 
bie  SBefer  the  Weser  river,  bie  @lbe  the  Elbe  river,  bie  (£td;e  oak,  bie 
9ftofe  rose,  bie  Jtartofet  potato,  bie  Xraufce  grape,  bie  <§enri)  StaJ)  (name 
of  a  cigar),  bie  $ortorifo  the  Porto  Rico  postage  stamp,  bie  (Jing  the 
figure  i.  For  more  concerning  the  gender  of  numerals  see  121. 
3.  Note. 

a.  The  prevailing  gender  for  German  rivers  is  fern.,  as  a  number  were 
originally  compounded  with  a  fern,  suffix  -aha  related  to  the  Latin  aqua 
water :  SSBetra  from  Werraha.  A  few  German  rivers,  as  bet  JBobcr,  (Sifacf ,  (Slbing, 
Sun,  Jlocfyer,  2cdj,  9J?ain,  9Jecfar,  ^rcgel,  OJecjen,  and  OJfyein,  are  masc.,  as  are  also 
American  rivers  and  foreign  streams  in  general  excepting  those  ending  in 
a  fern,  suffix,  as  e,  a,  and  often  these  are  masc. :  bet  2ftifjtjjtvin,  2)on,  (Sotumbia, 


122 


GENDER  OF  NOUNS 


98.2.  B. 


&c.,  but  bie  Xljemfe  Thames,  SSotga,  &c.  Some  foreign  rivers  have  double 
gender,  sometimes  according  to  the  languages  from  which  they  were  taken, 
as  bet  SRfyone,  bet  Sibev,  sometimes  fern,  after  German  fashion,  as  bie  Oifyone, 
bie  £ibfr. 

b.  The  names  of  cigars  and  postage  stamps  are  fern.,  as  the  mind  supplies 
the  words  Starve,  SKarfe.  In  the  same  manner  other  words  may  take  the 
gender  of  some  word  supplied  by  the  mind  :  ein  (neut.)  <Stafy(,  for  ©tafylpitfoer ; 
feinev  J?crn  (with  the  gender  of  93rannt»ein)  Dutch  gin  ;  beim  SMinbeful)  (with 
the  gender  of  '(Spiel)  (Fontane's  L'Adultera,  chap,  viii)  in  the  play  of 
blindmari s-btiff",  bie  SMicfenSberfer  (name  of  eine  @d)reibmafcfyine). 

(2)  The  gender  of  the  names  of  ships  is  usually  that  of  the 
original  word,  but  there  is  a  tendency  to  employ  the  feminine 
gender :  ber  Jl atfer  SSMlfyelm,  bie  £utfe,  bie  SDWroe,  but  bie  £>eutfd;Ianb,  bie 
Keltic,  an  SSorb  ber  „  2ftoltfe "  (Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  24.  Juni 
1903),  auf  ber  .^ofyen^oflern"  (ib.),  bie  Dgfcorne  (ib.),  bie  Hamburg  (ib., 
29.  Juni  1903),  bie  9laija^oe  (ib.).  Instead  of  the  feminine  we  some- 
times find  the  masculine  gender :  an  bent  llntergang  beg  „  2ftaine "  (Neue 
Ziircher  Zeitung,  23.  Marz  1898),  ber  Saracag  (Hamburgischer  Corre- 
spondent, 24.  Dez.  1902). 

C.  Neuters  are : 

a.  The  names  of  minerals  except :    ber  (Statyl  steel,  ber  £om6af 
(sometimes  neut.)  tombac,  ber  Jtofcalt  (sometimes  neut.)  cobalt ;    and 
9Ucfet  (masc.  in  the  meaning  3el?n£fennigfiucf)  nickel,  SBigmut  bismuth, 
3inf  zinc,   which  are  either  neut.   or  masc.,  but  perhaps  more 
commonly  the  former. 

b.  The  names  of  countries,  islands,  provinces,  and  places  except 
those  that  always  take  the  article  (59.  II.  F.  2.  a  and  b). 

Note.  In  poetic  style  cities  are  often  personified  and  treated  as  fern. :  <SS  tljronf  ant 
(Slbefhanbe  |  bie  jblje  SMagbebura,  (Arndt).  iDie  rege  Sund)  toaffnet  tfyte  Biinfte 
(Schiller). 

c.  Certain  abstract  nouns,  especially  abstract  adjective-substan- 
tives, as  bag  ©cfyone  the  beautiful,  and  infinitive-substantives,  as  bag 
<2ma,en  singing. 

d.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  as  bag  01  the  a,  bag  9(&c  the  A-B-C. 

e.  Loose   compounds   and   nouns  formed   from   other   parts  of 
speech  (see  8O.  2),  except  those  that  denote  persons,  which  also 
sometimes  take  the  neut.  but  usually  the  natural  gender :  ein  Q3er* 
fltfjmetnnutyt  forget-me-not,  ein  2)?e^r  a  majority,  ein  J4Mug  that  which 
is  above  and  beyond,  ein  itnfcefannteg  @tn?ag  an  unknown  something, 
bag  fceffere  3cfy  in  unS  (Goethe's  Wilhelm  Meisters  Lehrjahre,  II.  chap.  xi). 
2)u  tyetraten  ?   SBen  ?  —  @6m  biefeg  SOBen  ttsoUte  id;  bir  unterfcreiten  You 
marry?     Whom  ? — It  is  just  this  question  of  the  whom  that  I  was 
about  to  lay  before  you.     3d;  fyaffe  biefeg  Vebantifdje  atterbeootefie  beutfcfye 
(Sie  (Wilbrandt's  Franz,  III).    9Bei  Xifd;e  tyatte  icl?  ein  ret^enbeg  ©egeniiBer 
At  the  table  a  charming  young  lady  sat  opposite  me.     9Benn  fie  mid; 
irottte — <£ie !   2BeId;e  <Ste?  (Wilbrandt's  Maler,  3,  4)   If  she  would 
have  me— She  !  What  She  ?   @g  tfl  fein  (5r ;  eg  ijl  eine  @ie  (Raabe's 
Frau  Salome,  chap,  xi)  It  (here  the  thief)  is  no  male  person  ;  it 
is  a  girl.     (Sin  (masc.)  ©prtngingfelb  romping  boy  or  girl,  ein  (masc.) 
©aufaug  toper,  &c.     £uginglanb  watch-tower  is  masc.  after  the  ana- 
logy of  £iirm. 


99.3.*.      GENDER  ACCORDING  TO  MEANING  123 

The  gender  of  loose  compounds  is  sometimes  regulated  by  the 
first  word  :  see  102.  h  (toward  end). 

GENDER  ACCORDING  TO  FORM. 

99.  To  some  of  the  rules  of  formal  gender  there  are  many  excep- 
tions. In  the  following  articles  only  the  general  outline  of  present 
usage  can  be  given  : 

1.  Masculines  are : 

a.  Most  monosyllables  by  gradation  (197.  A.  a),  showing  in  many 
cases  the  same  vowel  as  the  past  tense  of  the  strong  verbs  from 
which  they  are  derived  :  ber  33anb  volume,  from  Innben  to  bind;  ber 
93ip  bite,  from  fceifjen  to  bite ;  ber  @projj  sprout,  from  ftmefjen  to  sprout ; 
ber  @d)Iu§  close,  from  fcfyliefjen  to  close.     A  few  monosyllables  show 
another  vowel  than  that  of  the  past :  ber  Srttt  step,  from  treten  to  step ; 
ber  SBefefyl  order,  from  fcefefyten  to  order,  &c.     A  few  are  neuter :  ba0 
(sometimes  ber)  frlofj  raft,  bag  <Sd)to§  lock,  castle.    A  few  are  feminine ; 
see  2.  a,  below. 

Examples  of  this  class  of  words  with  the  peculiarities  of  their 
formation  are  mentioned  in  articles  198-205  under  each  class  of 
strong  verbs,  where  they  should  be  studied  carefully. 

b.  Most  monosyllables  formed  from  the  stem  of  wk.  verbs  or  the 
stem  of  the  present  tense  of  strong  verbs :   ber  £an$  dance,  from 
tan  jen  to  dance  ;  ber  $afl,  from  fatten  to  fall,  &c. 

c.  Nouns  having  the  following  suffixes :  =er,  4er,  «ner,  denoting 
agents,  as  ber  <Sd?rei6er  clerk,  ber  Jlunftler  artist,  ber  ^fortner  door- 
keeper,  ber   SSecfer  alarm  clock,   literally  awakener;   those   in  =el 
denoting  an  instrument,  as  ber  <§efcel  crow-bar ;  those  in  »em,  =tcfy,  *tg, 
finQf  'Una,,  *rid),  as  ber  5ttem  breath,  ber  Srittid?  wing,  ber  Jtonig  king,  ber 
Bering  herring,  ber  grueling  Spring,  ber  ©dnfertcfy  gander,  &c. 

2.  Feminines  are : 

a.  Disyllabics  by  gradation  ending  in  e,  showing  in  many  cases 
the  same  vowel  as  the  past  tense  of  the  strong  verbs  from  which 
they  are  derived :  bie  @prad?e  language,  from  fyred?cn  to  speak,  &c. ; 
(with  another  vowel  than  that  of  the  past  tense)  bie  Allege  fly,  from 
fltegen  to  fly,  &c. 

Most  monosyllables  by  gradation  are  masculine,  but  a  few  are 
feminine :  <8d}iir  shearing,  &uf)r  (usually  in  compounds,  as  5lu8futyr 
exportation).  See  close  of  i.  a. 

b.  Nouns  having  the  following  suffixes  :  *e  (in  abstract  nouns  and 
names  of  lifeless  objects) ;  many  in  *t ;  all  in  «ei  (accented),  «iu,  »ung, 
*fy'\t,  =feit,  *\fyaft }  a  few  in  =ut  and  =at ;  a  number  in  =niS  and  *(al :  bic 
©rope  greatness,  size,  bie  @tute  room,  bie  2ftarf?t  might,  bie  Siecferei' 
teasing,  bie  ©rdfiu  countess,  bie  «§eijung  heating,  bie  93ermeffenfjeit  auda- 
city, bie  ^rommigfeit  piety,  bte  £anbfd?aft  landscape,  bie  Qlrmut  poverty, 
bie  -^eirnat   native  place,  bte  23etru{wt3  sadness,  bie   28irrni3  chaotic 
condition,  bie  93angntg  state  of  fear,  bie  QBilbmS  wilderness,  bte  Srufcfal 
(see  3.  c,  below). 

3.  Neuters  are : 

a.  Nouns  having  diminutive  suffixes   (see   245. 1. 8.  i../),  and 


124 


GENDER  OF   NOUNS 


99. 3.  a. 


those  in  =tdjt  denoting  a  collective  idea:  bag  Jtinbd)en  little  child, 
£)tcfid?t  thicket,  but  ber  or  bag  Jldjrtcbt  sweepings. 

b.  All  in  *tu\n  (except  ber  0teicfytunt  wealth,  and  ber  3rrtum  error) 
and  those  in  =tel  (from  Sell  part) :  bag  frurftentunt  principality,  bag 
SStertel  fourth. 

c.  The  majority  of  those  in  *nig,  *fal,  ?\d:  bag  ©efdncmig  prison,  bag 
(Scfyicffal  fate,  bag  0tatfct  riddle,  &c.     A  goodly  number  in  =nig  are 
fern.     A  few  fluctuate  between  fern,  and  neut. :  bie  (Dag)  drfparnig 
economy,  saving,  (Srfenntnig  (see  83),  bie  (bag)  <Stiiimmg  delay,  bie  (bog) 
SSerberimig  corruption,  &c.     Four  in  =fal  are  usually  fern.,  sometimes 
neut. :    £)rano,fal  distress,   2ftut)fal  drudgery,    @aumfal  slothfulness, 
Xriifcfal  affliction.     A  few  in  ^l  are  generally  neut.,  sometimes, 
especially  earlier  in  the  period,  masc. :  JHinnfal  channel,  &c. 

d.  All  of  the  form  ®e  —  e,  or  ®e=  (without  e),  except  the  strong 
masculines  ©efcraucfy  use,  ©ebanfe  thought,  ®ebei^  (now  obsolete)  pros- 
perity, ©efatte(n)  favor,  ©efjalt  (see  83),  ©efjorfam  obedience,  ©emtfj 
enjoyment,  ©erucfy  odor,  ©efang  song,  ©efd?macJ  taste,  ©ejlanf  stench, 
©erca^rfam  (earlier  in  the  period  fern.,  sometimes  neut.)  custody,  ©eirtnn 
or  ©eroinnjl  gain ;  the  masculines  ©efefl(e)  companion  and  all  other 
masculines  of  this  form  (@e  —  e  or  ©e=)  which  represent  persons  ;  the 
feminines   ©ebtirbe    gesture,   ©efciu^r   due,  fee,    ©ebttrt  birth,   ©ebulb 
patience,  ®efat)t  danger,  ©efd^rbe  fraud,  danger,  ©emeinbe  community, 
©enitge  satisfaction,  ©erecfytfame  privilege,  ©efcbidjte  history, 
swelling,  ©eftalt  form,  ©enjatjr  guarantee,  ©emit  power. 


FLUCTUATION  IN  GENDER. 

100.  I.  The  following  substantives  have  double  gender  with  a  preference, 
perhaps,  for  the  first  mentioned  form  :  bcr  and  bag  ?lltar  altar,  bie  and  ber  (in 
early  N.H.G.  and  classical  period)  Slnget  fishing-hook,  ber  and  bag  Slrfenil 
arsenic,  fcaS  and  ber  93auer  bird-cage,  ber  and  ba3  93ereidj  reach,  domain,  bag  and 
ber  Skud)  swampy  land,  bag  and  ber  53iinbel  bundle,  bag  and  ber  (rare)  35atnm 
date,  bie  and  bag  25ranajal  trouble,  perplexity,  bag  and  ber  @lfafj  Alsace  (name 
of  a  German  province),  bag  and  ber  (Sitter  udder,  bag  and  ber  ftlojj  raft,  bag  (with 
Goethe  and  Schiller  also  masc.  and  still  occasionally  so,  especially  in  a 
figurative  sense  ;  in  early  N.H.G.  fern.)  (Sift  poison,  ber  and  bag  ®rat  ridge,  ber 
and  fcte  -§afpel  reel,  bag  and  ber  £el)l  secrecy,  bie  and  ber  £irfe  millet,  bag  and  ber 
3irtr>e(  jewel,  ber  and  bag  Jtamin  fire-place,  bcr  and  bag  .Ratfyeber  chair  (in  a 
college),  ber  and  bag  Jlnauet  ball  (of  yarn,  &c.),  ber  and  bag  Jlomvromifi  com- 
promise, bag  and  bcr  (rare)  Serifou  lexicon,  bag  and  ber  Sob  praise,  bag  and  bcr 
SKeter  metre,  bag  and  bcr  (after  the  analogy  of  bcr  2)om)  2Mnfter  cathedral, 
bag  and  ber  *j}u(t  desk,  bag  and  bie  DReitnauge  lamprey,  bie  and  ber  $ad)t  lease,  bag 
and  bcr  ^enbel  pendulum,  bag  and  bcr  ^crvenbifet  plumb-line,  pendulum,  bag  or 
bcr  SRucfgrat  backbone,  bag  and  ber  Scepter  or  3eptev  sceptre,  bag  and  ber  (rare) 
©emejhr  semester,  bcr  and  tag  llngcftum  vehemence,  bag  and  bcr  SSerftecf  hiding- 
place,  ber  and  bie  Bievvat  ornament,  and  a  number  of  others. 

a.  In  dialect  many  deviations  from  the  literary  language  occur  in 
the  gender  of  words  :  bie  (for  ber)  23ad),  ber  (for  bie)  Gutter,  bag  (for  ber) 
SWonat,  £c. 

2.  The  following  have  not  only  double  gender,  but  also  double  forms,  with 
perhaps  a  preference  for  the  first  mentioned  at  least  in  ordinary  language, 
and  in  some  cases  a  leaning  to  the  second  in  elevated  diction  :  bie  Skrfe  and 
ber  (as  a  rule  earlier  in  the  period)  Skcfen  cheek,  ber  Barrett  and  (especially  in 


102.  a.  FLUCTUATION   IN   GENDER  125 

N.G.)  bie  J?avre  cart,  bev  Olero  and  bie  9lert>e  nerve,  ber  $ftrftdj  and  bie  $firfidje 
peach,  bee  ^fofteu  and  bie  $fojh  post,  ber  ^frient  or  5pfriemen  and  bie  $frieme  awl, 
bie  Cluajle  and  ber  Cluafl  tassel,  bie  Oue((e  and  bee  Clued  spring  (of  water),  bie 
UJijje  and  ber  9ii$  chink,  bie  ©djldfe  and  ber  ©cfylaf  temple  (on  the  forehead),  bie 
©djerbe  and  ber  (S.G.)  ©djerben  shard,  ber  ©Barren  and  bie  (Spam  rafter,  bie 
(and  bag)  SBerft  and  bie  SSerfte  dock-yard,  bie  3«fK  and  bev  3efy  toe,  and  others. 
The  different  dialects  and  sections  often  diverge  here  widely. 

3.  For  nouns  which  have  different  genders  and  forms  with  differentiation 
of  meaning,  see  83. 

GENDER  OF  FOREIGN  NOUNS. 

101.  Foreign  nouns  retain  the  gender  which  they  had  in  the 
language  from  which  they  were  borrowed  :  ber  Jterfer  from  the  Latin 
career,  m. ;  bag  Jltofhr  from  the  Latin  claustrum,  n. 

a.  A  number  of  foreign  words,  however,  have  changed  their  gender  in 
accordance  with  the  rules  for  German  words,  influenced  in  some  cases  by 
their  meaning  and  in  other  cases  by  their  ending:  bag  j?arjer  school  prison 
(L.  career,  m.)  on  account  of  bag  ©efangnig  prison;  ber  SJJarmor  marble  (L. 
marmor,  n.)  on  account  of  ber  ©teitt  stone ;    bag  fflannec  and  *panier  banner, 
standard  (from  the  French  banniere,  f.)  under  the  influence  of  bag  S^tbjeicfyen 
banner ;  names  of  foreign  countries  usually  neuter  after  the  analogy  of  German 
geographical  names,  as  bag  atte  (Surctya  (in  Latin  fern.)  old  Europe ;  ber  JWler 
cellar  (L.  cellarium,  n.)  after  the  analogy  of  German  words  in  w,  bie  Stage 
(masc.  in  French)  story  (of  a  house)  after  the  analogy  of  German  words  in 
-,t ;  bie  Jlanjel  and  bie  93ibet,  as  they  are  in  fact  plurals  (the  Latin  pi.  cancelli 
altaris  the  railing  of  the  altar  and  the  Greek  and  Latin  pi.  biblia),  which  here, 
as  often  elsewhere,  are  used  as  feminine  singulars.    Words  from  the  English, 
which  no  longer  has  grammatical  gender,  take  their  gender  from  some  resem- 
blance in  meaning  or  form  to  German  words  :  bag  23eeffteaf  after  the  analogy 
of  bag  (Hinbjleifdj,  ber  ©treif  or  Strife  after  the  analogy  of  ber  ©treid).    As  the 
French  has  no  neut.,  names  of  things  which  in  it  are  masc.  often  become 
neut.  in  German  :  bag  ^ottrat  from  le portrait,  bag  (Refultat  from  le  rhultat,  the 
former  following  the  analogy  of  bag  93ilbnig,  the  latter  the  analogy  of  other 
words  in  ;at.     On  the  other  hand,  words  which  originally  in  the  Latin  are 
neut.  have  become  masc.  influenced  by  the  French,  which  has  converted 
the  neut.  into  the  masc. :  ber  $ataft  from  Latin  palatium,  n.  through  French 
palais,  m. 

b.  In  quoting  from  a  foreign  language,  if  it  is  not  possible  to  avoid  placing 
an  article  before  a  foreign  word  or  the  first  word  of  a  quoted  phrase,  the 
gender  is  commonly  conformed  to  the  gender  of  the  corresponding  word  in 
German :  <£h>eet  in  feiner  History  (bie  ©efdjidjte)  of  English  Sounds. 

GENDER  OF  COMPOUND  NOUNS. 

102.  Compound  nouns  have  the  gender  of  the  last  component : 
bie  «§cm3titr  door  of  the  house,  ber  4?au3flur  entrance-hall  of  a  house, 
bag  «£aii6tiet  domestic  animal. 

The  exceptions  are : 

a.  A  number  of  words  having  for  their  final  component  3Hut,  namely,  35emut, 
?angmut,  ©anftmut,  Slnmut,  ©rofjmut  (sometimes  masc.),  (£cl)»ermitt,  SBefymut,  are 
fern.,  while  others,  as  ftwntut,  ®leid)mut,  .£>od)tnut,  Sagbmut,  JUeinmut  (sometimes 
fern.),  SWipmiit,  Ubermut,  Unmut,  &c.,  are  masc.  Here  the  fern,  words  have  a 
different  origin  from  the  masc.  words,  being  originally  abstract  nouns  derived 
from  adjectives  formerly  in  use  and  having  in  M.H.G.  the  fern,  ending  e,  while 


GENDER  OF  COMPOUND  NOUNS    102.  a. 


the  masculines  are  compounded  with  the  masc.  substantive  SKut  and  are 
according  to  rule  masc.  At  length  the  final  e  of  the  fem.  nouns  entirely  dis- 
appeared, and  they  became  identical  in  form  with  the  masculines,  but  retained 
their  fem.  article.  However,  the  meaning  of  the  word  has  also  exercised 
some  influence  over  the  gender  of  these  words,  for,  after  the  masc.  and 
fem.  forms  had  become  identical,  some  masc.  became  fem.,  and  some  fem. 
became  masc.,  and  of  words  of  modern  coinage  some  took  on  the  masc., 
some  the  fem.  article.  At  present  the  feminines,  as  can  be  seen  from  the 
above  complete  list,  express  the  milder  virtues  and  qualities,  while  the 
masculines  denote  the  more  vigorous  or  violent  traits  or  feelings,  or  their 
opposites. 

b.  9lbfd)eu  disgust,  35ogetfd)eu  (Goethe's  Egmont,  act  4,  Strasse;    now  tie 
aScflclfdjeudje)  scarecrow,  are  masc.,  but  other  compounds  of  <Sd)eu  are  fem.,  as 
bie  2Bafferfd)eu,  &c. 

c.  JDie  Slnhuovt  answer,  but  3Bort  and  its  compounds  are  neut.     Slntirort  is  in 
fact  not  a  compound  of  Sort,  but  a  derivative  from  it,  and  had  in  M.H.G. 
a  different  form  :  antwiirte  (later  changed  to  Stnnwtt,  as  its  form  was  influenced 
by  that  of  2Bort),  neut.  or  fem.    In  early  N.H.G.  Slnttoort  is  still  neut.,  and  a 
few  survivals  of  this  usage  still  occur  in  the  classical  period  :  ein  rid}tige8  anttcort 
(Prov.  xxiv.  26).  3d)  gtaubte,  bag  fei  Slnnoortg  genug  (Lessing's  Emilia,  4,  3).    The 
g  of  Slntwort  may  in  the  sentence  from  Lessing  be  also  explained  according  to 
94. 9.  c. 

d.  £ei(  is  now  usually  masc.,  but  it  is  still  neut.  in  accordance  with  older 
usage  in  certain  set  expressions :    ber  lefcte  £eil  beg  93udjeg,  bet  fierte  Xeit  beg 
Sanbfg  (but  in  early  N.H.G.  bag  jefyenbe  teil  ber  ©tab  jut — Rev.  xi.  13).     It  is  still 
neut.  in  the  meanings  allotted  portion,  portion  (in  certain  set  expressions), 
and  sometimes  a  good  deal:  @ie  Ijaben  if)t  £eil  bafyin  They  have  their  portion 
(i.  e.  reward).    25u  Ijajl  bag  befjve  $eil  ettoaljtt  (Schiller's  Maria,  5,6;  compare 
Luke  x.  42).    (Siu  gut  5>it  Seidjtjtnn,  inn  ein  gut  £eil  reiser  a  good  deal  richer. 
Also  its  compounds  are  usually  masc.,  except :  the  contracted  and  uncon- 
tracted  form  in  fractions,  as  bag  iSrittel  or  £>rittetl  third,  &c. ;  bag  ©egenteil  oppo- 
site, Jpinterteil  (perhaps  more  commonly  masc.)  back  part,  SSotberteil  (perhaps 
more  commonly  masc.)  forepart,  *Pjitd)tteil  (more  commonly  masc.)  that  which 
necessarily  falls  to  a  legal  heir,  whether  the  testator  will  or  no,  (Jrbteit 
inheritance,  Sftutterteil  inheritance  from  the  mother,  SSatetteil  patrimony.    Ur'* 
tetl  (n.)  is  not  a  compound  of  iteil,  but  is  derived  from  the  corresponding  verb 
ertei'ten  (px*  reduced  to  ev;  by  reason  of  loss  of  accent),  which  formerly  also 
had  the  meaning  to  pass  sentence  or  judgment  besides  its  present  significa- 
tions.    This  old  meaning  is  now  expressed  by  utteilen,  which  is  a  derivative 
of  ttrteit. 

e.  SWtttwod)  Wednesday  is  masc.  after  the  analogy  of  the  other  days  of  the 
week. 

/.  £etvat  marriage  is  fern,  although  9?at  is  masc.,  since  the  origin  of  the 
word  was  forgotten  and  the  force  of  0?at  was  no  longer  felt.  The  abstract 
nature  of  the  present  meaning  led  to  its  use  as  a  fem. 

g.  Compounds  which  are  the  names  of  places  are  neut.  even  though  the 
last  component  is  of  some  other  gender,  since  they  follow  the  general  rule 
for  the  gender  of  places  :  bag  fdjone  £amburg  beautiful  Hamburg,  but  bie 
SBattburg  (a  single  castle). 

h.  A  number  of  compounds,  which  are  in  fact  each  a  syntactical  fragment  of 
a  sentence  or  a  whole  sentence  written  as  one  word,  are  neut.,  or  if  they 
represent  persons  have  natural  gender  without  reference  to  the  gender  of 
the  last  component :  bag  Skrgtfmeimttdjt  forget-me-not,  ber  <2tynncu'ngfelb 
romping  boy,  ber  Saugenidjtg  a  good-for-nothing  fellow,  &c.;  see  98.  2.  C.  e. 

In  other  cases  where  the  natural  gender  is  not  pronounced,  the  gender 
of  such  a  syntactical  fragment  is  sometimes  regulated  by  that  of  the  first 
word:  bie  ^anbroH  handful,  ber  26ffel»ctt  spoonful,  ber  gufbreit  the  width  of 
a  foot. 


104.2.  A.  a.         QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES  127 

INFLECTION  OF  THE  ADJECTIVES. 

103.  Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes — quali- 
fying (or  descriptive)  and  limiting  (see  118)  adjectives. 

QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES. 

104.  i.   A  qualifying  or  descriptive  adjective  is  one  that  expresses 
some  quality  or  attribute  of  the  object  designated  by  the  noun. 
Contrary  to    English  usage  these   adjectives  are,    except  in  the 
predicate,  inflected,  forming  two  distinct  declensions — the  strong 
and  the   weak.      The  leading  points  as  to  the  inflection  of  the 
adjective  are  as  follows : — 

A.  The  strong  declension,  which  has  by  far  the  fuller  inflection 
(see  1O6),  is  employed  when  the  adjective  is  not  preceded  by  a 
modifying  word,  or  when  there  stands  before  the  adjective  a  limiting 
word  which  has  no  ending  to  show  gender  and  case  :  N.  guter  9Bein; 
metn  Heiner  SBruber.     Hence  the  strong  adjective  not  only  limits  the 
meaning  of  its  noun,  but  it  also  marks  its  case  and  gender  in  the 
absence  of  the  article  or  some  other  limiting  word  that  has  full 
endings  to  show  case  and  gender. 

B.  The  weak  declension,  which  has  only  two  endings,  e  for  the 
nom.  sing,  of  all  genders  and  for  the  ace.  sing,  of  the  fern,  and 
neut.,  and  en  for  all  other  cases  of  the  different  genders,  sing,  and 
pi.,  is  employed  when   there  stands   before  the  adjective   some 
limiting  word  such  as  the  def.  article  or  a  pronominal  adjective 
with  strong  inflection  which  can  show  the  case  and  gender :  N.  ber 
gitte  Jtnafce,  G.  beg  guten  ^nafcen. 

a.  Sometimes  the  limiting  word  is  understood,  having  already  been  pre- 
viously used  in  the  same  sentence,  in  which  case  the  adjective  is  weak : 
bcr  (Srbfeinb  unfeteg  SftetcfyeS  unb  tjeiltgen  ©taubenS. 

Sometimes  in  colloquial  language  the  article  is  omitted  even  where  there 
has  been  no  previous  use  of  one  :  Lotte  :  3d)  benf '  mir  bass  gat  nidjt  fo  fd)6n,  au$ 
ban  grofjcn  8cbm  itnebcr  juriicf  in  bte  @infamfeit.  Db'ring :  3m  ©egenteil !  Gtnjtg 
Siidjttge  (Halbe's  Die  Heimatlosen,  p.  37). 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  strong  forms  are  often  found  after  str.  limiting 
words  in  accordance  with  an  older  usage :  unfte  cigne  2Beibet  (Lessing),  bicfe 
cinjclne  £titcfe(id.). 

C.  If  the  qualifying  adjective  is  preceded  by  two  pronominal 
adjectives  with  different  inflection,  its  declension  is  controlled  by 
that  of  the  second  pronominal :  liefer  meiu  guter  Breunb. 

D.  Two  or  more  qualifying  adjectives  which  limit  the  same  noun 
take  the  same  inflection :  guter,  alter  3Sein ;  etn  guter,  alter  2ftann ;  btefer 
gute,  alte  STOann. 

2.  The  qualifying  adjective  or  participle  is  not  declined  in  the 
following  cases : 

A.  In  the  predicate  in  the  positive  and  comparative,  but  it  is 
inflected  here  in  the  superlative  (see  112.  i).  In  the  predicate 
relation  the  adjective  or  participle  is  used : 

a.  As  the  predicate  complement  of  intransitives  of  incomplete 
predication  (as  fein  to  be,  blei&en  to  remain,  fdjetneu  to  seem,  njerben 


INFLECTION  OF  THE  ADJECTIVES    104. 2.  A. a. 

to  become)  or  of  passive  verbs :  (5r  ifl  alt.  2)a8  ^Better  fdjetnt  fceffer. 
@r  ifl  ber  dltefle.  @r  rcirb  glitdlid;  genannt.  Here  also  belongs  the  past 
participle  in  the  compound  tenses  of  such  intrans.  verbs  as  are 
conjugated  with  fetn :  <Fr  ifl  gefommen. 

b.  As  predicate  appositive  (see  Note  below) :  (Sit  famen  glucflid;  an. 
(Sit  fafj  reeinenb  am  SBette  ityrer  Gutter. 

Note.  The  adjective  which  is  used  as  an  appositive  stands  after  intransitives  of 
complete  predication,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with  adverbs  which  describe  the 
manner  of  the  action,  for  this  predicate  appositive,  like  the  predicate  complement, 
qualifies  the  subject  and  not  the  action  of  the  verb :  ®r  liegt  franf  (pred.  appos.)  He 
lies  sick,  but  @t  liegt  gerabe  (adverb)  He  is  lying  straight. 

c.  As  objective  predicate,  i.  e.  when  the  adj.  predicates  a  quality 
or  state  of  the  object.     This  predication  is  not  represented  as 
absolute,  but  as  limited  and  modified  by  the  idea  contained  in  the 
verb  :  @r  gtoufct  fid)  franf  (=  @r  ifl,  nad;  feiner  SKeinung,  franf).    @ie  iretnte 
fid)  franf  (=  @ic  rcurbe  burd)  SBeinen  franf).    3Sir  fanben  ityn  fet)r  leibenb 
(=  Gr  Ittt  fetyr,  gemdfj  unfrer  SBafjrnetymung).     3d;  6etrad)te  bie3  al8  itfcer* 
flufftg  (=  Sfteiner  2fteinung  nad;  ifl  bie8  ufcerfluffig).     3d;  tyalte  bie  <5ad)e 
fiir  at>gemad;t.     3d;  fe^e  bid;  gegurtet  unb  geriiflet  (=  55it  fcifl,  wie  id;  fe^e, 
gegurtet  unb  geriiflet).     But  in  the  superlative :  2JJan  ^reifl  biefen  SWann 
ben  gludUdjflen.     3d;  futjle  mid;  ^eute  am  fd;rcdd;flen. 

Here  also  belongs  the  past  participle  in  the  compound  tenses  of 
transitive  verbs  :  (£r  tyat  ben  SSrief  gefd;riet)en. 

Note.  The  objective  predicate  often  indicates  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  verb 
upon  its  object,  and  hence  is  in  this  use  by  some  called  the  factitive  predicate :  (Jr 
fdjlug  ifin  tot. 

B.  After  the  noun  which  it  limits,  but  only  in  the  positive  and 
comparative,  never  in  the  superlative : 

a.  Instead  of  standing  attributively  before  a  noun,  an  adjective 
or  participle  often  follows  it  in  the  relation  of  an  appositive. 
A  single  adjective  or  participle  rarely  stands  after  the  noun,  as 
0!68lein  rot,  except  in  poetry,  but  it  usually  takes  this  position  when 
it  is  itself  modified  by  an  elliptical  clause  or  by  a  phrase  which  is 
limited  by  a  clause,  also  sometimes  if  it  is  merely  modified  by 
another  word  or  words,  or  if  there  are  several  adjectives  or  parti- 
ciples separated  from  each  other  by  commas  or  by  unb:  eine  9ftofe 
rot  rcie  35Iut  [ifl],  ein  2ftann  alter  alS  id;  [bin].  (Sin  panifd;er  ©djrerf,  fcermefyrt 
burd;  bag  fal(d;e  ®erud;t,  bafi  fcor  ben  £oren  ftd)  GdfarS  Sfteiter  gejeigt 
fatten,  fam  ufcer  bie  ttorneljme  SQSelt.  llnb  f itft te  fte  an  (now  usually  auf)  ben 
SWunb  fo  Heid;  (Uhland).  (£tne  (stange  brci  SKeter  ^od;.  ©nblidj  erfd;eint 
ein  n)etilid;e§  2)ing,  flud;n'g,  unfcebadjtfam,  irilb,  rei^ig  6i3  jur  lln&erfdjamttyeit, 
luflig  6iS  jum  Gotten.  £)er  -§immel  na|)  unb  fern,  er  ifl  fo  flar  unb  feterlid;. 
(Sin  (Sbelfne^t  fanft  unb  fed. 

But  in  the  superlative  :  SMefer  2J?ann,  ber  dttefle  unter  atten. 

The  adjectives  in  111.  7.  c  can  only  in  this  position  be  used 
attributively. 

Note  i.  With  the  exception  of  the  two  cases  mentioned  above  which  require  the 
adjective  or  participle  to  stand  after  the  noun,  this  position  of  an  adjective  and 
participle  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  poetic  style,  and  in  prose  is  often  replaced  by  the 
usual  attributive  position  before  the  noun,  an  arrangement  of  words  which  often  is 
markedly  different  from  the  English,  as  is  nicely  illustrated  by  the  following  sentence  : 


104. 2.  E.  QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES  129 

[In  her  revery  which  carried  her  back  to  her  youthful  days]  @ie  fa!)  ftd)  Ijetantoadjfen 
itn  J&aitfe  i&red  S3atet3,  bed  atten,  reidjen  JJaiiffierrn,  ein  »on  £urud  uragebened,  burdj 
©djmetcijeleien  »ern>6ljnte3  unb  bod)  inmitten  ailed  yteid)tutnd  ein  armed,  toeil  son  feiner 
SWuttet  befyuteted  3Kabd)en  (Helene  Stokl's  ^»z  heiligen  Abend). 

Note  2.  The  non-inflection  of  these  adjective  or  participial  appositives  is  readily 
explained  by  the  fact  that  they  are  not  real  attributive  adjectives,  but  stand  in  elliptical 
clauses  of  which  they  are  felt  as  predicate :  @ie  Ijat  einen  9Jarf  en  [,  ber]  toeifjet  [ift,] 
aid  Sdjnee. 

Note  3.     For  exceptions  to  the  rule  that  the  adjective  is  here  uninflected,  see  111.  9. 

Note  4.  If  the  adjective  or  participial  appositive  have  an  article,  which  is  especially 
the  case  in  poetic  style,  where  for  emphasis  an  epithet  instead  of  preceding  follows  the 
noun,  it  is  always  inflected :  Sluf  bem  $eid),  bem  regungdlofen,  toeilt  bed  SWonbed  holber 
©lanj.  Also  in  prose  in  case  of  titles :  grtebrid)  bet  ©rofje,  .Rarl  bet  Siinfte. 

Note  5.  In  M.H.G.  the  postpositive  adjective  could  be  inflected,  and  this  older 
usage  survives  in  rare  instances  in  poetry:  3d)  fjabe  einen  foldjen  93aum  jfingfl  gefefyen, 
gebogenen  uber  eined  SBadjed  ©aunt  unb  fdjroanfenben  in  Srufiltngdlufte  SSBefyen  (Ruckert). 
A  little  more  common  is  the  inflection  here  of  felig  deceased:  3Rein  SWann  feliget  Itar 
bet  3afjten  unb  nid)t  teidjt  jit  vu^ren  (Goethe).  The  nom.  masc.  form  feltger  has 
become  a  mere  fossil,  as  it  is  also  used  in  the  oblique  cases :  3d)  Ijabe  bte  @ad)e  tjon 
tnetnem  93ater  fetiget  ererbt  (Immermann).  Non-inflection  here,  however,  is  the  rule  : 
mein  CBater  feltg  (or  still  more  commonly  wein  fettger  SSater). 

b.  In  case  of  those  nouns  (see  96. 4.  (i))  which  remain  uninflected 
when  used  in  a  collective  sense  to  express  weight,  measure,  extent, 
the  modifying  qualifying  adjective  follows  the  noun,  and  hence  is 
not  inflected  :  fimf  $funb  fldnufcl),  $ef)n  ftujii  rfyetnifd). 

C.  Uninflected  adjectives  or  participles  often  stand  in  the  relation 
of  an  appositive  to  a  following  or  preceding  noun  or  pronoun, 
when  the  adjective  or  participle  represents  a  subordinate  adverbial 
clause  of  which  it  would  be  the  predicate  complement  or  verbal 
predicate  :  [rceil  fte]  Srol)  [rear],  ganj  afletn  unb  jeber  la'fiigen  9Beo6acfytung 
entriicft  ju   fein,   ijatte  fie  fid?  in   bte   (Stfe  juri'icfgelefynt  unb  bie   QUigeit 
gefcfyloffen.    2>ieS  fyorenb  (=  a!3  er  bieS  fyotte),  6rac^  er  in  ilrdnen  auS.     @r 
flrii§te,  ftrf)  tief  tterfceugenb  (=  inbent  er  ftc^  tief  tterfceugte).    QlUjujlraff  gefpannt 
(=  roenn  er  afl^ufiraff  gefpannt  njirb),  gerf^ringt  ber  SBogen. 

Note.  The  participle  usually  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  above 
examples,  but,  as  it  is  also  used  as  objective  predicate  and  in  this  capacity  must  refer 
to  the  object,  ambiguity  may  arise  :  3d)  tterliefj  ifin,  fein  Unglitcf  beHagenb.  Here 
beftagenb  may  refer  to  id)  or  ifjn.  The  participial  construction  should  be  avoided  here, 
but  of  course  is  unobjectionable  where  no  ambiguity  is  liable  to  arise  :  3d)  fanb  if)H, 
feine  93iid)et  orbnenb. 

D.  In  the  absolute  construction,  where  the  participle  or  adjective 
is  not  in  apposition  with  any  word  in  the  main  clause,  non-inflection 
is  the  uniform  rule.     This  absolute  construction  is  treated  at  length 
in  265.  B. 

E.  Sometimes  non-inflection  of  adjectives  and  participles  occurs 
in  the  attributive  relation,  in  poetry,  dialect,  familiar  language,  and 
in  many  set  expressions  that  have  come  down  to  us  from  an  earlier 
period  when  non-inflection  here  was  more  common.     In  all  of  these 
cases,  however,  non-inflection  is  now  usually  limited  to  the  nom. 
and  ace.  neut.  sing,  in  the  strong  declension :  (?in  unnufc  £e&en  iff 
ein  fritter  Sob  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  1.  115).     Jtein  grofjer  ®Iucf  at8  ein 
Sertrauenb  <£>erj  (Dahn's  Jugendgedichte,  190).     £te6  2Bet6,  licit  Jltnb,  auf 
gut  ®Iucf  at  random,  auf  balbig  SBieberfefyen  I  hope  to  see  you  again 


130  INFLECTION  OF  THE  ADJECTIVES    1O4.2.E. 

soon.  Especially  frequent  in  old  maxims :  SSar  ©elb  fauft  rcotylfeil. 
The  tminflected  attributive  form  occurs  only  rarely  elsewhere :  £a3 
filter  ifl  tin  $6fUc$  STOann  (Goethe).  £te&  Jtnafce  (Schiller's  Tell,  i,  i), 
ber  gleifjenb  2Bolf  (Uhland).  ©innenb  ftrad)  ju  il)m  jung  SBerner  (Scheffel's 
Trompeter,  Sechstes  Sttick).  £teber  jung  2Berner3  (ib.,  p.  212).  Itnb 
id)  njetfji  ein  anber  £ieb  fcon  |  einem  jung  jung  3ittmtt*3*feHen  (ib.,  Zweites 
Stack). 

a.  Luther  was  much  freer  in  the  use  of  uninflected  forms  than  even 
elevated  discourse  allows  to-day.  He  often  dropped  the  strong  masc.  nom. 
sing,  ending  and  also  final  e  both  in  the  strong  and  weak  declensions  in  any 
gender,  case,  or  number :  mandj  frum  (=  frommer)  jmeftet,  ein  jornig  man,  weltlid) 
getoatt,  tie  toeltltdj  gefoalt,  etttd)  gotlidj  »nb  (£ljrifttidj  articfel.  This  older  usage 
survives  in  compounds :  (Ibelmamt,  ©rojjftabt,  &c. 

A  historical  view  of  the  case  is  at  this  point  helpful.  The  so-called  unin- 
flected form  is  here  in  a  number  of  cases  the  natural  historic  form.  The 
adjective  followed  in  earlier  periods  the  inflection  of  nouns,  as  can  also  be 
seen  in  Latin.  In  course  of  time  the  endings  of  the  nouns  became  much 
weather-beaten,  so  that  they  seem  to-day  endingless  in  the  nom.  and  ace. 
sing,  of  masculines  and  neuters,  and  in  case  of  neuters  (see  69. 5.  H.  N.)  also 
in  the  plural :  ber,  bett  £ag,  bag  SBort,  jehn  $4Jfunb.  The  adjective  should  here 
also  be  endingless,  and  the  uninflected  forms  we  find  in  Luther's  writings 
are  in  part  the  correct  historic  forms.  Even  in  the  earliest  historic  period 
the  Germanic  adjective  had  borrowed  endings  from  the  pronouns  to  mark 
gender  and  case  more  clearly,  and  these  new  endings  and  those  borrowed 
still  later  have  in  large  measure  displaced  the  correct  historic  endingless 
forms.  On  the  other  hand  the  old  endingless  form  has  supplanted  the 
inflected  forms  in  the  predicate  relation  in  the  positive  and  comparative. 
In  certain  pronominal  adjectives  we  still  find  both  old  and  new  forms,  but 
with  differentiated  function :  mem  53ud),  but  bag  93uc§  ift  meineg. 

105.  General  Rules*    The    fern,   and   neut.   have    each    their 
respective  ace.  sing,  like  the  nom.,  the  nom.  and  ace.  of  all  genders 
are  alike  in  the  pi.,  also  the  gen.  and  dat.  sing,  of  the  fern,  are 
always  identical. 

106.  Strong  declension  of  gut  good. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.         Fem.  Neut.  Common  form  for  all  genders. 

N.  guter          gutc  gute$  gute 

G.  gutett  (e«)J  gutct  gutcn(c*)1  guter 

D.  gutcm         gute«  gutem  gutett 

A.  guten         gute  gute*  gute 

Note  i.  The  strong  qualifying  adjective  is  now  really  weak  in  the  gen.  of  the  masc. 
and  neut.  sing.,  as  the  old  strong  form  ;eg  is  usually  replaced  here  by  the  weak  ;ett 
except  in  a  few  set  expressions,  as  reined  £etjen3  of  a  pure  heart,  &c.,  which  have 
come  down  to  us  from  earlier  periods  unchanged.  J.  Grimm  and  other  grammarians 
have  sought  to  bring  the  strong  gen.  into  favor  again,  and  a  few  recent  authors  as  von 
Sybel  have  followed  their  example,  but  in  general  the  weak  form  is  very  firm  in  present 
usage.  Grammarians  usually  state  that  the  gen.  of  the  adjective  is  strong  when  it 


For  full  explanation  of  this  form,  see  Note  I. 


108.  QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES  131 

limits  a  weak  noun :  grojjeg  jjurfltn,  &c<  This  case,  however,  is  extremely  rare,  as 
weak  nouns  by  virtue  of  their  meaning  are  usually  accompanied  by  an  article. 
Limiting  adjectives  (the  numeral  eitt,  the  articles,  and  pronominal  adjectives),  however, 
still  retain  as  a  rule  strong  inflection  in  the  gen. :  biefcS  93ttd)eg,  toe(d)C§  33udje3. 
But  the  new  weak  gen.  is  now  also  often  found  in  pronominal  adjectives,  especially 
in  adverbial  expressions :  aKettfaffc  and  jebenfalfg  in  any  event,  fcinedfaHg  or  feinen; 
falls,  &c.  Also  occasionally  elsewhere :  2Bintmelte  eg  bod) . . .  »on  Jtinbern  . . .  jeben 
2llterg !  (Spielhagen's  Was  will  das  werden,  I.  chap.  iv). 

Note  2.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  strong  ending  eS  (masc.  and  neut.  gen.,  and  neut.  nom. 
and  ace.)  was  often  in  both  qualifying  and  limiting  adjectives  contracted  to  0  :  93nb  er 
tfiet  Slbrant  gut$  »mb  jren  toillen  (Gen.  xii.  16).  This  contraction  is  still  found  in 
Goethe's  time,  and  even  up  to  the  present  day  in  poetry  and  dialect :  Uttt  ©utg  JU  tttlt, 
braudjt's  feiner  liberlegung  (Goethe's  iphigenie,  1.  1989).  £aft  bu  fein  freunbtidjs 
2Bort,  bu  @ute  (Grillparzer's  Die  Argonauten,  Act  2).  <Sd)6n<5  @d)afele,  ttergijj  bll  nit 
ntein  (Auerbach).  In  general  this  contraction  is  now  rare  in  qualifying  adjectives 
except  in  a  few  set  expressions,  such  as  frag  SRedjtg  (also  €ted)teg)  something  fine,  unb 
fo  Wag  ©ut(5  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  i)  and  such  good  things.  However, 
in  the  neut.  nom.  and  ace.  sing,  substantive  forms  etllg  (see  121.  i.  U)  and  feing  (as  in 
feing  »on  beiben  neither  one)  this  contraction  is  still  quite  common  even  in  literary 
German.  In  colloquial  language  it  is  also  common  in  the  neut.  nom.  and  ace.  sing, 
substantive  possessive  forms  nteiltg,  being,  &c.,  and  also  in  the  substantive  demonstrative 
jeng:  (Sin  frembeg  Jtinb  tjl  fefjr  nett  fo  von  nwtem,  abet  foenn  man  e3  a(g  feins 
bettad^ten  foil  .  .  .  (Ompteda's  Cacilie  von  Sarryn,  chap.  xx).  2Ran  letnt  ja  *0tt 
ntaudicttt  fo  bad  unb  jen'<5  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  i). 

Note  3.  The  strong  ending  ent,  masc.  and  neut.  dat.  sing.,  is  in  different  periods 
sometimes  replaced  in  careless  language  by  the  more  convenient  ?en,  which  gives  the 
word  the  appearance  of  a  weak  form.  Weinhold,  in  his  Mittelhochdeutsche  Grammatik, 
p.  560,  gives  examples  for  M.H.G.  In  early  N.H.G.  this  seemingly  weak  form  is  quite 
frequent:  »on  ben  {Romifdjen  reuber  (Luther),  »on  einen  5Mfdjcff  (Luther),  »or 
anbtedjenben  2J?otgen  (Faustbuch  des  Christlich-Meynenden,  1725).  It  occurs 
occasionally  in  the  classical  period  and  still  later:  »on  toetten  (Lessing),  ba(j  id)  OTtd) 
faunt  wot  jetnanben  fe^en  laffen  fonnte  (Lessing),  tteldje  @prad)e  niemanben  con  bet 
gatnilie  frentb  tear  (Goethe).  <Sie  traueten  nieuianbcit  ntefir,  nid)t  bent  9tad)bar,  nidjt 
bem  SBemanbten,  \CL  faum  nod)  bent  J&errgott  (Raabe's  Else  von  der  Tanne}.  It  now 
rarely  occurs  in  the  literary  language,  but  is  quite  common  in  popular  speech :  (§>ie 
etenber,  unbanf barer  SKenfd),  tft  bag  ber  Sofin,  bag  toir  Sfytten  in  unferit  Jpau3  ein 
3af>r  unb  fedjg  QKcnat'  ©elb  ^ab'n  »erbienen  laffen  (Anzengmber's  Das  vierte 
Gtbot,  i,  8). 

107.  Weak  declension  of  gut : 

Singular.  Plural  for  all  genders. 

Masc.         Fern.  Neut. 

N.  ber  gute  bie  gute  baS  gutc  bic  \ 

G.  be§  guten  ber  gutett  beS  guten  ber  f  auiet| 

D.  bem  guten  ber  gutett  bent  guten  ben  (  " 

A.  ben  guten  bie  gute  bag  gute  bie  ) 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  ace.  fern.  sing,  sometimes  ended  in  en  instead  of  e,  thus 
occasionally  preserving  here  the  M.H.G.  form:  »ber  bie  ganfoen  (instead  of  ganfee) 
Grbe  (Gen.  i.  26). 

108.  Mixed  Declension.     It  must  be  especially  noted  that  after 
ein  and  the  words  inflected  like  it,  i.  e.  fein  and  the  possessive  pro- 
nominals(see  58.  A  and  B),  the  adjective  is  strong  in  the  nom.  of  the 
masc.  and  the  nom.  and  ace.  of  the  neut.,  because  these  words  are 
here  deficient  in  endings  to  show  gender  and  case.     The  plural  is 
of  course  weak. 

K   2 


132 


nuin  guter  ftreunb, 
my  good  friend 


meine  gutc  (Sdjinjefter, 
my  good  sister 


Singular. 

N.  meitt  guter  ^reunb  meine  gute  ©cfyreefler 

G.  meineg  guten  Sreunbeg  meiner  guten  (Scfytneft 

D.  metnem  guten  ?yreunb(e)  meiner  guten 

A.  metnen  guten  ^reunb  meine  gute 


N.  meine  guten  ^reunbe 
G.  meiner  guten  Sreunbe 


Plural. 

meine  guten  <&d)ireftern 

u.  meiner  guten  tyreunce  meiner  guten  <Sd)rceftern 
D.  meinen  guten  Sreunben  meinen  guten  @d)tt)eftern 
A.  meine  guten  Sreunbe  meine  guten  (S^we^ern 


mein  guteS  93udj, 
my  good  book 


mein  guteg  93udj 
meineg  guten  9Bud)(e)3 
meinem  guten  93ud?(e) 
mein  guteg  SSud? 


meine  guten  Sucker 
meiner  guten  SBucfyer 
meinen  guten  SBucfyern 
meine  guten  SBitrfjer 


1O9.    Adjective-substantives. 
participles  (see  b]  are  declined 
a  capital : — 


Nouns  made  from  adjectives  or 
as  adjectives,  but  are  written  with 


rich 

that  which 

the  rich  man 

a  rich  man 

the  rich 

people 

is  good 

N.     ber  0teic§e 
G.     beg  Oteicfyen 
D.    bent  Oteitfjen 
A.     ben  Oteidjen 

ein  9fteid)er 

eineg  0teicfyen 
einem  3Reid)en 
einen  Oteicfyen 

bie  9fteicfyen 
ber  Steic^en 
ben  3teid?en 
bie  JReicfyen 

SReidje 
Sfteidjer 
Steic^en 
Oteic^e 

bag  ©lite 
beg  ©uten 
bent  ©uten 
bag  ©ute 

a.  (i)  The  gender  of  adjective-substantives  which  do  not  represent  living 
beings   can  often   be  explained  by  supplying  some  word  understood  :    bie 
£infe,  short  for  bie  Unfe  4ant»  the  left  hand ;  ber  33ittere  for  bet  bittcre  <£djnat>3 
bitters ;  ©egemv>artkje3  (referring  to  bag  ©cfyreiben  letter)  bejtoerft  £emt  (5.,  €>of)n 
einea  unferet  Ijtejxgen  greunbe,  Sljnen  befiens  ju  entpfe^ten.    3ie^i  25ir  rafc^  2)etu  3Keev; 
grune^  (referring  to  ba3  ^(eii>)  an.    The  neut.  form  is  used  for  the  young  of 
animals  and  for  children  (see  98.  i.*) :   iljr  Sungefl  her  (i.e.  the  cow's)  calf, 
ein  ganj  JlteineS  a  baby. 

(z)  The  neut.  adjective-substantive  preceded  by  the  definite  article  has 
a  comprehensive,  generalizing  force :  bad  <3cfyi5ne  the  beautiful,  all  that  is 
beautiful.  The  form  without  the  article  contains  a  collective  idea :  @d)6ne8 
beautiful  things.  jfteinfteS  wirb  an  bent  getabelt,  ber  in  9J?enge  ©rcjjtca  abelt 
(Riickert)  People  censure  very  little  things  in  him  who  puts  nobility  into  many 
very  great  things.  5ut  ^wutein  JDora  irar  naturlid^  tne^rete^  babei  Among  them 
were  of  course  several  things  for  Miss  Dora. 

The  neuter  adjective-substantive  often  has  a  meaning  that  cannot  be 
embodied  in  one  English  word :  fein  &uf?eve$  his  exterior  appearance ;  if)t 
3mtetfte3  her  inmost  feelings.  £ange,  lange  tonte  ed  nad)  in  bem  ntetaHenen  OJeifen, 
ale  fyabe  bie  ©tocfe  nun  aud  (Sigenem  noc^  jit  fprec^cn  For  a  long  time,  after  the 
ringing  of  the  bell  ceased,  it  kept  on  resounding  as  if  it  had  now  something 
to  say  of  its  own  initiative.  SKorgen  ein  ntc^rcrcg  I  will  write  something  addi- 
tional to-morrow.  @c  fyat  tton  einet  Safe  ein  toeniges?  gecrbt  He  inherited  a  little 
property  from  a  female  relative.  (Sr  tut  nie  ein  ubrtgea  He  never  does  more 
than  he  must  do. 

b.  Participles  when  used  as  substantives  still  retain  their  former  verbal 
nature,  and  hence  retain  their  adverbial  modifiers  and  take  direct  objects : 
ettraa  lanajl  33efannte<5  something  that  has  been  known  for  a  long  while,  ein 
SWebuin  ©tubierenbet  a  student  of  medicine  (lit.  one    studying    medicine). 
See  111.  J.d. 


110.  A.  c.  QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES  133 

c.  The  unmodified  adjective-substantive  following  »on  in  a  phrase  which 
stands  as  an  appositive  to  a  preceding  noun  is  regulated  in  its  inflection  by 
the   article   of  the  preceding  noun,  and  also   agrees  with  it  in  case  :    £)er 
©dju'nget  »on  SSebtcnte  the  rogue  of  a  servant,  ein  alter  <£d)elm  son  fiefynbebicnter. 
If  the  adjective-substantive  is  modified  by  an  adjective,  it  is  uniformly  in 
the  dat.  instead  of  agreeing  in  case  with  the  preceding  noun  :  ber  J&unb  »on 
einem  altcn  SScbicntm. 

d.  The  inflection  of  adjective-substantives  was  originally  weak  ;  see  111.  10. 

11O.  Adjectives  having  a  suffix  sometimes  vary  from  the  regular 
inflection : 

A.  Adjectives  ending  in  =el,  *t\\,  *er  now  usually  drop  in  colloquial 
language  the  c  of  these  suffixes  when  a  case  ending  follows :  ebel 
noble,  ber  ebte  2ftann,  beg  eblett  SWanng,  &c. ;  mit  offhern  3Kunbe  with  open 
mouth ;  mit  ^ettrent  Slid5  with  cheerful  look.  Thus  also  adjective' 
substantives  :  £)er  @ble,  be§,  bent,  ben  (fblen.  In  dignified  language  the 
full  form  is  now  perhaps  more  frequent,  less  commonly,  however, 
in  case  of  the  adjectives  in  =el :  ber  offene,  ber  fjettere,  ber  ebele  (or 
perhaps  more  frequently  ber  ebte).  The  older  short  form  is  still  the 
rule  when  the  suffix  follows  a  diphthong:  ber  teure,  sometimes 
ber  teitere. 

a.  Nouns  made  from  adjectives  (see  111.  10)  with  these   suffixes  do  not 
follow  this  rule  of  contraction,  but  that  in  vogue, for  nouns  (see  62.  C),  and 
until  recently  also  for  adjectives  (see  b) :  2)a$  libel  evil,  beS  Ubete,  dat.  pi. 
ben  Ubeln.     See  c. 

b.  Goethe  and  also  earlier  writers  usually  contract  the  adjectives  in  ;el  and 
;er  in  harmony  with  verbs  (178.  I.  B.  a  and  c)  having  the  same  suffix,  as 
eble,  ebler,  ebleg,  ebelm,  be3  (bent,  ben,  &c.)  cbeln,  &c.,  thus  dropping  the  e  of  the 
suffix  before  the  case  endings  e,  er,  eg,  but  before  other  case  endings  the  e  of 
the  case  ending  itself.     This  usage  is  still  not  infrequently  found,  but  in 
general  the  new  and  natural  trend  of  colloquial  usage  is  to  make  the  declension 
uniform  and  after  the  analogy  of  the  nom.  to  inflect :  ber  eble,  bc3,  bcm,  ben  cblcn, 
&c.    This  new  tendency  of  the  adjective  to  retain  the  e  of  the  inflectional 
ending  after  ;el,  ;cn,  ;er,  also  manifests  itself  in  any  adjective  in  the  case  ending 
of  the  comparative  after  the  degree  suffix  ;er:  nwcfyever,  n>eid)ercd,  or  twicfy'rer, 
iccicfy'reg ;  tt»ctd)cvcm  or  tuetcfy'rem  rather  than  iteicfycrm.    The  noun,  however,  is 
true  to  the  older  rule  (see  62.  C),  which  requires  the  dropping  of  e  after  ;cl, 
;en,  =er,  and  thus  the  new  tendency  of  the  adjective  to  retain  the  e  of  the  case 
ending  after  these   suffixes  has   isolated  a  few   nouns  and   adverbs  which 
are  derived  from  such  adjectives,  so  that  their  origin  is  not  always  felt :  ber 
Hunger  (bes  SungersJ,  dat.  pi.  ben  3iutgeni)  disciple,  lit.  the  younger  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  master  (£evr),  but  ber  jungete  (dat.  pi.  ben  jungeren)  53vuber  (dat. 
pi.  93rubetn)  the  younger  brother  ;  thus  also  bic  (Sttern  parents,  lit.  older  ones, 
but  bie  dtteten  93ruber  the  older  brothers,  ba<5  $)imfel  (be3  2)unfcl3)  darkness,  but 
ba$  bunf(e)te  Simmer  the  dark  room,  gen.  beg  bitnf(e)len  Simtnevd  ;  also  anberd 
(adv.)    otherwise,   but  the  adj.   nom.  neut.   form   cmbete<J ;     befcnfccvg  (adv.) 
especially,  but  the  adj.  nom.  neut.  form  befonbereg.    See  c. 

c.  Originally  there  was  in  most  cases  no  vowel  before  the  1,  n,  r  in  adjective 
and  substantive  suffixes.    A  vowel  developed  here  in  a  later  period  which 
has  ever  since  remained  firm  in  nouns.     However,  in  adjectives  containing 
a  diphthongal  stem  the  vowel  did  not  fully  develop  when  a  vowel  followed 
in  the  next  syllable,  and  we  still  say  :  ber  teure  (or  sometimes  teuere).     In  other 
adjectives  the  e  developed  in  the  suffix  and  remained  firm  up  to  our  time,  as 
described  in  b.     To-day  the  e  of  the  suffix  is  often  suppressed  ;  see  A. 

In  M.H.G.  the  e  of  the  inflectional  endings  was  suppressed  after  the 


134  ADJECTIVES  11O.  A.  c. 

suffixes  *el,  ten,  *er.  This  older  usage  is  still  observed  in  nouns  (see  62.  C), 
and  survives  also  in  verbs  before  n  (see  178.  i.  B.  a)  and  sometimes  in 
adjectives  before  nt  and  n  (see  b,  above).  Present  usage  is  not  favorable 
to  the  mutilation  of  adjective  inflectional  endings.  Thus  the  fluctuation 
described  in  the  above  articles  represents  the  struggle  of  modern  usage  with 
older  laws. 

B.  Adjectives  ending  in  =tg  often  in  N.G.  lose  in  pronuncia- 
tion and  sometimes  in  print  the  i  of  the  suffix  before  the  case 
ending  eg,  while  in  S.G.  the  e  of  the  case  ending  is  rather  sup- 
pressed :  mut(i)geS  (tnu:t/zs)  Otofj  (N.G.) ;  mutigS  9fto£  (S.G.). 


PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

111.  i.  Adjectives  in  the  vocative  (case  of  direct  address)  do  not  suffer 
an  article  before  them,  and  hence  are  usually  strong:  liebet  Srwnb,  liebe 
Sreunbe.  Not  infrequently  weak  forms  still  occur  in  the  plural,  the  survivals 
of  a  once  common  construction  (see  6.  a,  below) :  ©itten  £ag,  jungen  Seute ! 
(M.  Dreyer  in  Der  Probekandtdat,  p.  25).  ®ef)t,  Ueben  fieitte  (Keyserling  in 
Der  dumme  Hans,  Aufzug  2). 

a.  In  beginning  letters  an  exclamation  point  is  placed  after  the  vocative  : 
Siebe  <Sd)i»ejier !  Siebjiet  S3tuber ! 

2.  Adjectives  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  pi.  following  the  indefinite  pronominal 
adjectives  and  indefinite  numerals  onbere  other,  beibe  both,  einige  some,  einjelne 
single,  etlidje  some,  getoiffe  certain,  mondje  many,  ntefyrere  several,  fdmtlidje  all, 
whole,  complete,  foldje  such,  fonftige  other,  the  remaining,  tterfdjiebene  different, 
»iele  many,  irgenb  toeldje  any  at  all,  toenige  few,  &c.,  are  more  commonly  declined 
strong,  although  the  preceding  limiting  word  is  strong  and  shows  the  case  : 
beibe  g(eid)e  ^dlften  (Fontane),  einige  gute  23ucl)er.     In  the  other  cases  of  the  pi. 
the  adjective  is  wk.  or  str.,  perhaps  more  commonly  wk. :  gen.  pi. :  toemger 
guten  (or  not  infrequently  guter).    Wk.  forms  occur  also  not  infrequently  in 
the  nom.  and  ace.  pi. :  jamtlidje  beutfcfyen  ©tdntme  ( Uber  Land  und  Meer),  foldje 
bunflen  ©rubeleten  (H.  Hoffmann).     In  the  sing.,  adjectives  after  these  words 
are  almost  uniformly  weak :  eimgeS  frifcfye  Dbft,  but  occasionally  strong  as  in 
35arin  iji  einigeg  SBafyreg  entfyalten  (Hauptmann).     Thus  after  these  words  usage 
fluctuates    principally  in  the  plural,   but  the  trend   is  also  here  toward 
regularity,  hence  toward  the  wk.,  especially  so  after  the  words  afle  all  and 
feine  no,  which  now  regularly  have  wk.  forms  after  them :  af(e  guten  93iic^er, 
&c.    Earlier  in  the  period  the  strong  form  of  the  adjective  is  not  infrequent 
after  a((;  or  fein*  either  in  the  sing,  or  the  pi.,  and  survivals  of  this  older 
usage  still  occur  occasionally :  olleS  ©ute3  (Lessing),  a((e  redjtfdjaffene  (Sfjrijien 
(id.),  tro|  aKer  angettxmbtet  2ttiU)e  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus  dem   Walde,  II. 
chap,  x),  &c.     <£otd)e  seems  to  be  about  to  follow  the  example  of  a((e  and 
feine,  as  it  often  requires  the  weak  inflection  of  the  following  adjective :  foldje 
ftitten  Slbenbe  (Fontane's  Schach  von  Wuthencrw,  chap.  iv). 

a.  In  the  gen.  pi.  after  gtoeier  and  breier  there  is  fluctuation  :  bag  Sufcun* 
tnentreffen  jtoeier  glei^en  (or  not  infrequently  gteicfyer)  ^onfonanten. 

3.  If  several  adjectives  limiting  the  same  noun  are  co-ordinate  they  have 
the  same  declension :  frifdjeg,  flares  SBaffer.     But  if  the  second  or  second  and 
third  adjective  stand  closer  in  meaning  to  the  noun,  forming  with  it  one  idea, 
the  first  adjective  is  inflected  strong  and  the  following  adjectives  may  be 
inflected  weak,  to  show  that  they  do  not  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the 
noun  :   folgenbeg  etgene  ©rlebnig.     The  rule  of  showing  subordination  in  the 
adjective  by  placing  it  in  the  wk.  declension   is  new  and  not  yet  firmly 
established,  and  is  as  yet  restricted  to  the  following  cases : 


111.4-k    PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  DECLENSION      135 

a.  The  following  adjectives,  which  resemble  in  their  nature  limiting  adjec- 
tives, may  after  the  manner  of  limiting  adjectives  require  a  wk.  adjective 
after  them,  but  usually  only  in  the  sing,  and  much  more  rarely  in  the  pi., 
though  the  trend  is  in  that  direction :  bcnannt  aforenamed,  befagt,  ertodfynt, 
»orer»dh,nt  aforementioned,  bettwfit  the  (point,  matter,  &c.)  in  question,  berartig 
of  this  kind,  crfler;  the  former,  folgenb  following,  gebad)t,  mefyr  gebadjt  mentioned, 
several  times  mentioned,  lefcter;  the  latter,  nadjftefienb  following,  ttorftefyenb 
preceding,  cbig  abovementioned,  &c.,  all  of  which,  contrary  to  the  English 
idiom,  may  have  no  article  before  them :  folgenbcr  Heine  {Roman,  bet  bet  S3efpred)ung 
»on  J&arnarfd  ertcafyntem  grojjen  $Berf,  fotgenbe  nndjtige  (or  perhaps  less  commonly 
nrid)tigen)  ©riinbe.  3Bic  nnffen  bereita  burdj  baa  £6d)terlein,  bag  ber  flflat  9lebelung  nidjt 
raucfyte,  fonbern  nut  fdjnuvfie,  unb  lefctereS  fjarmlofe  3}ergnugen  fatten  bie  ©otter  gleid) 
benufct,  &c.  (Raabe's  Eulenpfingsten,  chap.  iii).  The  sing,  form  is  sometimes 
strong :  bettwfjtea  einjtgeg  (Srbtodjterlein  (Voss's  Psyche,  IV). 

£.  Also  in  the  dat.  sing,  and  less  often  in  the  fern.  gen.  sing,  and  the  gen. 
pi.  after  any  strong  adjective  a  second  adjective  in  the  same  way,  to  show 
subordination,  may  be  weak :  in  langem  grauen  jKantel ;  ein  5Wamt  »on  grojjera 
juriflif^jen  2Biffen ;  tnit  ttollenbetem  fiinfjeijnten  SebenSjaljre ;  jii  nod? fier  gtojjen  2Reffe ; 
toegen  eingetretenet  fdjledjten  SSefdjaffenljeit  ber  (Strafe  (Deutsche  Rundschau) ;  reiner 
franjoftfdjen  SBetne,  &c.  The  second  adjective  is  often  wk.  simply  from  an 
aversion  to  the  recurrence  of  the  uneuphonious  ending  em:  mit  bteid;em, 
tierjerrten  ©efidjt  (Spielhagen).  It  is  probable  that  the  aversion  to  the  repeti- 
tion of  such  endings  as  em  and  er  first  gave  rise  to  the  wk.  forms  here,  and 
later  the  mind  perceived  that  there  also  often  existed  here  a  difference  in 
the  relation  of  the  different  adjectives  to  the  noun,  and  then  for  logical 
reasons  began  to  distinguish  regularly  between  them  by  their  endings.  There 
is  at  present  considerable  fluctuation  of  usage  here,  some  authors  preferring 
the  weak  form,  others  the  strong. 

4.  Adjective-substantives  differ  only  rarely  from  the  regular  inflection  of 
adjectives : 

a.  When  an  adjective-substantive  follows  one  or  more  strong  adjectives  it 
is  sometimes  weak  contrary  to  rule  :  33etrcgeue  ©terbltdjen  !  (Hagedorn).    Gin 
efyrttwrbiger  2Ute  (Lessing).    SBeldj  ein  glucflicfyer  ©terblicfye !  (Heine).  2)a3  (Sigentum 
tcentger  <Sterblid)en  (Schiller).    (Sin  fyubfdjefl  ©angt  (Goethe).    (Sin  b,erbe$  &ujjere 
(Heine).    The  weak  forms  occur  still  in  the  neut.  nom.  and  ace.  and  in  the 
gen.  pi.,  as  in  ein  fdjonea  ^uf  ere,  bie  £od)ter  barbetpiger  9Uten  (Wildenbruch's  Das 
Riechbiichschen,  p.  10).    Sometimes  also  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  pi. :  3fyr  feib 
fcfyone  ©etreiien  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  I).     The  weak  forms  here  are 
the  survivals  of  a  once  common  construction  which  required  the  inflection  of 
adjective-substantives  to  be  weak  ;  see  10.  Note  and  6.  a,  below. 

b.  Adjective-substantives  not  preceded  by  an  article  or  inflected  pronominal 
adjective  are  now  quite  uniformly  strong,  although  the  older  weak  forms 
occasionally  occur,   especially  in   the  words  SSeamter  official  and   53cbienter 
servant :    Sebienten  eilten  tfynt  bienftfertig  entgcgen  (Temmej.     gunf  neue  fitebflen 
(H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfiirsten,  chap.  iv). 

In  the  masc.  dat.  sing.,  however,  the  weak  form  is  not  thus  restricted,  but 
is  in  general  still  quite  common :  bent  £errn  91.  91.,  ©efanbten  or  ©efanbtem  bee 
9tteberlanbe  in  SSerlin.  <5o  blieb  it)m  aid  3»ann,  £elb  unb  aSerliebtm  nid)t3  ubrig 
(Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap.  xxix).  The  old  wk.  dat.  of  the  neut.  and  fern,  is  also 
occasionally  found:  nad)  genofienem  ©uten  (Raabe's  Hoxter  und  Corvey, 
chap.  xv).  Slber  ein  fauberer  SStet ...  rod;  nadj  ^ed],  (sd^wefel  unb  nod}  mel  ®d?tint; 
tnern  (id.,  Stopfkuchen,  p.  138).  3m  ganjm  h?ar  itbrigend  biefe  Slrt,  un»erfel)en0  ju 
einer  Slrt  33ertvauten  (used  here  with  reference  to  a  lady)  »on  ftilbfremben  2Renfd}en 
gepreft  jit  werben,  nid)t  be^aglid;  (S.  Junghans  in  Zivei  Briider,  p.  62).  Sometimes 
in  other  cases  when  the  form  follows  a  dependent  gen. :  aua  Xreue  gegen  ben 
93tuber  unb  bcffen  Slnge^crigen  (Ludwig's  Zwischen  Himmel  und Erde,  X). 

The  weak  forms  in  all  these  words  are  the  survivals  of  a  once  common 
construction  which  required  the  inflection  of  adjective-substantives  to  be 


136  ADJECTIVES  111.4.6. 

weak;  see  10.  Note  and  6. a,  below.  In  early  N.H.G.  weak  forms  were 
much  more  common  here :  93nb  e$  giengen  ju  jm  (tljm)  93linben  »nb  Safymen 
(=  SMtnbe  unb  Saljme) — Matt.  xxi.  14.  In  the  first  element  of  compounds  the 
plural  form  of  adjective-substantives  is  still  always  weak  :  Slrmenarjt  parish 
doctor,  lit.  doctor  of  the  poor,  Sltmenpflege  relief  of  the  poor,  ©deJ)ttem?etfammj 
lung  convention  of  learned  men,  &c. 

5.  An  adjective  which  modifies  a  noun  that  stands  in  apposition  with  a 
preceding  word  is  usually  inflected  regularly,  but  the  following  irregularities 
occur  when  the  adjective  is  not  preceded  by  an  article  : 

a.  The  proper  inflection  of  an  adjective  which  is  not  preceded  by  an 
article  and  stands  after  a  personal  pronoun  is  not  entirely  clear  to  the 
German.      As  personal  pronouns  have  neither  an  article  nor  the  strong 
endings  of  the  other  pronouns  to  mark  gender,  it  would  seem  natural  for  the 
adjective  in  a  following  appositional  phrase  to  be  inflected  strong,  which  is 
also  usually  the  case,  except  in  the  dat.  sing,  and  nom.  pi.  and  sometimes  in 
the  ace.  pi.,  where  according  to  present  usage  either  str.  or  wk.  forms  may 
stand,  in  the  case  of  the  nom.  pi.  perhaps  more  commonly  the  wk.,  in  the 
ace.  pi.  the  str. :  idj  armer  3J?ann,  but  mit  armmt  or  less  commonly  atmen  2Wann, 
mit  atmem  SButm  (Fontane),  »on  25ir  jungem  @d)naufer  (Raabe),  mit  ftanfen  (Scfyt 
bet  SDtufen  (Heine) ;  mit  armer  or  perhaps  more  commonly  armen  5tau,  mit  mit 
armcn  gutjitn  (Freytag) ;  toit  alten  Sutiflen  (Raabe),  ttrit  £>eutfd)e  (Fontane),  unr 
jtoei  (Sinfamen  (Lienhard's  Konig  Arthur,  5) ;  D  %  namfcfyen  2eitte  (Raabe), 
less  commonly  strong  after  tfjt :    31jt  Ijcdjwutbige  £etten  (Anzengruber's   Der 
Schandfleck,    chap,    ii),   tfyt  plumpe,  rcfye  SKenfdjen  1     (Scheffel's    Trompeter, 
Zehntes  Stiick),  iljt   9lu3eradfylte  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjiihrige  Reich,  p.  71); 
fiir  un$  atme  Stauen  (Fontane)  rather  than  itn3  atmen  ftrauen,  to  distinguish 
it   from   un3  (dat.)   armen   gtauen.      Fluctuation  often  occurs  even   in  the 
same  author :  Set  junge  23utfd)  mit  bem  2Rttd)geftd;)t,  et  fleftt  un$  5l(te  in  ©fatten 
(Meinhardt).    (Sr  fd^icft  un6  anbeten  in  bie  93erge  jut  (St^olung  (Meinhardt).    The 
weak  forms  here  are  survivals  of  a  construction  common  in  earlier  periods ; 
see  6.  a,  below. 

b.  When  an  adjective  which  modifies  an  appositive  noun  is  not  preceded 
by  an  article  and  follows  a  noun  or  pronoun,  it  is  usually  str.  except  in  the 
gen.  and  dat.  sing,  of  the  fern.,  where  the  wk.  form  is  also  found,  and  perhaps 
more  frequently  so  :  con  bem  §errn  Gmcfj  ©c^mibt,  ctbentltcfyem  ^rofejfor,  but  mit 
bet  fdjonen  33arcneffe  (SfyrtjHne    Slrne,  jiingflen  <Sd)tt>ejl:et  feineS  ©ittSnadjbarn  2ltne 
(Fontane's  Umviederbringlich,  chap.  i).    9Wan  jVridjt  jje^t  »cn  5r»iu  ^tegcentta 
SHoffel,  geborenen  ©c^opv  (P.  Heyse).    9Jht  einet  9ltt  ttttben  Stonte  (Raabe's  Die 
Leute  aus  dem  Walde,  III.  chap.  yii).     But  also  the  strong  form  :   »on  .  .  . 
beffen  .  .  .  SBeibe  2lnna,  geborenet  SBeibtftn  (Raabe's  Meister  Author,  III).   Occa- 
sionally wk.  forms  occur  in  the  masc.  and  neut.  dat. :   einem  @tucf  gebarfnen 
gifcfe  (Goethe),  mit  einem  <&tud  britcfyigen  @ifen  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap,  xx),  Heine 
33otteile,  bie  tfym  afe  dtteflen  J^au^tmann  eigentli^  jufamen  (Tdgliche  Rundschau). 
The  wk.  forms  in  all  these  cases  are  survivals  of  a  construction  common 
in  earlier  periods ;  see  6.  a,  below. 

6.  The  adjective  following  a  gen.,  especially  bejfm  or  beten,  gen.  of  the 
demonstrative  or  relative,  is  sometimes  wk.,  though  the  preceding  word  can 
in  no  way  show  their  gender  and  case :    in  bet  Oiatut  balfam'fcfycn  SBcfyltfyat 
(Goethe).    @S  Hang  toie  (Srlofung  aug  £fyea$  rafd)  fyersorgeftofjenett  Stage  (from 
a  recent  novel).     3Ba0  in  *preufjen  nur  toentge,  aufetfyalb  ^JteugenS  niemanb,  ait^ 
nidjt  beffen  bejlcn  5«unbe,  ju  setlangen  tcagten,  fotbette  nac^  futjem  ©djwanfen  Stcitfc^fe 
(name)  mit  rucf  fyaltfofet   (Sntfcfcieben^eit :    bie  SSetetnigung   (Sdjle&mg^olfteinS  mit 
^teu^en  (Bailleu  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  1896,  Heft  I,  p.  61).     Sfyte  .  .  .  Slugen 
.  .  .  ,  von  beten  itjm  gef^ctenbcit  SBunbetteic^tum  er  nid^ts  ttiujjte  (Raabe's  Die 
Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  114). 

a.  This  is  the  survival  of  a  once  common  construction,  which  required  the 
adjective  to  be  weak  when  it  had  individualizing  force,  that  is,  when  it  ex- 
pressed a  quality  that  was  to  be  especially  attributed  to  the  person  or  thing 


111.  7.  c.  (i).  PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  DECLENSION    137 

in  question.  This  limitation  of  the  quality  implied  in  the  adjective  to  a 
distinct  object  was  usually  made  still  more  definite  by  a  preceding  gen., 
a  noun  in  direct  address,  or  a  preceding  article  or  other  demonstrative  or 
word  that  pointed  out  the  distinct  object  to  which  the  quality  was  to  be 
attributed.  In  accordance  with  this  former  rule  the  adjective  is  still  always 
wk.  after  the  article  and  demonstrative,  and  sometimes  in  the  following 
cases  :  when  used  as  a  substantive  (see  4.  a  and  b,  above,  and  10.  Note 
below),  in  the  attributive  relation  before  a  vocative  (see  I,  above),  before  an 
appositive  (see  5.  b),  following  a  gen.  (see  6  and  4.  b),  and  in  the  ordinal 
compounds  fclbanber,  fetbbritt,  &c.  (see  126.  2.  c  and  Note),  where  the  distin- 
guishing wk.  ending  has  disappeared.  The  former  individualizing  force  of 
the  adjective  is  now  little  felt,  as  can  be  seen  by  the  fluctuating  forms  given 
in  5.  a,  above.  Its  inflection  to-day  is  usually  a  mere  question  of  form,  the 
str.  or  wk.  being  used  according  as  no  limiting  word  or  a  str.  limiting  word 
precedes. 

7.  The  adjective  is  not  declined  : 

a.  When  it  is  derived  from  the  name  of  a  city  and  is  formed  by  adding  er 
to  the  proper  name  :  bet  alte  93erliner  Secret  the  old  Berlin  teacher,  be$  altm 
SSevlinec  ?cfyrer3,  £c.     In  substantive  use,  such  adjectives   are  manifesting 
a  tendency  toward  inflection,  to  the  vexation  of  strict  grammarians,  who  are 
mindful  of  the  origin  of  the  form  (see  Note)  :  (Sfydfyte  tnit  bason,  after  nid)tg  »on 
ben  gvcnlanbifdjen  ©cfpenflern  ;  id)  Ijabe  an  unferen  JpcfjensSSiefcern  [name  of  place 
.^cfjeiu'-Biefc]  uber  imb  ubergcnug  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  II.  chap.  xvi). 

Note.  Here  33erluter  is  felt  as  an  indeclinable  adjective,  and  hence  written  some- 
times with  a  small  letter,  but  it  is  in  fact  a  noun  in  the  gen.  pi.,  and  means  of  the  people 
of  Berlin.  That  it  is  now  felt  as  an  adjective  can  be  seen  from  the  adverb  which  is 
often  placed  before  it  instead  of  the  originally  more  correct  adjective  :  ed)t  2)?undjnet 
Soiuenbrdu,  or  edjteS  2ftiind)ner  26tt>enbrdu  genuine  Munich  beer  of  the  lion  brand. 

b.  If  it  is  the   first  of  two   or  more  adjectives  which  together   unite  in 
forming  one  idea  :  rot  unb  tteijj  e  Jtufce  cows  spotted  red  and  white,  bie  nmp  unb 
toten  3>olben   be$   SB  after  lief  d)  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  chap,  i),  in  gang  unb  gdber 
9J?unje  in  current  coin.    35eutfd)e  fdjmudfcn  ifyre  Jpdnfer  mit  fcfyujarj,  twfj  unb  roten 
Sufynen  Germans  adorn  their  houses  with  the  national  flag  consisting  of  black, 
white,  and  red  stripes.     The  inflection  of  the  first  adjective  in  a  number  of 
cases  would  entirely  change  the  sense  :  rote  unb  fteifje  Jtiifye  red  cows  and  white 
cows.     Instead  of  the  uninflected  forms  we  also  find  now  quite  commonly 
compound  adjectives  :    ein    fd)ttxirjrotgolbene3  23annev   (Treitschke's  Deutsche 
Geschichte,  II.  422),  bie  fdjtt?arjrotgolbenen  Satbftt  (ib.,  III.  756).     In  some  cases 
two  adjectives  form  a  real  compound,  the  second  element  alone  assuming 
the  inflection,  but  are  written  as   separate  words  :    bie  grofsfyeqoglid)  babifd)e 
{Regicrung  the  government  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  bie  fomattd)  prcujjifdje 
glaggc  the  flag  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia. 

Note.  In  the  early  N.H.G.  literary  language  it  was  quite  common  to  leave  unin- 
flected the  first  of  two  adjectives  connected  by  unb  :  ein  0to3  unb  tnecfytigeS  SSclcf 
(Gen.  xviii.  18).  This  usage  continued  throughout  the  classical  period  and  even  later 
in  poetic  language  :  in  flar  unb  truben  £agen  (Goethe).  Also  where  unb  is  omitted  : 
£>a$  2Bid)t'ge  nnegt  nid?t  gleid)  in  btin',  in  ifyrem  SJhutbe  (Grillparzer's  Libussa,  i). 
This  usage  survives  only  where  the  two  adjectives  form  a  real  compound,  as  in  rot  unb 
h>etfe  Jtufje.  In  such  compounds  the  language  of  our  time  prefers  the  outward  form  of 
a  compound  and  drops  the  unb  :  fd)»arjh>eifje  5al)nen.  This  fondness  for  the  compound 
form  goes  so  far  that  the  first  of  two  adjectives  is  now  often  left  uninflected  where  they 
do  not  in  a  strict  sense  form  a  compound  :  in  fdjUd)t  (instead  of  fdjltdjtem)  treufyerjigettt 


c.  In  the  case  of  the  following  adjectives,  since  they  are  only  used  as 
predicate  complement  or  objective  predicate,  or  in  some  cases  in  the  apposi- 
tive relation  following  the  noun  (see  104.2.  B)  : 

(i)  Adjectives  which  were  formerly  nouns  and  still  resist  adj.  declension  : 
angft  uneasy,  brad)  fallow,  feinb  hostile,  gram  filled  with  dislike  toward,  net 


138  ADJECTIVES  111.  7.c.(i). 

necessary,  fcfyabe  too  bad,  a  pity,  fd)utb  at  fault,  to  blame  for,  toett  even,  quits  : 
2Rit  ifi  nod?  angft.  Gt  i\t  bm  Siigen  feinb.  35a3  ifi  m'djt  not.  3d)  r)abe  bag  nidjt  not 
(objective  predicate).  The  absolute  proof  that  these  substantive  forms  are 
now  felt  as  adjectives  is  the  occasional  comparative  forms  that  occur  :  3JZii  tat' 
ein  86jfele[in]  SBarmeS  nod)  ncter  (H.  Kurz's  Sonnenwirt,  318). 

Note.  A  number  of  substantives  have  thus  first  become  predicate  adjectives,  and 
later  were  felt  as  genuine  adjectives,  and  are  now  used  attributively  with  full  adj. 
inflection  :  frctttm  (from  M.H.G.  vrume  use)  good,  pious,  lit.  useful.  A  number  of 
nouns  have  not  gone  so  far  as  the  nouns  in  the  above  list,  but  have  dropped  their 
article  in  the  predicate  and  now  stand  on  the  boundary  line  between  adjective  and 
noun  :  3d)  bin  93raut  (=»erlobt).  (Sr  tft  meljr  ^Diplomat  ala 


(z)  Also  the  following,  which  are  now  usually  confined  to  the  predicate 
or  appositional  relation,  although  a  number  of  them  were  earlier  in  the 
period  used  attributively  and  hence  inflected  :  abfcolD  averse  to,  unfavorably 
inclined  toward,  abfpenftig  alienated  from,  abtoenbig  alienated  from,  allein  (from 
which  comes  the  attributive  form  attetnig  single,  sole)  alone,  anfyetfcfyig  obligated, 
anftdjtig  with  toerben  to  get  a  sight  of,  auSfinbig  with  madden  to  find  out,  barfufj 
(in  attributive  use  barfuflig)  bare-footed,  barljaupt  (attributively  batfyiuptig)  bare- 
headed, etno,ebenf  mindful  of,  gang  unb  gdbe  (sometimes  inflected  ;  see  b, 
above  ;  similar  formations,  as  fltpp  unb  flat,  null  unb  nid)tig,  redjt  unb  biflig,  also 
uninflected)  current,  gar  done  (of  things  cooking;  but  in  other  meanings 
inflected  :  gates  Sebcr  dressed  leather,  &c.),  gefonnw  willing,  inclined,  getroft  of 
good  cheer,  cheerful  (in  this  meaning  sometimes  inflected  :  @eien  @ie  getrcften 
2Kute3  !),  geh)af)t  aware  of,  with  ttjerben  to  perceive,  gewdrtig  on  the  lookout  for, 
expecting,  geonflt  willing,  inclined,  tyabfyaft  with  toerben  to  get  possession  of, 
tyanbgemem  engaged  in  close  fight,  irre  astray,  wrong,  futtb  known,  leib  sorry  for, 
disagreeable  (in  this  meaning  inflected  in  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  S.G. 
dialect),  nufce  or  nufc  (more  common  earlier  in  the  period  ;  in  early  N.H.G. 
both  forms  are  inflected,  now  replaced  attributively  and  in  large  measure 
predicatively  by  nu^lid),  although  the  negative  form  unnufc  is  still  quite  common 
in  both  relations)  of  use,  quitt  rid  of,  even  (with  somebody),  tetUjaftig  sharing 
in,  nnpafj  unwell,  untertan  subject  to,  »erlit|Ug  deprived  of,  (with  verbs)  to  lose, 
forfeit,  gugetan  devoted  :  (St  ijl  mit  abfyolb.  3d)  ntadje  midj  baju  an6cifd)ig  I  pledge 
myself  to  do  it.  2>t  J?nabe,  eingebenf  bet  fmljer  ertittenen  ©trafe,  get>ord;te. 

d.  When  adjectives  or  participles  which  are  modified  by  an  adverb  are 
converted  into  adjective-substantives,  the  limiting  adverb  does  not  make  the 
corresponding  change  into  the  state  of  an  adjective,  but  still  like  an  adverb 
remains  uninflected,  though  it  modifies  a  substantive  :  bie  geiftig  2lrmen  those 
weak  intellectually,  from  the  adjective  expression  getjHg  arm  ;   ettwg  langjl 
S3efannte$.    The  words  geijKg  and  Idngft,  though  they  apparently  limit  their 
respective  substantives,  do  not  take  on  adjective  force  and  inflection,  because 
the  former  still  as  an  adverb  limits  the  quality  in  the  word  Slrntcn,  and  the 
latter  modifies  the  verbal  force  in  33efannte3  (perf.  part.),  and  neither  refer 
to  the  living  being  or  the  thing  implied  in  the  noun.     However,  if  the  word 
before  the  adjective-substantive  limits  the  substantive  as  a  whole,  including 
both  the  quality  (or  action)  and  the  individuals  or  things  represented  by  the 
noun,  it  is  inflected  :  gctgige  {Retdje  stingy  rich  people,  ein  peipigec  (Stubierenber 
(pres.  part.)  a  diligent  student. 

e.  In  the  case  of  a  very  few  foreign  adjectives,  especially  those  denoting 
colors  :  ptima  9JJateria(  first-class  material,  bag  rofa  ^tetb  the  rose-colored  dress, 
Ula  (Sdjtcifcn  lilac-colored  bows.     Thus  also  farmeftn  crimson,  penfee  pansy- 
colored,  and  a  few  others  less  common.     They  are  of  course  inflected  when 
compounded  with  the  German  words  farbig  or  farben  colored:  in  Wafarbtgen 
Jlletbern,  in  orangefarbnem  ^>ut. 

f.  In  a  few  geographical  terms  where  adjective  and  noun  together  form 
one  name  :    in  Stuffifd;  $olen,  or  written  together  Slujfifd^olm  in  Russian 
Poland,  and  many  other  similar  expressions. 


111.8.     PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  DECLENSION        139 

g.  An  apparent  exception  is  the  non-inflection  of  eigen  own :  Sag  ijl  tnetn 
etgen.  Here,  however,  eigen  is  a  neut.  substantive,  which,  though  once  in 
common  use,  is  now  so  little  used  that  it  is  quite  usually  felt  as  the  common 
adjective  eigen,  and  hence  is  written  with  a  small  letter. 

h.  In  the  case  of  the  following  adjective-substantives  : — 

(1)  When  no  article  precedes  and  they  are  mentioned  in  pairs,  or  occur  in 
set  prepositional  expressions :  35er  Slbjlanb  t»on  reidj  unb  arm  (see  54.  3),  »on 
ttornefym  uub  gering  the  contrast  between  rich  and  poor,  genteel  and  humble, 
gtetd)  unb  gleid) '  birds  of  a  feather,'  jung  unb  alt  young  and  old,  fd)roarj  auf  ireijj  in 
writing,  »on  flein  auf  from  early  childhood,  &c. 

(2)  When  the  adjective-substantive  characterizes  a  general  condition  of 
things,  always  without  the  article  : 

(a)  As  subject  or  predicate :  @ut  ijl  gut  unb  beffet  tfl  beffet  A  good  thing  is 
good,  but  a  better  thing  is  better  yet.     SlHju  fdjarf  ntadjt  fdjartig  An  extreme 
condition  or  position  of  things  is  like  a  knife  with  too  fine  an  edge,  it  will 
break  off.     (Sfyrlidj  rocirjrt  ant  langjlen  Honesty  is  the  best  policy.     Thus  also 
of  participles  :  <Sd)ledjt  geritten  ijl  beffet  a(g  gut  gegangen.     Srifd)  gefoagt  ijl  fyalb 
geroonnen  A  bold  start  brings  us  half  the  victory,     Un»erfudjt  fdjmedft  nidjt  You 
can't  tell  how  it  tastes  till  you  try  it.     geuer  auf  ben  £«b  getnad)t  tfl  gut  fur 
©erottter  Fire  upon  the  hearth  is  good  protection  against  lightning. 

Note.  These  participle-snbstantives  can  not  only  be  modified  by  adverbs,  but  also 
as  in  the  last  sentence  can  have  an  object. 

(b)  As  an  object :  2Bir  Ijaben  fret  We  have  vacation.    @ie  Ijaben  redjt  You  are 
right.     (Sr  fyilt  gut  fur  bofe  He  considers  good  bad.     ©r  madjt  aug  arg  atget 
He  makes  a  bad  matter  worse. 

(3)  Of  colors  when  used  in  the  abstract ;  but  when  a  concrete  meaning 
enters  into  the  substantive,  inflection  according  to  the  adjective  declension 
takes  place  :  bag  S3raun  brown,  <£cf>tt>aq  black,  ©run  green,  bag  23lau  beg  Jpintmelg. 
Often  with  an  ;g  in  the  gen.  instead  of  the  indeclinable  form,  except  after 
sibilants :  beg  3Mau(g),  93raun(g),  <£d)ft>arj,  ®run(g).     SDtefeg  ©rim  entftefyt  aug  bet 
2Jhfdjung  r)el(en  ©elbg  unb  bunflen  93Iaug.     But  with  concrete  meaning:    bog 
Scfyroarjje  the  bull's-eye  of  a  target,  bet  93raune  brown  horse,  bag  ©rune  the 
green  fields,  ©runeg  greens,  ein  ©rimer  a  greenhorn,  a  hunter  (from  color  of 
his  uniform),  bog  Sfikijje  im  Sluge. 

(4)  Of  languages  when  used  in  the  abstract  with  regard  to  their  quality, 
their  varying   forms   in   different    periods   and   in   different   dialects,  their 
employment  as  a  mode  of  personal  expression,  but  when  they  take  on  more 
concrete  meaning  and  become  names  of  definite  things,  as  the  languages  of 
nations,  they  are  declined  according  to  the  adj.  declension  :  ein  fdjlecfyteg  iDeutfdj 
a  bad  German,  bag  SDcutfcf)  ber  fyeutigen  3eit,  bte  2lncignung  etneg  biateftfreien  25eutf8?, 
in  mavfigcm  5)eutfdj  in  pithy  German.     ($r  uberfc^te  bag  ©ebicfyt  in  fein  geliebteg 
2)eutfd)  He  translated  the  poem  into  German,  his  favored  mode  of  expressing 
himself,  but  (Sr  ubcrfefcte  bag  ©ebtdjt  ing  2)eutfcr)e  He  translated  the  poem  into 
the  German  language,     (ft  befd)aftigt  ftd)  mit  bem  Setttfc^en  He  is  studying  the 
German  language. 

8.  The  adjective  in  the  predicate  is  now  uninflected,  but  in  M.H.G.  was 
here  inflected  as  elsewhere,  as  one  or  two  fossilized  remnants  still  show : 
(Sr  tfl  DOllrr  Xucfe.  This  strong  masc.  nom.  sing,  seller  is  still  much  used  in 
the  predicate  before  nouns  not  preceded  by  a  modifier,  but  all  feeling  that 
it  is  a  masc.  nom.  sing,  is  lost,  as  it  is  used  of  all  genders  and  numbers  as 
predicate  complement,  as  objective  predicate,  or  in  the  appositive  relation : 
$>ag  Stucf  roar  voder  $aubtung.  S)te  ginger  ftitb  coller  Oitnge,  but  before  an 
adjective  modifier  ttoK  won  fdjonen  9iingen.  2LUr  roerbett  bag  Jjaitg  »ol(er  ©dftc 
t)aben.  Sn  letter  Beit  roar  bte  uugliicf(id)e  grau  in  @cf>ulben  unb  Diet  gevaten,  aug  bcr 
jte,  tjoder  93er^v>eiflung,  rocrjl  feinen  anbern  5lugiv»eg  fafj  alg  ben  3!ob.  Sometimes  also 
before  modified  nouns,  where  the  adjective  is  usually  strong,  but  sometimes 
also  weak  :  coder  bcgfyafter  @d)numn  (Lessing),  »ol(er  ttefen  Sorgen  (id.).  2Ran 


140  DECLENSION   OF  ADJECTIVES  111.8. 

irar  »ol(er  peinlidjm  (Srtwartung  (Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  Jahrg.  1901, 
9.  Nov.,  p.  5).  In  the  language  of  the  common  people  fyalber  and  a((er  are 
also  used  like  »oller:  5)ie  9kd?t  ijl  tyalber  fyin.  iDarnad}  ftann  fie  fcin  afler  cell 
(Bayerns  Mundarten,  I.  190).  IDet  JRaffee  ftefyt  au  after  nod)  ba  (Anzengruber's 
Fleck  auf  der  Ehr,  2,  14).  In  the  last  example  af(er  may  be  a  case  of  real 
predicate  inflection,  which  still  survived  in  early  N.H.G.  and  may  live  on 
more  or  less  intact  in  the  dialects.  In  the  neut.  sing,  and  in  the  pi.,  predicate 
inflection  of  all  is  still  common  even  in  the  literary  language :  2>ag  gange 
9Mlb  ift  alleg  £id)t  (Goethe).  3)iefe  roaren  alle  antoefenb.  Elsewhere  non-in- 
flection in  the  predicate  is  now  the  rule :  !£ie  9Belt  ifl  all  ein  pcfytig  ©djeinen 
(Freiligrath).  This  uninflected  all,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  alle,  is  also 
used  sometimes  for  the  neut.  sing.  alleg  :  SSie  bag  2anb»clf  all  fyerbetlief  (Goethe). 
SEBie  bag  3eug  alle  fyieg  (id.). 

The  inflected  pi.  form  afle  has  become  a  fixed  form  for  all  genders  and 
numbers  in  the  meaning  all  gone-.  2)et  SSeiu  ijl  alle.  SKetne  J&tyajintfyen  ftnb  alle. 
Also  the  uninflected  form  is  used  here :  Sfyr  fleineg  bifdjen  33vot  ttarb  ntdjt  all 
(Gebriider  Grimm). 

In  some  Alemannic  dialects  the  predicate  adjective  is  inflected  still  as 
in  earlier  periods  :  Jperr  letter,  Sljr  feib  grebe  (=  grober,  here  in  rhyme  with  lobe) ! 
(Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Liederjung  Werners,  VII).  35'  9lad)t  ifl  ftjieri  ( =  finftere) 
(Frei's  Schulgrammattk,  art.  67),  <£'  Scatter  ijl  ugfiuemg  ( =  imgejVwme)  (ib.) 
The  weather  is  stormy. 

9.  As  explained  in  104.  2.  E.a.  Note  2,  the  adjective  is  not  inflected  when 
it  follows  its  noun,  because  it  is  felt  as  the  predicate  adjective  of  an  elliptical 
clause ;  but  if  such  is  not  the  case  and  it  is  felt  as  an  attributive  adjective 
it  must  be  inflected  here  as  elsewhere  :   Bum  britten  2Wate  burdjfurdjten  ttnr  bag 
tyrtfyenifdje  SWeer,  bag  rtiir  nun  in  all  fetnen  ?aunen,  freunbltdjen  unb  fdjUmmen,  fennen 
gelernt  fatten,  ©pion,  tnfanter!  (Lienhard's  Munchhausen,\).  Often  in  the  market 
reports  :  Xee,  inbifd^er,  ruljtg  (Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  22.  Juli  1903). 

10.  Some  adjective-substantives  cannot  be  either  strong  or   weak  like 
adjectives,  but  are  inflected  according  to  one  of  the  regular  declensions  for 
common  or  proper  nouns  :  bev  -£err  (compar.  of  the  adj.  fyefyr  august,  honored) 
master,  gentleman,  beg  £errn,  pi.  bie  £erren;  bie  (Sltcrn  (compar.  of  alt  old) 
parents,  ber  Sunge  lad,   beg   Sungen,  pi.  bie  Sitngen  (colloquially  in  N.G.  bie 
Sungeng),  ein  Sunge  a  lad,  but  the  word  applied  to  the  young  of  animals  has 
the  regular  adj.  inflection,  as  ein  Sungeg,  pi.  bie  Sungcn,  jwei  3unge ;  ber  fturfl 
(M.H.G.  viirste  the  first,  wk.  superlative)  ruling  prince,  beg  Surften,  £c. ;  ber 
Dberfl  (superlative)  colonel,  beg  Dberjlen,  &c. ;   ber  ©rcig  old  man,  beg  ©reifeg, 
pi.  bie  ®reife;  ber  Sunger  disciple,  lit.  the  younger  in  contradistinction  to  the 
master  or  teacher,  beg  Sungerg,  pi.  bie  3iina,er ;  bag  ©utiestate,  beg  ®utg,  pi.  bte 
@uter,  but  bag  ©ute  that  which  is  good,  beg  ©uten ;  bag  libel  evil,  beg  Ubelg,  &c. ; 
bag  Olecfyt  right,  beg  ytecfytg,  pi.  bie  9Jed)te,  and  thus  also  Unrest  injustice ;  the 
fossil  gen.  tRed)teng  (in  such  common  expressions  as  bag  tjl  $ed)teng  That  is 
the  law,  in  accordance  with  the  law,  &c.),  the  wk.  gen.  of  the  adj.  red)t  to  which 
a  strong  gen.  has  been  added  ;  bag  2)unfel  darkness,  beg  S)unfelg,  but  still  with 
adj.  declension  in  certain  set  expressions  :  ing  Sunfle  getyen  to  go  out  into  the 
dark,  tm  SDunfeln  tappen  to  grope  in  the  dark ;  many  names  of  persons,  now 
inflected  like  other  names  of  persons  :  Jperr  SBetfie,  Qiotfje,  ®d)»arje,  93raune. 

Note.  The  weak  declension  was  originally  the  form  of  declension  usually  em- 
ployed in  the  inflection  of  adjective-substantives.  The  final  t  (wk.  nom.  ending)  in 
proper  names,  as  SBraune,  ©(^warje,  &c.,  still  shows  that  the  former  inflection  here 
was  weak.  Also  a  number  of  the  words  enumerated  in  the  above  article  have  still 
retained  in  their  oblique  cases  in  the  sing,  and  throughout  the  pi.  their  original  wk. 
inflection.  Some  of  these  nouns  which  are  now  usually  strong  were  weak  in  an  earlier 
period  and  occasionally  even  still :  35eg  ©retfen  (now  usually  ©reifeg)  SBange  (Uhland). 
Adjective-substantives  in  .N.H.G.  have  more  and  more  conformed  their  inflection  to 
that  of  adjectives,  until  at  present  it  is  strictly  required  of  them  aside  from  the  special 
cases  described  in  the  above  articles. 


112.  2.  a.          ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  141 

ADJECTIVES   AND   ADVERBS. 
ASCENDING  COMPARISON. 

112.  Adjectives  are  compared  by  adding  *er  to  form  the  com- 
parative and  *$  to  form  the  superlative  : 

Relative  Adverbial 

Positive.          Comparative.          Superlative.  Superlative, 

ffylanf  slender         fdjlanfer          ber,  bie,  bag  fcfytanffie  ant  fcfylanf ften 

fletn  small  fleiner  ber,  bie,  ba§  fleinfie  am  Heinflen 

A  few  monosyllables  modify  the  stem  vowel  in  the  compar.  and 
superl. ;  see  113. 4. 

1.  Inflection.     The  above  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  super- 
lative, the  simple  uninflected  forms  as  found  when  the  adjective 
stands  in  the  predicate  :  SBiltyelm  ifl  ftetn,  Jtarl  ifl  f  leiner. 

In  the  attributive  relation  the  positive  and  comparative  are 
declined  by  adding  the  regular  strong  or  weak  endings  to  the 
simple  positive  and  compar. :  ein  fleiner  Jtna&e,  ein  fletnerer  tfnabe, 
ber  Heine  tfnafce,  ber  fleiuere  Jtnabe,  &c. 

The  relative  superl.  adds  ft  to  the  simple  positive  and  is  inflected 
strong  or  weak,  both  attributively  and  predicatively,  except,  how- 
ever, the  one  form  aflerltefcft  (see  3.  C.  a,  below),  which  is  uninflected 
when  used  predicatively:  2Eein  fleinfteS  33ud).  4an3  ifl  ber  fletnfte  Jtna&e. 
llnter  alien  SSdumen  ift  biefeg  ber  fteinfle. 

The  adverbial  superl.  always  remains  unchanged  (see  231.11, 
an,  i.  A.  b). 

2.  The  comparative  is  used  in  general  just  as  in  English  with 
the  following  exception.     The  comparative  is  sometimes  used  in 
German  absolutely,  i.  e.  to  indicate  that  the  degree  of  the  quality 
is  not  conceived  with  reference  to  any  particular  object  or  objects, 
but  only  in  a  general   comparative   sense :    2)ie   dltere  2>ame  the 
comparatively  old  lady,  the  elderly  lady,  nenere  ©pracfyen  modern 
languages,  feit  lingerer  3ett  for  some  time.     @r  getyort  §u  ben  fceffern, 
roenngleicfy  nod?  nicfyt  ju  ben  guten  (Sdjulern  He  is  a  pretty  good  or 
comparatively  good  student,  but  not  among  the  really  good  students. 
2Bir  flnb  in  biefen  3inmiern  geroo^nlid;  nur  an  fiifjlern  @ommer*  ober  tcdrmern 
«§erfc|ltagen.     This  comparative  is  used  much  more  widely  in  poetry 
than  in  prose,  and  often  where  in  the  latter  we  would  use  a  positive, 
especially  in  hexameter  verse,  where  the  compar.  so  readily  forms 
a  dactyl :   @in  frember  |  ®eiji  tterfcreitet  fid;  ftynell  itber  bie  frembere  Slur 
(Schiller's  Spaziergang). 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period,  even  in  the  classical  authors,  the  superlative  was 
sometimes  loosely  used  of  two  objects,  from  the  desire  of  making  the  superior 
degree  more  prominent :  2Bir  tooKen  fefyen,  fteldjer  ©eniu3  ber  jldrfjle  (instead  of 
bet  jldrfete)  ijl,  bein  fc^»»arjtr  ober  mein  »eif er  (Goethe). 


142  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  112.  3. 

3.  The  different  forms  of  the  superlative  and  their  use : 

A.  The  relative  superlative  expresses  only  relatively  the  highest 
degree,  and  thus  represents  the  highest  degree  attained  by  some 
person  or  thing  as  compared  with  other  persons  or  things  of  the 
same  class :  4?an8  ifi  ber  fleifjigfie  son  att  ben  Jtnaben.    £>er  fletjjigfle  ^nafcc 
ifi  «§ang. 

B.  The  adverbial  superlative,  which  is  restricted  to  the  predicate, 
represents  the  highest  degree  attained  by  some  body  or  thing  as 
compared  with  itself  at  different  times,  places,  and  under  different 
circumstances,  which  are  usually  indicated  by  some  accompanying 
adverbial  element :  S)er  (Sturm  rear  am  tyefttgften  gegen  SWorgen.     «§ter 
ifi  ber  (See  am  tieffien.    3d)  ftible  mid?  am  glitrfltcbfien,  irenn  id?  atlein  tin. 

a.  The  adverbial  superlative  is  not  strictly  confined  to  the  above  use,  but 
is  often  used  in  the  predicate  in  a  relative  sense  in  accordance  with  its 
literal  meaning  (see  231.11,  an,  l.A.£),  whenever  the  attribute  is  felt  dis- 
tinctly as  a  real  predicate  form,  no  one  particular  noun  being  understood, 
and  hence  must  always  be  employed  when  the  objects  or  acts  compared  are 
not  of  one  kind:   Jtatl  ifi  bet  fletfjigfie  (understand  ©djuler),  but  SSer  iji  tm 
(Edjteiben  am  beften  ?  (lit.  at  that  which  is  best,  i.  e.  in  the  first  place).    Slnt 
tterlegenflen  tear  bee  3iiftijtat ;    abet  et  fammelte  fid)   rafd)   (Fontane's   Unterm 
Birnbaum,  XI).    SBaten  bie  (Stbbeeten  nidjt  befjet  al$  bit  ©tadjelbeeten  ?    3a,  abet 
bie  Xrauben  t»aten  am  befien. 

b.  There  is  one  exception  to  the  rule  that  the  adverbial  superlative  is  only 
found  in  the  predicate :  am  metften  and  am  nxnigficn  are  often  used  substan- 
tively,  and  hence  can  stand  in  any  position  where  a  substantive  would  be 
found :  9hd)t6  beburfen  ifi  gottlid) ;  unb  am  ipenigftm  (object)  beburfcn  bringt  ber 
©ottf)fit  am  nddjjien.    <£te  ttiffen,  id)  »erUere  felbfl  am  meiften  (object)  babei.    They 
are  also,  as  any  substantive  indicating  quantity,  followed  by  a  partitive  gen., 
which  now  usually   (see  94, 3.  A  and  B)  goes  over  into  the  appositional 
construction:  2)te  Stebte ...  |  in  rceldjen  am meiftm  (subject)  feiner  Xfjaten  gefd&efyen 
tt>aren  (Matt.  xi.  20).    <5>te  n>arteten  bie  3«it  ab,  in  h)etd)er  am  metjten  (subject) 
SKenfdjen  (in  apposition  with  am  meiflen)  bie  ^absburgerfiraf  e  paffierten. 

C.  There  is  also  an  absolute  superlative  (with  the  same  form 
and  inflection  as  the  relative  superl.),  which  expresses  in  and  of 
itself  a  very  high,  not  necessarily  the  highest,  degree  : 
very  pretty  indeed,  eine  atterliebfie  Sluine.  i£>te  23Iiwie  iji 
(112.  I). 

a.  This  superlative  is  not  common  in  German  in  the  predicate 
relation  except  in  the  category  cc,  below,  and  in  the  one  word 
atterliebfl,  which  is  thus  used  attributively  or  predicatively,  as  can  be 
seen  in  the  above  examples.  In  the  attributive  or  substantive 
relation  the  absolute  superlative  is  not  infrequently  used,  but  is 
usually  confined  to  particular  categories.  It  is  employed  especially : 

aa.  In  direct  address  or  at  the  close  of  a  letter :  liebfter  <2ofjn  dear  son, 
teuetfh  <3dm>efler  dear  sister,  3i»r  ergebenfter  greunb  91.  91.  Your  most  devoted 
friend  N.  N. 

66.  In  many  prepositional  phrases,  used  adverbially :  in  tteffler  Xrauer  in  the 
deepest  sorrow,  in  befier  ©ttmmung  in  the  best  humor,  mtt  grojjtet  £cd)adjtung 
with  very  great  respect. 

cc.  Before  names  of  materials  and  other  articleless  nouns,  to  indicate  in 
a  general  way  a  high  degree :  feinfie3  SBeijenmefyl  git  btUigfiem  $ret<3  very  fine 
flour  at  a  very  reasonable  price,  erfle  ©djriftfMet  authors  of  the  first  rank,  befte 


113.2.  ASCENDING  COMPARISON  143 

©crten  brands  or  sorts  that  are  among  the  best.  (S3  toar  liebltdjfter  ftrufyting. 
6infa<$fte,  tieffte  £armonie  ift  im  ©turm,  nrie  in  bet  SBinbftitte  (Raabe's  Leute  aus 
dent  Walde,  III.  5).  2luf  fabefte  JJiimmfcpfe  madjte  er  (Sinbrurf,  auf  Slrnotb  ntdjt 
(Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  i). 

dd.  Sometimes  after  ein,  fetn,  jeber,  atte  (pi.),  and  other  pronominal  adjec- 
tives :  eine  leifefte  (Spur  a  very  faint  trace.  Jlein  leifcfter  £audj  regte  ftd)  Not  the 
faintest  breath  of  wind  stirred.  3ebe  leifefte  SBeriifjriing  every  touch,  even  the 
faintest,  alle  bebeutenbftm  Biige  au0  ber  ^elbenfage  all  of  the  most  important 
features  of  heroic  legends.  ®er  Slrtifet  ift  »on  »ieten  erften  Slutoritdten  irarm 
empfofylen  This  article  is  warmly  recommended  by  many  of  the  very  best 
authorities.  9tun  itirb  jldj  gleid)  em  ©rdiilidjfteg  erdugnen  (=  ercignen  ;  Goethe's 
Faust,  II,  1.  5917). 


b.  More  usually  this  idea  is  expressed  by  placing  fet)r, 
ufceraug',  or  some  such  word  having  the  general  meaning  of  very, 
before  the  positive  :  fin  fetyr  or  fyotfyjl  fritcibtbareS  Sanb  a  very  fertile 
land,  indeed. 

In  colloquial  language  in  German  as  also  in  English  a  high 
degree  is  often  expressed,  not  by  an  adverb  and  the  positive  of 
an  adjective,  but  by  certain  simple  adjectives  which  have  become 
very  emphatic,  such  as  famoS'  splendid,  capital,  rieftg  gigantic,  very 
great,  £tyramibal'  very  great,  large,  lit.  pyramidal,  foloffar  very  great, 
&c.  :  famofer  J?erl,  famofeg  ^Better,  ein  rieftfleS  33ergnugen.  5ltte§  fcrtcfyt  in 
^tyranubalen  SuBel,  in  ftanatigmuS  au3  (Gutzkow).  Such  words  can  also 
be  used  adverbially,  like  fetyr,  &c.,  to  strengthen  an  adjective  :  ein 
f  oloffal  netter  SWenfdj  a  '  mighty  '  nice  fellow. 

4.  The  force  of  the  comparative  is  often  heightened  by  prefixing 
rceit  or  bei  witem  by  far,  and  that  of  the  superl.  by  alter  (gen.  pi.) 
of  all-,  ^arl  ifl  trett  fletjjiger  atS  Chnil.     ©ufiao  ifi  ber  aUerflei^tgfle. 

5.  The  proper  conjunctions  to  be  used  with  the  different  degrees 
are  discussed  in  articles  239.  i.  a,  b  and  2.  a. 

113.  The  following  variations  from  the  regular  comparison  as  given 
above  occur  : 

1.  a.  Adjectives  ending  in  ct,  en,  er  sometimes  form  their  comparative  by 
suppressing  the  e  of  the  suffix  as  in  the  positive,  and  sometimes  in  addition 
also  the  e  of  the  case  ending  before  it  :   ber  eb(e)lere,  betf,  bem,  ben,  bie,  ber 
tb(e)ler(e)n.    See  110.  A.  b. 

b.  The  superlatives  of  adjectives  ending  in  el,  en,  er  retain  the  e  of  the 
suffix  :  ber  IjeUerfte  SWorgen. 

2.  Monosyllabic  adjectives  ending  in  a  sibilant,  f,  fi,  fdj,  jl,  or  in  b  and  t, 
add  eft  to  form  the  superlative  :  ber  dltefte,  &c.    Often,  however,  contraction 
takes  place  in  familiar  language  :  ber  fydrtfte,  dttfte,  fufjte,  &c.,  instead  of  ber  fyortefte, 
dttefte,  fiijj  efte,  &c.,  the  hardest,  oldest,  sweetest,  &c.  The  contraction  of  grofjt  from 
grofjeft  is  now  the  usual  form  even  for  the  literary  language.     Grammarians 
generally  give  it  as  the  only  form,  but  gwjieft  is  not  infrequent  :  mit  bem 
grojjeften  SSergnugen  (Raabe's  Alte  Nester,  I.  chap,  xiv),  mit  bem  allcrgrofjeften 
(Jifer  (Wildenbruch's  Netd,  p.  90),  &c.     Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable 
ending  in  b  and  t  uniformly  add  ft  to  form  the  superlative  provided  the  syllable 
preceding  the  ft  is  unaccented  :    ber  bltnbefte,  but  blenbenbfte.    Even  after  an 
unaccented  syllable  we  find  eft  here  if  otherwise  a  combination  of  consonants 
would  arise  which  would  be  difficult  to  pronounce  :  in  ber  boflfyafteften  ©emits; 
terfa  flung  (Raabe). 

Adjectives  ending  in  ifdj  may  add  ft  :  bie  f  inbifd)fte  £orl)eit.  Some  recommend 
here  t  as  a  superlative  ending,  as  the  f  is  often  absorbed  in  the  preceding  fdj  : 


144  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  113.2. 

bet  baii(e)rifd)te.  Our  time,  however,  seems  averse  to  the  mutilation  of  gram- 
matical forms,  and  hence  we  even  find  here  the  ending  eft  as  a  way  out  of  the 
difficulty :  bag  $raftifd)efle. 

«.  Sometimes  to  avoid  such  and  other  clumsy  forms  writers  and  speakers 
prefix  am  meiflen  or  tm  J)6d)jien  ©rabe  to  the  positive  to  form  the  superlative : 
ate  bie  am  meijlen  praftifdje  ber  brei  Damen  (Roquette) ;  am  metjtat,  or  tm  fi,od)jien 
©rabe  barbarifd). 

3.  We  often  find  the  comparative  repeated,  the  two  forms  being  separated 
by  unb  :  fteiter  unb  nxiter  farther  and  farther,  or  ever  farther.     Instead  of  this 
form  we  also  find  the  positive  instead  of  the  first  comparative  :  rot  imb  roter 
(Goethe),  nafy  unb  ndljer  (Johannes  Schorr's  Schiller,  II.  chap.  iii).    £)te  ffllicfe 
ber  2J!utter  fturben  fuljt  unb  fufjter,  bie  ^dnbebrucfe  ber  SSater  fludjtig  unb  pcfyttger 
(O.  v.  Leixner).     In  the  language  of  the  early  part  of  the  period  the  first 
member  of  such  expressions  is  often  a  positive  in  form,  but  in  fact  a  com- 
parative,  the  suffix  ttv  being  understood  in  accordance  with  older  usage, 
which  often  in  case  of  two  words  separated  by  unb  expressed  the  suffix  or 
case  ending  but  once  (see  111.  7.  b.  Note) :  (Srbenft  nocfy  fd)cn  unb  fd)6ner  2Bet3 
(Spec's  Trutznachtigal,  5.83),  »iet  ttei|j  unb  bteidjer  ate  ber  SKon  (ib.,  38.  n). 
Thus  also  in  case  of  the  superlative  :  in  ben  aUerfdjon  unb  lufitajlen  2anbfd)aften 
(Zesen's  Adriat.  Rosemund,  154. 13). 

4.  The  following  monosyllables  are  mutated  in  the  comparative  and  super- 
lative :  alt  old,  arg  bad,  arm  poor,  grob  coarse,  grofj  large,  tyart  hard,  fyocf}  (see  5, 
below)  high,  jung  young,  fait  cold,  flug  wise,  franf  sick,  furj  short,  tang  long,  nafy  (e) 
(see  5 ,  below)  near,  fdjarf  sharp,  fd)tt>ar g  black,  jiavf  strong, uwrm  warm.  Example : 
arm,  compar.  drmer,  superl.  ber,  bie,  bag  armfte  or  am  drmflen.    The  following  are 
sometimes  mutated  and  sometimes  unmutated :   bang  anxious,  bknf  bright, 
polished,  bfafj  pale,  bumm  stupid,  fromm  pious,  gefunb  healthy,  gtatt  smooth,  farg 
stingy,  fna^p  close,  tight,  frumm  crooked,  nafj  wet,  rot  red,  fauber  clean,  fdjmat 
narrow,  ^art  tender,  and  a  number  of  others,  all  of  which  mutate  more  or  less 
frequently  in  the  individual  cases  in  familiar  speech,  though  not  so  commonly 
in  the  written  language.    Of  these  doubtful  words  bang,  bumm,  and  rot  are, 
perhaps,  more  commonly  mutated,  but  the  unmutated  forms  are  not  infre- 
quent.    9?ot  is  usually  unmutated  in  figurative  meaning  and  in  compounds, 
as  in  bie  rotejien  ©eftnnungen  the  most  extreme  socialistic  views,  bie  bunfelrctefte 
{Rofe  the  rose  of  the  darkest  red;  but  sometimes  with  mutation :  ber  rctefte 
©ojialbemofrat  (Telmann's  Was  ist  Wahrheitf,  V).    Also  a  number  of  other 
adjectives  which  usually  mutate  in  simple  forms  usually  remain  unmutated 
in  compounds,  as  in  case  of  rot :  ber  ftugfie  the  wisest  one,  but  auf  bie  attHugjle 
SSeife  in  the  most  precocious  manner,  &c. 

Note.  In  a  former  period  of  the  language  the  comparative  and  superlative  had  each 
two  methods  of  formation  :  the  comparative  ended  in  -ir  or  -or,  the  superlative  in  -ist 
or  -ffsf.  Those  that  had  ir  and  ist  were  of  course  mutated  (see  26.  A),  and  the 
others  did  not  suffer  mutation.  Later  ir  and  or  became  er,  and  ist  and  ost  became  est, 
mutation  alone  distinguishing  still  the  former  groups.  Many  words  which  were  not 
entitled  to  mutation  assumed  it  later  after  the  analogy  of  the  mutating  group.  Since 
the  classical  period,  however,  mutation  has  been  slowly  declining. 

5.  The  two  adjectives  {70$  high  and  nal)(e)  near  are  irregular:  in  f)od^  the  d) 
becomes  I)  when  a  vowel  follows  in  the  degree  or  case  ending,  as  ber  fyofye,  ber 
hofyere,  but  ber  I)6d}fh ;  nafy  becomes  nacfyfl  in  the  superlative.     We  sometimes 
find  an  unmutated  absolute  superl.  of  nal)  with  $  instead  of  d) :  bag  tylofynafym 
bringen  t>on  §tt?ei  fo  aKernafjefien  £erjen  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder  !  Ill,  p.  270). 

6.  Sometimes  words  for  especial  emphasis  or  to  convey  a  little  different 
idea  than  is  usually  implied  in  them  are  compared  when  in  their  ordinary 
meaning  they  do  not  admit  of  comparison  :  3)u  bifi  mein  unb  nun  tjl  bag  2Jleine 
meiner  ate  jemate  (Goethe's  H.u.D.,  IX.  311).     At  the  close  of  letters  we 
sometimes  find:    <Der  JDeinigjie,  ber  Sljrigfh.    We  say  bie  eifernjle  £errfcf)aft 
autfuben  to  exercise  the  most  oppressive  (lit.  most  iron)  authority,  although  in 
a  literal  sense  eifern  cannot  be  compared. 


114.3-  ASCENDING   COMPARISON  145 

114.  Adverbs  have  in  the  positive  usually  the  uninflected  form  of 
adjectives,  and  also  elsewhere  have  no  inflection  whatever.  They 
are  compared  just  as  adjectives  except  in  the  superlative  : — 

Relative  Absolute 

Positive,  Comparative.       Superlative.  Superlative, 

tjart  hard  Barter  am  tydrtefteu  aufg  fyartefle 

fdjon  beautifully         fcpnet  am  fdjtotften  aufg  fcfyonfle 

1.  The  relative  superlative  (see  231.  1 1,  auf,  2.  G.  Note]  of  the 
adverb  expresses  the  relatively  highest  degree  attained  by  some- 
body or  something  as  compared  with  somebody  or  something  else, 
or  with  itself  at  different  times  and  under  different  circumstances : 
<5r  fcfyreifct  am  fcfyonfien  oott  att  ben  Jtnafcen.    £)ie  @onne  fldjt  urn  SKittag  am 
f)6d)ften. 

a.  For  a  few  adverbs  which  form  the  relative  superl.  differently,  see  2.  a 
and  c,  below,  and  also  117.  2.  b. 

2.  The  absolute  superlative  (see  231, 1 1,  auf,  2.  G.  Note)  expresses 
in  a  general  way  a  very  high  degree  in  and  of  itself  without 
reference  to  that  attained  by  anybody  or  anything  else :  (5r  fcfyretbt 
auf§  (or  auf  bag)  fcfyonfie  He  writes  very  beautifully  indeed,  lit.  in  the 
direction  of  that  which  is  most  beautiful, 

a.  A  few  adverbs  form  the  absolute  superl.  without  the  aid  of  prepositions 
by  simply  suffixing  ft,  especially  those  in  ;ig  and  ;lid) :  balbigft  very  soon, 
innigft  very  deeply,  l)6ftid)ft  very  politely,  gefddtgft  be  so  kind,  if  you  please,  &c., 
and  a  few  monosyllables  as  Ijocfyftr  duf  erft  very,  Idngft  for  a  long  while,  a((ct; 
liebft  very  nicely,  meift  usually,  almost,  &c.     This  form  is  sometimes  used 
with  relative  force :  bie  ndd)ftfclgenbe  d>rilt.     Some  of  these  words  also  have 
lengthened  forms  in  enS,  some  of  which  are  used  relatively  and  some  abso- 
lutely :  (absolutely)  beftenS  as  best  I  can,  meijhnd  for  the  most  part,  ndd)ften<5 
presently,  fdjenflenS  as  nicely  as  possible,  -very  tnuth,  as  in  3d)  banfe  fdjonftend  ; 
(relatively)  erftenS  in  the  first  place,  firstly,  b,6d?ften6  at  the  most,  IdttgftenS  or 
fpdtcflenS  at  the  very  latest,  fruftejiend  at  the  very  earliest,  minbeftenS  or  tt>enigften3 
at  the  very  least,  £c. :  (Sr  ift  mmbcjhna  ;;e()n  Safyre  alt. 

b.  A  few  absolute  superlatives  are  formed  with  int  (with  dat.  of  the  adj.) 
instead  of  auftf,  usually  in  negative  sentences  :  ntcfyt  int  gcringftcii  or  im  nttnbc)lfii 
not  in  the  least,  uicfyt  im  mtfetnteften  not  even  the  most  remotely,  nitt)t  im 
leifeftcn  not  in  the  slightest. 

c.  The  absolute  superl.  is  sometimes  formed  with  $um  (with  dat.  form  of 
the  adj.)  instead  of  aufd,  and  sometimes  this  form  with  jum  is  used  instead 
of  the  relative  superl.  with  am  :  3d)  fyafce  fte  junt  fdjonjlen  gcbcteti  I  asked  them 
as  nicely  as  I  could.    9lid)t  ber,  h>eld)er  juetfl,  fonbcra  jum  (=  am)  ftd?er|1en  auf 
ben  geinb  trifft,  fyat  fid)  bem  ©iege  gend^ert. 

d.  The  absolute  superlative  is  often  replaced  by  the  positive  modified  by 
another  adverb  denoting  a  high  degree,  such  as  fefjr,  red)t,  fyod)ft,  aufkrjt,  aujjer« 
orbenttid),  ungemfin :  @ie  tan^t  fef)t  fdjott.     <Seine  ©efunbljeit  flcllte  fid)  tutebcv  l)cr. 
aber  du^erft  langfam.     In  colloquial  language,  in  German  as  also  in  English, 
a  high  degree  is  often  expressed,  not  by  fcfyr,  £c.  and  the  positive  of  another 
adverb,  but  by  certain  simple  adverbs  which  have  become  very  emphatic, 
such  as  fames'  splendidly,  foloffal'  hugely,  very  greatly,  ricftg  very  greatly,  very 
much,  &c. :  3d?  fyabe  mid)  fames  amufiert.     3dj  fyabe  mid?  folojfal  gefreut.    3dj 
langwcile  mid?  rieftg.    See  also  112.  3.  C.  b. 

3.  When  an  adverb  modifies  an  adjective  or  participle,  and  it  is  a  question 
of  the  higher  or  highest  degree  of  the  adverb  and  not  the  adjective  or  par- 
ticiple, the  adverb  should  logically  take  the  degree  endings,  but  often  the 


146  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  114.3- 

adjective  or  participle  takes  it  instead,  as  the  two  are  felt  rather  as  one  word 
than  two,  and  the  adjective  or  participle  usually  standing  last  naturally  as- 
sumes the  endings  of  the  compound  :  fdjledjtjt  auegeriiftet,  &c.,  and  also  in 
good  authors  fd)ledjtauegerujieteft,  &c.  The  compound  form  is  most  natural 
in  set  expressions  which  have  developed  a  peculiar  meaning :  fd)tt>erh>iegenbfi, 
tiefgreifenbft,  ttefgefufyltefler  £)anf,  tootjlgemeintefU  (Srmalmungen,  feinfufylenbere  £eute, 
bte  gutgeartetfhn  Jtinber,  bte  fyodjgeflellteften  Scanner,  fyodjfttegenbfie  $ldne,  lueitreid^enbfte 
93evbinbungen.  A  natural  tendency  to  exaggerate  leads  some  to  give  both 
words  degree  endings  :  gvof  tmoglicfyjl  for  nuJgHdjj!  grofj,  £c. 


PERIPHRASTIC  COMPARISON. 

115.  Besides  the  case  mentioned  in  113. 2.  a,  where  the  periphrastic  form 
of  comparison  occurs,  are  the  following  : 

1.  When  two  qualities  of  one  thing,  or  two  adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases 
modifying  one  verb,  are  compared  with  each  other,  the  comparative  is  usually 
formed  by  placing  nteljr,  also  efyer,  before  the  simple  positive  instead  of  adding 
ft* :  £>ae  Simmer  ift  mefyr  tang  ale  brett.     @r  ift  efyer  flein  ale  gtofj  He  is  rather 
to  be  called  small  than  large.     (5r  fprad)  mefyr  aufridjtig  ale  flug.     @ie  briirfte 
midj  an  ben  93ufen  meljr  mit  fd)merjlid)er  ale  jdrtlidjer  Setoegung.    @r  lae  efyet  taut 
ale  beutlid). 

The  regular  comparative  suffix  ;er  is  also  used  here  in  the  classical 
period,  and  not  infrequently  still :  2Mef(etd)t  fyat  er  waiter  ale  Hug  unb  fromm 
gefprocfyen  (Goethe's  Egmont,  i,  Palast  der  Regentin).  £)ae  j-weifenjhige 
©emad?  ftar  fcebeiitenb  langec  ale  breit  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus  dem  Walde, 
chap.  vii). 

2.  In  comparing  two  objects  as  to  the  one  quality  which  each  possesses  in 
an  eminent  degree,  meljr  may  be  placed  before  the  positive  of  each  adjective, 
or  the  comparative  may  also  be  formed  regularly  with  ;er,  the  former  method, 
however,  emphasizing  the  comparison  of  the  predicates,  the  latter  emphasizing 
the  subjects :    Jtarl  ifi  tnef)t  fliig,  2Btlf)elm  tjt  mefyr  fd)latt ;   or  j? arl  tft  Huger, 
9Bilf)elnt  iji  [planer.    SJtefyr  is  also  used  in  the  same  manner  in  the  attributive 
relation  to  call  attention   to  the  characteristic    feature  of   some    object : 
SBuKeveborf  ftar  Hnebet  barauf  aue,  bae  ©cfprai^  auf  mefyt  glei^giiltige  Singe  gu 
lenfen  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap,  xxviii).    SDleljr  ^raftif^e  Stele  »erfolgt  bie  Svof^ure, 
luelcfie  ^vof.  2)r.  ^ungifer  in  9larau  tm  Sluftrage  bee  ?U(beutfd)en  93cretne  ^evauegab 
(A.  Biichi  in  Anzeigerfiir  Indo-Germanisthe  Sprach-  und  Altertumskunde, 
xiii.  Band,  p.  62).     (Sine  ntefjr  nebenfdcfyltcfye  9ic((e  fpielen  bei  ber  Slbtautfrage  fol; 
genbe  giuet  uribg.  ?auterf(i)etnuiigen  (Brugmann's  Lautlehre,  p.  145).      S't  tear 
feljr  rui)ig  unb  benafjm  ftd^  scrflanbig  unb  tt»ar  in  fetnen  Uvteilen  fo  befcfiigt,  ba^  er  bie 
mef)r  tl)eoretifd)en  Slusfii^rungen  von  ^afior  grijlue  unb  bie  meljr  ^raftifcfeen  9lnf^au; 
ttngen,  bie  Seller  gaffer  entwirfelte,  bei  attem  guten  3Bi((en,  ben  er  ale  fjofltctyer  SKann 
^atte,  nicfyt  Bertoenben  fonute  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  chap.  Hi). 

SKeftr  is  also  used  in  the  predicate  with  reference  to  one  person  or  object 
when  the  question  is  raised  as  to  which  of  two  qualities  is  more  character- 
istic of  the  subject :  3$  Chtdj  urn  ben  -Spate  fa —  [Ken]  —  fcib  Sljt  tnefjr  narrtfd)  ober. 
mcfyr  fred)?!  (Lienhard's  Till  Eulenspiegel,  Der  Fremde). 

3.  If  an  attribute  of  one  object,  or  an  activity,  is  compared  with  itself 
under  different  circumstances  or  at  different  times,  the  comparative  is  formed 
with  ntefyr,  or  also  regularly :    3dj  tt»at  fviifjer  metjr  bcfannt   unb    vertrant  (or 
befannter  unb  »crtrauter)  init  tfim.  2)ie  <Sa^e  ttjirb  immer  bebenflid)er,  or  h)tvb  ntefjt  (unb 
nteljr)  bcbenfti^.    3m  2lntli^auebvnrf  eigentumltc^  fyalb  ber  ^fi)^e  unb  Ijalb  bent  3lmor 
gleid)enb,  nur  iroffte  ee  ben  gortgctjenben  bebunfen,  ale  fci  ft*  ird^renb  feiucr  Jlbirefetu 
Ijeit  bent  If^teren  et»ae  mefjr  dljnlid)  geivovbcn  ( Jensen's  Das  Bildim  Wasser,  p.  335). 

a,  SJletjr  is  often  used  in  connection  with  the  word  immer  ever,  or  in  the 
form  mcf)r  unb  mef)t  more  and  more,  to  indicate  a  gradual  increase  of  in- 
tensity :  (Sr  nnirbe  baburd)  immer  mefjr,  or  meljr  unb  meljr  »erlegen,  or  immer  vevlcgener. 


117.1.  PERIPHRASTIC   COMPARISON  147 

4.  Adjectives  and  participles  which  require  after  them  an  object  in  an 
oblique  case  or  a  prepositional  object,  and  thus  approach  the  nature  of  verbs, 
are  compared  either  as  regular  adjectives,  or  by  placing  mefyr  before  the 
positive  and  am  nteiften  before  the  superlative :  2ubt»ig  iji  mir  dfjnUdj ;  id?  fyabe 
fetn  mir  dfynlid^ereg  or  mefyr  dfynltdijeg  JUnb  (Daniel  Sanders)  ;  fetnS  meiner  Winter 
iji  mit  dljnlidjer,  or  ntefjr  dfyntid)  ;  er  iji  mir  am  meijlen  atynlidj,  or  am  dfjnltd)jlen. 
Diefer  93ett>ei6  iji  bcr  dltejie,  fldrejie  (now  f(arjle)  unb  ber  gemeinen  2Jlenfd)en»ernunft 
am  mciften  angcmeffeue  (Kant).     £>a$  mid)  am  meijien  SBerbriejjenbe.    Where  the 
verbal  nature  of  the  participle,  as  in  the  last  example,  is  distinctly  felt,  the 
compar.  and  superl.  are  more  commonly  formed  by  prefixing  mefyr  and  am 
metjlen  to  the  positive. 

5.  Adjectives  (111.  7.  c.  (i))  or  adverbs  which  are  derived  from  substantives 
or  other  parts  of  speech  and  are  not  yet  felt  fully  as  adjectives  or  adverbs 
are  usually  compared  with  mefyr  in  the  compar.  and  am  metjlen  in  the  superl.  : 
3d)  bin  ttjm  mefyr  gram  als  biv.    !Da$  tut  mir  meljr  letb  ate  id?  fagcn  fann.    Dem 
jugenbltd)  rajHofen  ©retfe  S3lud)er  (proper  name)  ftmrbe  bie  Unentfdjiebentyeit   bev 
£>tnge  juerft  unb  am  nteiften  gimnber  (also  preposition  and  adverb).    The  regular 
forms  in  ;er  and  ;ji  are  sometimes  found,  though  rarely. 

a.  Thus  also  nouns  and  the  pronoun  e3  which  stand  in  the  predicate  with 
the  force  of  adjectives  are  compared  :  (Sr  iji  meljr  Diplomat  aU  Selbfyerv.  @g 
toar  me()t  ©pafj  a(3  ©rnji.  <£d}on  bifi  bit ;  trit^tefi  bu'g  mtnber,  bu  todteji  eg  me^r. 

6.  Some   adverbs  which   denote   a  relative   position  with  regard   to  the 
speaker  or  some  other  point  form  a  comparative  with  meljr  or  Wetter  and  a 
superlative  with  am  mciften  or  am  toeitejien :  (Sr  jianb  meJjt  ltnf<3  He  stood  more 
to  the  left.     See  also  117.  2.  b,  second  paragraph. 

A  few  adjectives  which  denote  a  relative  position,  such  as  dufier,  inner, 
dufjcrlicfy,  form  a  comparative  with  me()r,  but  their  superlative  with  the  regular 
;ji  ending :  <£cnji  gtttg  bte-  Sntwtcftung  unferet  (Spracfye  bafytn,  bie  betben  ftteriongformen 
gattj  unab()ditgig  son  SebcutungsJgruvpen  bet  af(en  Stbieftbie  nad)  ntefyr  duf eren  93ebtitJ 
gungen  jit  regctn  (Wunderlich's  Der  deutsche  Satzbau,  1st  edition,  p.  170). 
geute,  bie  ttenig  obcr  gar  feitt  ©enrifien  tjaben,  iturbcn  and)  adjtt  glucEltcf>  fctit,  irenn  bie 
etcige  ©ered)ttgfett  (3  ntd)t  fo  prad)tig  serftdnbe,  t^nen  and)  an  mc^r  dttjjeiltdjer  ©teffc 
ben  @adj»er^att  f(ar  jit  madden !  (Raabe's  Die  Leiite  aus  dem  Walde^  1 1.  chap.  viii). 
See  also  117.  2.  a. 

7.  (§3  iji  mi"g(td)ev,  bajj,  &c.,  is  not  so  common  as  <$$  iji  eljcv  mcglid),  &c. 

8.  Occasionally  we   find    periphrastic   comparison  elsewhere,   where   we 
should  expect  the  suffix  ;er :    Unb  bir  iji  Saterlanb  mel)v  al3  bte  grembe  fremb 
(Goethe). 

9.  Double  comparison  is  rare :  eine  mefyt  fd)icfltd)ere  Urfad)c  (Lessing).    3n 
ben  SDonaitiSurfientumern  u-»avb  bie  ?age  bc^  ruJTtf4eit  Beeves  mef>r  unb  ntefyr  uttt)a(tj 
barer  ( Volks-Zeitung,  24.  267).     See  also  117. 1.  b. 


DESCENDING  COMPARISON. 

116.  Descending  comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs  is  formed 
by  placing  iceniger  or  miitbcr  less  before  the  positive  to  form  the  com- 
parative, and  am  icenigften  or  am  mtnbejleii  to  form  the  superlative : 
^art  hard,  rccniger  (or  mtnber)  l;art  less  hard,  am  U'entgfteit  (or  am 
mtnbeficn)  t;art  least  hard. 


IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON. 

117.  I.  Irregular  adjectives  and  adverbs  (the  simple  stem  only  is  here 
given) : 

L  2 


148  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  117.1. 

batb  (adv.)  soon  efyec  rather,  sooner  .    balbigfi    as    soon    as 

possible. 

fruf)  (adj.  &  adv.)  early,     frufyer  (now  less  commonly    frufjefl   (bdlbeft,  ba(beft) 
soon  bdlbet  or  batber)  earlier,        earliest,       soonest, 

sooner  first. 

gern  (adv.)  willingly.         Iteber  (see  <?,  below)  liebfh 

ungern  unwillingly,  often  regular,  more  commonly,  however,  as  gem. 
gut  (adj.  &  adv.)  good,    beffev  beft 

well  (bafi,  adv. ;  see  d,  below)        (guteft ;  see/), 

tooty!  (adv.),  sometimes  used  in  the  positive  instead  of  gut  (see  c,  below). 
(  oft  (adv.)  often  or  cfter  (adj.  &  adv. ;  see  a)     (  oftefl  (adv.) 

\  ofterer  (rare)  )  ofterfi  (rare) 

\  oftmaltg  (adj.)  \ 

(  Ijduftg  (adj.  &  adv.)  Ijduftger  (adj.  £  adv.)  (  fyiuftgfl  (adj.  &  adv.). 

<"  Ml-  &  adv.,  much  {  *&&  \  =£  (see  „. 

(  toentg  (adj.  &  adv.)  little  ( lueniger  (adj.  £  adv.)  f  toemgft  (adj.  &  adv.) 

<      (in   amount   or  de-  <  minbet  (adj.  &  adv.)  <  nttnbeji  (adj.  &  adv.). 

(     gree),  pL/ew  (  ( 

a.  DfterS,  comparative  of  oft,  is  often  used  adverbially  in  an  absolute  sense, 
and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  relative  comparative  ofter :  £>a$  begegnet 
tnir  cfterS  That  happens  to  me  comparatively  or  quite  often.     93erfud)uiigen 
tteten  un3  ofter  nafye,  ate  Jt)ir  gtauben  Temptations  come  near  to  us  more  often 
than  we  think.    The  comparative  ofter;  is  also  used  in  adjective  function  in 
an  absolute  sense :  oftere  SBefudje,  feme  oftere  ©egenitart. 

b.  SOJe^rer;  (due  to  double  comparison)  greater  (before  a  sing,  noun),  more 
and  mefytft  (superl.  formed  from  the  compar.  mefyv)  most  are  not  infrequent 
earlier  in  the  period :  S3nb  ba  bie  Slufuvt  v>ngelegen  n>ar  $u  tt)intern  |  befiunben  jr  bad 
mef)ter  teit  auff  bem  9iat  |  »on  baunen  ju  faren  (Acts  xxvii.  12).    2)ap  ein  Slufent^alt 
in  biefent  Slnti!enfaal  bem  fiubierenbeu  Jtunftlet  tne^reve  93orteite  gettdljrte,  at^  etne 
SBaHfafjrt  . .  .  tmd)  {Rom  (Schiller,  3.  577).   35 te  ntetjreften  biefer  Unglurflid)en  (id., 
Kab.  2,  2).    This  older  usage  is  still  occasionally  found :   3ur  <2eite  fummtt 
ber  fjeimlicfye  Seefeffel  unb  »on  3ett  git  3eit  fudte  ev  bie  Heine  d)tneftf<J)e  Haffe  mit  bee 
golbffaren  Studig^it,  ber  er  gu  mefyreret  SBergeifiigung  au3  btanfer  ^n)fiol(flafc£)e  etn>eld)en 
5lrraf  gujufe^en  ))flegte   (H.  Seidel's  Der  Luftballori).     ©otcfje  SJiberfpru^e  in 
ben  (Sntfcfyltejjungen  beg  JlonigS  geigten  ftcf>  nun  batb  immer  mefyrere  unb   tmmer 
gredere  (Karl  Biedermann's  Dreifsig  Jahre  deutscher  Geschichte,    I.  p.  93). 
This  older  usage  is  most  common  in  a  few  set  expressions  :    Savon  funftig  ein 
mefyrereS  more  about  that  some  other  time,  be3  mefyteren  more  in  detail,  more 
fully,    3Jlel)rere  (pi.  of  mefyrer;),  however,  is  still  quite  common  as  an  indefinite 
numeral  adjective  in  the  sense  of  several ;  see  139.  \.h. 

c.  28olj(  is  a  predicative  adjective  which  is  only  used  in  the  meaning  -well 
with  reference  to  the  health  or  bodily  comfort,  and  is  entirely  regular  in 
comparison.     It  must  not  be  confounded  with  gut,  which  besides  its  usual 
adjective  meaning  good  is  used  as  an  adverb  of  manner  with  the  meanings 
well,  nicely,  and  also  used  as  an  adjective  in  the  comparative  and  super- 
lative with  the  force  of  ttoljl :    @r  fdjreibt  gut,  beffer,  am  beften,  but  Ofynt  tft  {jeute 
u?ofj(,  ftofyUr  or  beffcr.     (3t  befinbet  fid)  tt>oi)l,  toolset  or  beffer,  am  Mftljien  or  am 
beften.     Historically  considered,  ftofyl  was  originally  not  an  adjective  as  at 
present,  but  the  adverbial  form  of  the  adjective  gut.     This  original  usage 
occurs  frequently   as  late  as  the  classical  period,  and  is  still  retained  in 
adjective,  participial,   and  substantive  compounds  and  in  a  number  of  set 
expressions  :  ftofjtgemut,  wot)tfd)mecfenb,  itoljtcrljatten,  tt>cf)lbefamtt,  SBofylflang,  ©ofyk 
gerud),  &c.     SBofyl  is  found  before  adjective  participles  also  where  they  are 
not  written  as  a  part  of  a  compound :    @etn  Jpinterftiibdjen  tear  tt>ofy[  gegicvt 
(Raabe).    In  set  expressions  :  (Sr  lwl(  mtv  ttofyt.    (Sr  tut  JpoT;t  baran.     3d)  n?unfdje 

loo(;t  ju  fdjlafen  I  wish  you  a  good  night's  rest.    3Jlcge  es}  3f)nen  jvo^t 


117.2.*.  IRREGULAR   COMPARISON  149 

befommen !  May  it  agree  with  you  well !    SOlir  gefdttt  ber  J?er(  auSnefymenb  toofyl 
(also  gut)  (Raabe's  Ztim  wilden  Mann,  chap.  x). 

d.  An  old  adverbial  comparative  of  gut  is  bafj.     It  is  sometimes  in  antique 
style  or  dialect  still  used  with  the  meanings  better,  more,  rather,  more  fre- 
quently very  much,  again,  further :  3d)  fyabe  mid;  mandjmal  bajj  (very  much) 
genwnbcrt  fiber  bid)  (Hauptmann's  Vor Sonnenaufgang,  i).     The  adverb  was 
not  mutated  in  the  compar.  in  older  periods  of  the  language  as  was  the  adj., 
as  can  be  still  seen  in  this  fossilized  form  bajj  (adverb)  in  contradistinction  to 
beffer  (adj.). 

e.  In  earlier  periods  the  comparison  of  gern  was  regular.     It  is  also  fre- 
quently regular  in  early  N.H.G.  and  occasionally  even  later,  and  is  still 
often  so  in  popular  language,  which  thus  preserves  here  older  usage. 

/.  The  regular  superlative  of  gut  is  not  infrequent  in  colloquial  speech, 
especially  in  comic  or  sarcastic  language,  only,  however,  in  direct  address : 
<spef)'u  <Sie,  ntein  ©utefter,  ba3  nennt  man  fo  9)lenftf)enliebe  in  ben  Stolen  (Schulze- 
Smidt's  O  Tannebaum,  i).  Sftee,  mein  ©utefter !  (F\i\&a?sjugendfreundet  I,  7). 
2.  Defective  adjectives  with  positive  wanting,  only  used  attributively  or 
substantively : 

Comparative.  Superlative. 

£er,  bie,  ba£  aujj ere  outer  ber,  bte,  ba3  du^erfte  outmost 

erftete  former  erfte  first 

ttmere  inner  innerfie  inmost 

fjintete  hinder  tytnterfte  hindmost 

lejjtere  latter  te{jte  last 

mtttlere  middle  mittetfte  middlemost 

obere  upper  oberfie  uppermost 

untere  under  untcrfte  undermost 

corbere  in  front  (  v>otberfte  foremost 

ccrbere  (earlier  in  the  <  scrber  fh  (still  surviving  as  an 

period)  (      adverb ;  see  b,  below) 

a.  Of  these  erfl  and  Ie$t  are  superlatives  treated  as  positives,  from  which 
compar.  forms  crflev;  and  letter*  have  been  made.     The  compar.  forms  of  the 
others  have  been  made  from  adverbs  and  are  in  force  really  positives,  and 
of  the  one  word  mittcl  all  three  degrees  can  sometimes  be  found  without 
difference  of  meaning :   ber  mittete  (or  mittfcre,  or  mitte(jte)  Singer.    When  it  is 
desired  to  impart  real  comparative  force  to  these  comparatives,  which  does 
not  often  occur,  it  is  necessary  to  prefix  mefyv ;  see  115.  6. 

b.  Only  the  superl.  of  adverbs  is  formed  from  these  adjectives  :  ju  aufjerfi 
the  farthest  away,  ju  (jinterft  the  farthest  behind,  \\\  initerfl  the  farthest  within, 
ju  mittelfl  the  farthest  towards  the  middle,  £c.,  and  three  in  which  ju  and  the 
adverb  are  written  together,  juerfl  first,  ^ufe^t  last,  jUttcrberft  or  ju»orberft  fore- 
most, in  the  first  rank,  in  front,  before  all  (things),  in  the  first  place,  first  and 
foremost.      In  the  case  of  juuorberjl  and   juvwberft  there  is  a  tendency  to 
differentiate,  so  that  the  former  is  used  with  regard  to  time  and  the  latter 
with  regard  to  place. 

However,  corresponding  to  these  defective  adjectives  denoting  a  position 
are  other  adverbial  forms  of  kindred  origin,  which  with  the  aid  of  para- 
phrasing can  form  all  three  degrees :  aufjen  without,  out  of  doors,  tnnen  within, 
Ijinten  behind,  oben  above,  unten  below,  »orne  in  front.  Their  comparatives  are 
formed  by  placing  before  the  adverb  the  comparatives  tt>eitet  farther  or  mefyr 
more,  and  their  superlatives  by  the  superlatives  of  the  same  adverbs :  cben, 
ireiter  cben,  ant  ivctteftcn  oben  ;  untcn,  meljr  unten,  &c.  Likewise  in  case  of  other 
adverbs  denoting  position :  linftf  to  the  left,  setter  linfd,  am  u?eiteften  tinfo.  In 
case  of  some  of  these  adverbs  we  sometimes  find  here  in  facetious  language 
the  regular  comparative  ending  *er  :  SBenn  tint  fie  erft  UnftJ  fyaben,  bann  ift'<5  md)t 
mefyv  fcfyttxt :  bann  graulen  ttir  fie  ifym  audj  icoljl  immer  Unf fer  (Wilbrandt's  Hermann 
Jfinger,  chap.  iii). 


150  LIMITING  ADJECTIVES  118. 

LIMITING  ADJECTIVES. 

118.  A  limiting  adjective  is  one  that  merely  defines  or  restricts 
the  meaning  of  a  noun. 

Limiting  adjectives  differ  in  form  or  meaning  from  qualifying 
adjectives  in  that: 

a.  They  do  not  stand  uninflected  in  the  predicate,  and  hence  the 
masc.  form  for  the  nom.  is  usually,  except  in  the  case  of  uninflected 
words,  given  in  the  dictionary  to  represent  the  word  instead  of 
giving  the  simple  stem,  which  only  occurs  in  a  few  cases,  as  will 
be  found  recorded  in  the  proper  places.     The  simple  stem  of  these 
latter  words  is  often  given  to  represent  the  word,  as  indeed  these 
forms  do  sometimes  occur. 

b.  They  cannot  all  be  inflected   strong  or  weak.      Some  are 
always  declined  strong,  even  in  the  masc.  and  neut.  gen.  sing. ; 
some  are  inflected  str.  or  wk.  according  to  circumstances.     Thus 
the  different  groups  of  this  class  must  be  treated  separately. 

Note.  The  weak  forms  in  this  class  of -adjectives  are  in  general  of  comparatively 
recent  origin  and  have  been  gradually  increasing,  as  they  have  been  influenced  by  the 
declension  of  qualifying  adjectives. 

c.  They  cannot  be  compared,  except  a  few  which  are  treated  under 
the  head  of  comparison  of  qualifying  adjectives ;  see  117,  and  113.  6. 

119.  Limiting  adjectives  are  divided  into  two  classes — numeral 
and  pronominal  adjectives. 

120.  Cardinals:  NUMERALS. 

0,  niifl  20, 

1,  ein,  eine,  em,  but  ein§  in  count-  21, 

ing  when  no  noun  follows  22, 

2,  jroet ;     early   N.  H.  G.    jrceen  23,  breiunbjiranjig 

(masc.),  grco  (fern.) ;  see  121.  30,  breifjig 

2.  a.  Note  31,  einunbbretfng 

3,  brei  40,  irierjtg 

4,  »ter  50,  funfjig  (funfoig,  pop.  fitfjig) 

5,  fiinf  or  funf  (early  N.H.G.)  60,  fed^ig 

6,  fed?8  70,  jtefytg  (jlefcenjig) 

7,  ftefcen  80,  acfytjtg 

8,  ad)t  90,  neun$tg 

9,  neun  100,  fyunbert 

10,  jefyn  101,  (etn)§imbertunbetn3 

11,  elf,  etlf  (now  obsolete)  102,  (etn^unbertunfytw 

12,  jroijlf  200,  $reet$unbert 

13,  foreign  300,  bretfyunbert 

14,  irierj4n  400,  oier^unbert 

15,  funfyefjn  (funfjt^n,  pop.  fitfjefyt)  1,000,  tcwfenb 

16,  fecfyjefyn  1,001,  (etn)taufenbunbem8 

17,  fte%$n  (ftefcenje^n)  10,000,  je^ntaufenb 

18,  dcfytjefyu  100,000,  |unberttaufcnb 

19,  twmjefyn 

cine  SWttltou  a  million,  jreet  SKitttonen  two  millions,  eine  2J?itftarbe 
a  thousand  millions,  eine  aBifliott  a  billion. 


121.2.  NUMERALS  151 

121.  Inflection  : 

1.  (Sin  is  inflected  strong  or  weak  as  any  qualifying  adj.  with 
several  variations : 

A.  If  it  is  used  attributively  and  is  not  preceded  by  a  limiting 
word,  it  is  inflected  exactly  as  the  indefinite  article,  differing  from 
it  only  in  being  more  strongly  accented:  etn  (see  58.  B.  a)  2J?ann 
ntcfyt  jtvei,  etn  25ucfy  nicbt  jtrei,  eiu  guter  SK-ann. 

a.  Before  numerals  used  as  collective  nouns,  before  fractions  and  the 
substantive  Ufjr  o'clock,  and  also  before   certain  pronominal  adjectives  and 
nouns  denoting  an  indefinite  quantity,  ein  is  found  uninflected  :  mit  ein  (i.e. 
about  a  dozen,  but  for  an  exact  dozen  we  say  cincm)  Sujjenb  guten  2lpfctn.     @tn 
©ecfyfhl  tton  ein  fyalb,  bleibt  ein  £)rittcl  One-sixth  from  one-half  leaves  one-third. 
20  multiplijiett  mit  ein  93iertel  gibt  5.     9tad)  ein  Ul)r  after  one  o'clock,  mit  ein 
bifjd)en  SJJut  with  a  little  courage,  in  ein  paav  Sagen,  mit  ein  ttenig  ©ebulb. 

b.  The  uninflected  ein  is  found  in  a  few  set  expressions  connected  by  unb 
and  cbet  (see  2.  d,  below) :  3d)  faf)  e3  ein  unb  anberent  Slugenpaat  an,  ba$  fu'er 
gettjetnt  icorben  ftav.     Sranjerl  (proper  name)  lr>ar  fein  ein  (or  ein3  ;  see  B,  below) 
unb  a((e3.     Sin  einunbbemfelben  Sage ;   j;u  (at)  brctnnbeinfyalb  ^rojent ;   ein  ober  jtt>ei 
2Bod)en  ;  in  eitt  ober  jftei  ©tunben  ;  in  colloquial  language  in  ein  £ager  (contracted 
from  Sag  cber)  fecfc^  in  about  six  days,  &c. 

c.  The  uninflected  form  ein  (or  eine)  is  used  in  colloquial  language  to  give 
a  collective  idea  to  nouns  in  the  pi. :  (Sr  bteibt  nodj  toot)(  ein  (or  eine)  8  Xage 
He  will  probably  remain  yet  about  a  week.     33or  ein  7,  8  Safjren  about  7  or  8 
years  ago.    fflenn  id)  nur  cine  2  obec  300  Sater  tyatte !  If  I  only  had  the  sum  of 
two  or  three  hundred  thalers  1 

B.  If  ein  is  preceded  by  some  limiting  word  which  cannot  mark 
the  gender  and  case  of  the  noun,  as  the  possessive  gen.  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  or  the  nom.  masc.  and  nom.  and  ace.  neut.  of  a  possessive 
pronoun,  it  is  inflected  strong :  2)e8  JtontgS  eineS  €>cfytofj  Ucgt  in  <Stutt* 
gart,  bag  anbere  in  £ubrcig3butij.     2ftein  Sreimb  unb  beffen  eincr  €>o^n  (or 
eine  £ocfyter  or  etneS  Jtinb)  jlnb  fc^on  angefommen.     9Btr  feiern  ^eute  etnen 
tragtfd?  bc^^eltfejllt^en  3!ag.  .  .  .  Snbem  ft^  metn  etneg  Qtuge  fiir  bie  ©rabrcbe 
feu^tet,  fdngt  ba§  anbere  fiir  bte  frctyUcfye  ©ebitrtgrebe  ^u  la^en  an  (Wilbrandt's 
Die  Maler,  2, 7). 

C.  Preceded  by  the  definite  article  or  some  other  limiting  word 
which  marks  gender  and  case,  ein  is  inflected  weak  :  ber  eine  Jtnabe ;  ber 
eine,  ber  anbere  the  one,  the  other.    In  S.W.G.  we  find  sometimes  the 
form  ber  einte  instead  of  ber  eine  when  used  in  contrast  to  ber  anbere. 

a.  In  German,  differing  from  English,  the  definite  article  may  stand  before 
the  pi.  of  ein,  referring  collectively  to  one  of  two  groups :  bie  etnen  ...  bie 
anbern  the  persons  in  the  one  group  .  .  .  those  in  the  other. 

D.  Used  substantively,  standing  alone,  ein  is  declined  as  a  strong 
adj.,  the  neut.  nom.  and  ace.  usually,  however,  in  the  contracted 
form  einS :    einer  oon  btefen  ^erren,  etn(e)3  »on  biefen  93ud?ern,  fo  etner 
such  a  one. 

a.  The  uninflected  neut.  form  eintf  occurs  in  some  very  common  idioms : 
jwclf  SUUnutcn  nacfy  ein3  twelve  minutes  after  one  o'clock,  tnit  etna  suddenly, 
con  ein<3  big  fyunbcrt  jafylen  to  count  from  one  to  one  hundred. 

2.  The  cardinals  except  ein  are  not  now  usually  inflected :  $ef)n 
finger,  eintge  jtranjtg  3afyre  some  twenty  years,  etntge  i)unbert  3afyre 
several  hundred  years. 

In  case  of  the  absence  of  some  preceding  article  or  pronominal 


152  LIMITING   ADJECTIVES  121.2. 

adj.  to  show  case,  the  prep.  turn  marks  the  gen.  relation  of  these 
indeclinable  numerals:  ber  britte  £eil  fcon  fecfyS  ifl  jtrei.  In  the  other 
cases  the  context  as  in  English  shows  the  case. 

a.  Sometimes  ^oei  and  brei  are  in  the  attributive  relation  declined  strong 
in  the  gen.  and  dat.  pi.,  if  there  is  no  preceding  word  to  show  case:  3>r)eier 
3eugen  OJlunb  tut  alle  a&afyrtjeit  funb  The  testimony  of  two  witnesses  establishes 
the  truth.     The  gen.  j^eier,  breier,  occur  more  frequently  than  the  dat.  gttxien, 
brcien,  as  so*me  preceding  preposition  in  the  latter  case  usually  makes  the 
dative  relation  sufficiently  clear  without  the  aid  of  the  case  ending.     Some- 
times we  find  the  strong  gen.  pi.  form  of  other  numerals,  but  non-inflection 
is  much  more  common :  roafjrenb  jtoolfer  Sage  (NiendorPs  Gudrun,  1. 10). 

The  neuter  of  btfi,  and  much  more  rarely  of  vier,  has  when  used  substan- 
tively  developed  strong  sing,  forms  with  collective  force  after  the  analogy  of 
beibeg  (see  139.  i.d):  3d)  ttntt  aHeS  brcieg  nterfen  I  will  note  all  three  points. 
9l((e$  breie3  toirfte  mdd)tig  gufammen  All  three  things  worked  powerfully  together. 
Unb  id)  bin  eigentlid)  alleS  brei'$  (i.e.  Jtinb,  9tarr,  $oet)  (Fontane's  LAdulterat 
XXI)  And  I  am  really  all  three  (of  the  things  you  have  mentioned).  In  popular 
language  the  neut.  of  jtoei  is  often  used  instead  of  beibeg :  biefeg  gtueieg  nefyme  id). 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  forms  jtoeett  (masc.),  giro  (fern.),  jtoet  (neut.),  were 
much  used  for  the  nom.  and  ace.,  and  still  occur  in  poetry  and  S.G.  dialects.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  and  later  they  are  not  clearly  understood  and  hence  often  confounded. 
The  neuter  form  has  at  last  crowded  out  the  masc.  and  fern,  forms. 

In  a  few  compounds  the  older  form  jtoie  is  found  instead  of  gtoet,  as  3wteltdjt 
twilight,  3wtetrad)t  dissension,  &c. 

b.  The  numerals  in  ;jig  lengthen  this  form  to  ;jtger  to  show  the  decades  of 
the  century  or  of  human  life,  and  remain  uninflected :  in  ben  adjtjiger  Saljren 
beg  ttcrigen  SafyrfcunbcrtS  in  the  eighth  decade  of  the  last  century,  bie  nadjjub$iger 
3eit  the  period  in  Germany  after  the  great  political  changes  of  1871,  in  ber 
SJlitte  bev  sierjiger  SebenSjafjre  in  the  middle  of  the  forties  ;  see  also  5,  below. 

c.  When  these  numerals  stand  alone,  either  substantively  or  with  some 
other  noun  understood,  they  are  sometimes,  especially  in  the  dat.  and  least 
frequently  in  the  gen.,  declined,  usually  with  the  inflection  of  nouns  of  the 
second  class  strong  ;  but  in  general  this  inflection  is  limited  to  certain  set 
expressions,  and  should  rather  be  considered  as  quaint,  and  hence  avoided  : 
biefe  viere  these  four  (boys),  fed)3  (more  common  than  fedjfe)  fanten  six  (people) 
came,  nrir  ftnb  unfer  fed)$  (or  fedjfe)  there  are  six  of  us,  ber  9Jat  ber  $ittfipa$trt 
the  council  of  the  500  (in  France,  in  1795),  ba<?  33crl)afcen  ber  35rei  the  intention 
of  the  three,  tin  QJJann  in  ben  <£ed)jigeit  (or  fedj^ig) ;  ttenn  einer,  hjie  id),  liber  bte 
Std)tjtg(e)  I)tnan(5  iji ;  jn  brei  (or  breien)  jt^en  to  sit  three  together,  anf  alien  wieren 
friedjen,  mit  fed)fen  fafyrcn  to  go  in  a  coach  and  six.     Gr  I)at  o((e  neune  geroorfen  He 
has  knocked  down  all  the  nine  (nine-pins).     (Sr  fam  ntit  funfjig  (more  common 
than  funfjigen).     Slllen  »ieren  (to  all  four  persons}  fagte  Dnfel  ©ottfrieb  jugleid) 
gnten  Xag  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer^  XI). 

Note.  We  sometimes  find  the  substantive  forms  of  numerals  inflected  like  adjectives 
instead  of  non-inflection  or  inflection  according  to  the  2nd  class  of  strong  nouns,  much 
more  frequently,  however,  early  in  the  period:  3d)  toil  jnen  nidjtS  tl)im  J  Bm6  ttierjiger 
widen  (Gen.  xviii.  29).  Sag  nteine  feele  *nb  bie  feele  beiner  ^nedjte  btefer  funff^igen 
fnr  bir  etroag  getten  (2  Kings  i.  13).  3ef)tt  ©djuler  ^aben  gearbcitet;  biefesS  jtnb 
bie  Slrbeiten  sterer,  adjter  —  ebenfo  ftunberter,  taufenber  (Wetzel's  Die  Jeutsche 
Sprache,  p.  197,  loth  ed.).  JDag  <Sd)irffat  aller  »ieten  (Q\z.lzs  A'euhochdeutsche  Gram- 
matik,  I.  p.  390,  3rd  ed.)  ;  bie  Slugen  taufenber  (Heer's  Der  Konig  der  Bernina,  chap, 
xv).  This  inflection  is  also  established  in  case  of  brei  in  the  neut.  sing. ;  see  a,  above. 

d.  Also  numerals  which  are  capable  of  inflection  remain  usually  uninflected 
when  brought  into  connection  with  uninflected  numerals  by  some  conjunction 
or  preposition,  or  sometimes  the  inflected  numeral  agrees  with  the  noun  in 
the  sing.  (96. 10) :  in  einer  $6fje  uon  em  bis  jtoei  3JJeter(n),  ait$  I;unt>ertunbein  trtftkjrn 


121.  5-  NUMERALS  153 

©runben,  or  au3  tjunbert  imb  einem  triftigen  ©runbe  for  a  hundred  and  one  good 
reasons,  breiunbeinfyalb  (or  brei  unb  etu  halbcg)  ^rojent,  in  fed)3unbeinf)alb  Saljren,  or 
in  fed)3  unb  cinem  Ijalben  3al)t,  fin  fur  allemal  once  for  all,  in  ein  cbet  jicei  £agen. 

Note.  If  an  article  or  inflected  pronominal  adj.  in  the  pi.  precede  such  mixed 
numerals,  the  noun  must  be  in  the  pi.  and  the  numeral  may  remain  entirely  uninflected, 
or  the  declinable  numeral,  namely  ein,  may  show  the  gender,  not  case  or  number, 
as  it  has  no  pi.  forms,  and  hence  no  attempt  ought  to  be  made  to  make  it  agree  with 
the  governing  noun  in  case  and  number  :  au3  btcfcn  fyunbertunbem  ttiftijttn  ©runben, 
untev  ben  funfeinljalb  or  ben  funf  unb  eine  Ijatbe  (agreeing  with  the  noon  in  gender 
only)  SKillioncn  ©ejejfioniflen  among  the  five  and  a  half  million  Secessionists.  3d) 
fyabe  tttefjt  ju  tun  at<3  eure  taufenb  unb  eine  ^dfeteien  gu  fdjlidjten.  Some,  however, 
make  etn  agree  also  in  case,  which  sounds  very  harsh,  as  this  attempt  to  make  adj. 
and  noun  agree  brings  a  sing.  adj.  before  a  pi.  noun  in  the  same  case  and  brings 
about  a  clash  instead  of  an  agreement  :  »cn  ben  taufenb  unb  einent  SHijiigefdjicEen 
(Sealsfield's  Transatlantische  Reiseskizzen  ,  I.  64). 

<?.  The  numerals  are  especially  uninflected  in  giving  dates,  numbers  of 
houses  (in  the  street),  time  of  day,  and  often  with  suppression  of  the  case 
form  of  the  noun,  the  omission  of  articles,  and  even  of  nouns  and  prepositions  : 
Seipjig  fyatte  350,000  (Stnroormev  in  1890  (in  imitation  of  the  French,  or  more 
commonly  according  to  the  German  idiom  im  Saljre  1890,  or  simply  1890) 
gegeit  170,000  in  1885.  (Sr  ttofynte  (im)  £>e$embet  (beS  Safcrcc)  76  Sinbenfttajje  74 
(short  for  im  Jpanfe  74  ber  Sinbenflrafje).  £)ie  ©trecfe  93cvliiu!pct6battt,  1838  ercjfnet, 
irar  bie  erfte  prenjnfdje  SBaljn  The  line  between  Berlin  and  Potsdam  was  the 
first  Prussian  railroad,  opened  in  1838.  (Sin  SHertcl  (auf)  einS  or  ein  SSiettel 
nad)  ^nolf  a  quarter  after  twelve,  tyalb  (auf  understood)  jtoei  half-past  one, 
brei  SBtertel  auf  brei,  or  ein  SMettet  \?cv  or  bt3  bvet  a  quarter  to  three,  or  in  railroad 
language  as  in  English  :  $eljn  (Ufyv)  j^anjig  (written  10.20). 


3.  When  used  substantively  as  names  of  figures,  all  numerals  are 
declined  weak,  as  they  are  all  fern.  :  £>te  (StnS  ift  ntcfyt  fccutlic^  the  figure  i 
is  not  plain.  2)u  fyaft  bie  S'unf  ju  grofi  gefd)rtekn  You  have  written  the 
5  too  large.  Sine  romtfdje  3?fy"  a  Roman  X.  The  form  in  =e  is  less 
common  :  <So  ?  unb  rcarum  nennt  3f)r  \  tie  fti'mfe  eine  t;etHge  3^t;I  (Schiller's 
Piccolomini,  2,  i).  The  plural  always  has  *en  :  bie  3^1)1  1881  ent^cilt 
jir/et  (Sinfen  unb  ^rcei  Qlc^ten. 


Note.  These  numbers  are  also  used  as  feminine  substantives  in  various  other  applied 
relations  :  eine  fd)6ne  Srci  t>on  Sreunben,  eine  bcfe  ©ieben  a  vixen,  gtvei  !Dreien  a  pair- 
royal  of  treys.  <£o  jieflt  fid)  enblid)  |  bie  gro§e  2)rei  (Jupiter,  Venus,  Mars)  tterfydngm^ 
\>ol(  jufammen  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  i,  i).  2)er  etujig  (Sine  bift  bu,  bed)  bu 
lenfft  |  atg  eine  nt^fUfd)  grope  2)rei  bie  2Bett  (Platen). 

3h>ei  and  3)rei  are  sometimes  used  as  neuter  substantives  in  a  collective  sense  :  Siebe, 
menfdjtid)  ju  bcgludfen,  i  ndljert  fte  ein  ebteg  3»fi;  I  bod)  gu  gottlid)em  Qutjucfen,  | 
bilbet  fte  ein  foftlid)  2)rei  (Goethe).  2)as  fdjtuefterlidje  £rei  the  three  Graces  (or  the 
three  Parcae  or  Fates). 

4.  £unbert,  Scwfenb,  Sfttflton,  ^tdiarbe,  ^Bittion,  can  be  used  substan- 
tively, and  are  then  inflected  as  nouns,  the  first  two  according  to  the 
2nd  class  strong  and  the  others  weak  :  2>a3  crfte  •Ounbert,  ganje  «|unberte 
Don  SPicnfcfycn.     ©3  ge^t  in  bie  £aufenbe  It  reaches  up  into  the  thousands. 
SKcm  fd)ci§t  bie  3a^  fiiintlid)er  jJlumdncn  (Roumanians)  auf  10  ^ittttonen. 

5.  Masc.  substantives  are  formed  from  the  numerals  by  adding 
er,  all   inflected  according  to   ist  class   strong:    bie  (5tner,  3^"ev, 
«£wnbcrter   units,    tens,    hundreds,    ein    frunfcr    a    5-pfennig    (in    the 
Empire)  or  kreuzer  (in  Austria)  piece,  ein  QSterjigcr  a  man  of  forty, 
ein  ^{d)tunbvncr^iijer  one  who  took  part  in  the  stirring  events  of  1848, 
bie  Qlcfytimbjicanjiger  the  troops  of  the  28th  regiment,  ein 


154  LIMITING  ADJECTIVES  121.5. 

2)rciunba^)t^iger  a  nice  glass  of  wine  of  the  year  '83,  em  ®ret0  nafye 
ben  5Id?t$igern  (or  ben  acfat,$tger  3atyren,  or  ben  acfytgtgen,  or  ben  acfytgjg) 
an  old  man  near  the  eighties,  ein  mtttlerer  QSiergiger  (Fontane)  a  man 
in  the  middle  of  the  forties,  ein  SSterer  a  boat  with  four  rowers,  ein 
©tefcener  a  member  of  a  body  or  committee  of  seven.  Some  of  these 
formations  are  also  common  in  compounds :  23terergug  team  of  four 
horses,  ©iefceneraugfcfyup  a  committee  of  seven  men. 

122.  C3rdinals : 

1.  The  ordinals  except  those  for  'first/  'third,'  and  'eighth/ 
which  are  irregular,  are  formed  by  adding  t  to  the  numbers  2-19, 
and  ft  from  20  on.    They  are  declined  strong  and  weak  as  adjectives. 
Only  the  last  number  is  inflected  if  compound. 

ist  ber  (bte,  bag)  erfte  22nd  ber  greeutnbgrcanjigfle 
2nd  ber  jrceite;    earlier  in  the  loist  ber    Jjitnbertimberfte,    some- 
period  also  ber  groeete,  bie  times  ber  ^unberteinte  or 
(fern.)  jrcote;    also  ber,  bie,  tyunbertetnfte 
bag    anber  (still   found    in  io2nd  ber  fjunbertunbgnjette 
anberttyalfc ;  see  126. 2.  b)  io3rd  ber   ^unbertunbbritte,   some- 
3rd  ber  britte  times  ber  ^unbertbreite 
4th  ber  inerte  loyth  ber  §unbertunbftet(en)te 
7th  ftefcente, or ftefcte, early N.H.G.  io8th  ber  $unbertunbad)te 

jlefcenbe  2ooth  ber  grceifyunbertfte 

8th  ber  acfyte  (adds  no  t)  sooth  ber  breityitnbertjie 

2oth  ber  grcangigjie  loooth  ber  taufenbfie 
2ist  ber  einunbgnwngtgfte 

a.  Ordinals  are  sometimes  uninflected  in  the  idiom  gu  jtreit,  brttt. 
&c.,  with  the  force  of  ju  gtreten,  breien,  or  ju  jreei,  bret  two  or  three 
together:   3d?  tin  je£t  rcaljrlicf?  nic^t  in  ber  ©ttmmung  jit  britt  git  fein 
Indeed  I  am  not  in  a  mood  to  have  a  third  party  with  us. 

b.  Ordinal  adverbs  are   formed   by  adding   en3   to   the   simple 
stem :  erfienS  in  the  first  place,  grceitenS  in  the  second  place,  groan* 
gtgftenS,  &c. 

c.  After  the  analogy  of  ber  fcierte  (&c,)  and  ber  grcanjigfte  are  formed 
ber  nriettielte  and  ber  nnesieljie  what  date,  what  number,  how  many: 
3)er  irteoielte  ijt  f)eitte?  or2)en  roieoielten  ^aben  icir  fyeute?  What  is  the  day 
of  the  month  ?    £>er  irteuielte  roaren  <Sie  im  Sramen  ?  What  was  your 
place  in  the  examination?    £>ie  nnetrieljle  fiie6(c^aft  ifl  bte§  ico^I?  About 
how  many  love-affairs  does  this  make  that  he  has  already  had? 
Also  other  similar  formations  occur:    in  ber  etft>rei»iertelten  (Stunbe 
in  the  last  quarter-hour,  literally,  in  the  last  quarter-hour  before 
twelve.     See  also  126.  2.  b. 

2.  The  ordinals  are  often  in  certain  set  expressions  replaced  by 
cardinals,  which  in  this  case  stand  after  the  noun :   Jlapttet  fecfyS 
chapter  6,  23anb  fitnf  vol.  5,  £c. 

123.  The  ordinals  all  require  an  article  or  pronominal  adj.  before  them, 
but  erfl  often  drops  it  and  is  then  used  in  the  sense  of  an  absolute  superl. : 
erfte  Scfjrtftftefler  authors  who  are  among  the  best,  but  bie  erjtat  ®d)riftfietter  the 
best  authors. 


126.  2. a.  NUMERALS  155 

124.  The  days  of  the  month.     As  in  English,  the  ordinal  is  used 
for  the  days  of  the  month.     Letters  are  usually  dated  after  the 
following  model:    SSerlin,  ben  5.   (read   fiinften)    2JMrj   1894.      3^r 
<Sd;rei6en    ttom   19.   (read   neunjetynten)  b&  (biefeS   SKonate),  am  2lbenb 
fceS  20.  (read  ^canjigften),  bom  3.  (read  btitten)  bi3  14.  (read  ben  bier* 
jefynten)  from  the  3rd  to  the  i4th,  bi3  mit  ben  i.  (read  erflen)  Dftober, 
or  big  unb  mit  ben  i.  Dftobet  up  to  and  including  October  the  first. 

125.  Distributive  numerals  are  formed  by  prefixing  je  to  car- 
dinals or  ordinals :   @r  gab  ben  Jtnaben  je  jefm  pfennig  He  gave  to 
each  of  the  boys  ten  pfennigs.    2)te  ©efangenen  nwrben  ju  je  jrcet  unb  jrcei 
(by  twos)  jufammengebunben.     3e  ber  je^nte  SBittger  every  tenth  citizen. 

126.  Compound  numerals  : 

1.  Numerals  formed  from  cardinals  are : 

a.  Variative  numerals,  which  add  =erlet  to  the  simple  cardinal, 
forming  an  uninflected  compound  :    einerlei  of  one  kind,  ^njeterlei 
of  two  kinds,  breterlei  of  three  kinds;  tyunberterlei,  atlerlei  of  all  kinds, 
&c.     The  let  in  these  compounds  is  in  reality  a  fern,  noun  in  the 
gen.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  ending  of  the  cardinal  (etner  fern, 
gen.),  but  it  is  felt  and  treated  as  an  uninflected  adjective :  atlerlei 
gute  2Bud)er  all  kinds  of  good  books,  dat.  *>on  aflerlet  guten  Suc^ern, 
atlerlei  guter  2Bcin  every  kind  of  good  wine,  Jlinber  beiberlei  ®efd?led?t3, 
bie  mandjerlei  S'olterfcfyrauben,  &c.     Substantively :  mit  fmnberterlei  foldjer 
93orfdfce  (Hauptmann's  Friedensfest,  3). 

b.  Multiplicatives,  which  add  *fa4  and  *fdltig  to  the  cardinal :  einfad) 
single,  simple ;  etnfa'ltig  simple  (silly) ;  ^roetfad?  and  jreeifa'Itig  twofold ; 
bretfacfy  and  breifaltig  threefold,  &c.     The  inflection  is  strong  and 
weak. 

c.  Iterative  adverbs,  which  add  *mal  to  the  simple  cardinal :  einmal 
once,  jrceimal  twice,  breimal  three  times,  &c.     Also  with  inflection  :  bag 
eine  9HaI,  mit  einem  2)iale  all  at  once,  ju  i?ier  oerfd^tebenen  ^Jalen,  &c.     Also 
the  ordinal  is  thus  used  :  bag  erfte  2ftal  the  first  time,  &c.     See  2.  d, 
below. 

Note  i.  Adjectives  are  formed  from  iterative  adverbs  by  adding  the  adj.  ending  I\Q 
to  ;inal :  em  breimatiger  Slngrtff  a  thrice-repeated  attack. 

Note  i.  Observe  the  difference  of  accent  between  etn'tttal  once  and  etnmaf  once 
upon  a  time.  In  the  former  case  etlt  is  a  numeral  and  hence  is  accented,  while  in  the 
latter  case  it  is  an  article,  and  hence  is  unaccented.  The  article  in  etntltal  is,  however, 
accented  when  the  word  indicates  future  time  and  is  used  in  the  meaning  trgettb  einmal' 
some  time  :  (Jr.  toirb  bod)  etu'wat  fotttmen  He  will  surely  come  some  time. 

2.  Numerals  formed  from  ordinals  are  found  in  : 

a.  The  neut.  substantives  expressing  fractions,  formed  by  adding 
=tel  (reduced  form  of  %tilpart)  to  the  stem  of  the  ordinals,  suppressing, 
however,  the  final  t  of  the  ordinal  before  the  t  of  the  suffix :  em 
Drtttel  a  third,  etn  SSiertel  (pro.  firtdl]  a  fourth,  fteben  9lrf;tel  =  |,  &c., 
but  instead  of  ein  3'veitel  is  used  etn  l)alf>  (121.  i.  A.  a  and  139.  2.  d, 
Notes  i  and  2}  or  bie  «§dlfte  (except  in  the  technical  language  of 
business  and  music,  where  etn  3"^*^  is  also  employed,  as  in 
3igarren  in  3^eitelf iften,  eine  3^«'telnote) ;  ttier  ^unbertfitnftel  =  j^ ; 
fyunbert  unb  tyunbertmer  ^unbertfi'tnftel  =  ioo-f}£| ;  etn  <&unberteintel  = 
TiT;  ein  ^unbert3rceitel=T^;  ein  Srcanjigfle^^  ;  ein  ^unbertfte^i^-. 
Sometimes  teil  is  still  used  in  full  instead  of  the  reduced  form  tel, 


15G  LIMITING  ADJECTIVES  126. 2.  a. 

especially  after  $imbert  (formerly  also  used  as  ordinal  instead  of 
fyunbertft)  in  the  meaning  per  cent. :  ein  £)rttteil  one-third,  92  ^unberttetle 
92  per  cent. 

Note.  These  substantives  are  often  considered  as  indeclinable  adjectives :  etlt 
fiinftet  .Kilometer,  cine  fiinftet  2Kei(e,  brei  siertet  $funb,  bret  Biertet  <£tunben.  The 
numeral  may  also  be  regarded  as  the  first  element  of  a  loose  compound,  and  hence 
both  parts  are  then  written  as  one  word:  etne  93iettelfhm'be,  tin  SOtertetjaljr'.  The 
accent  in  such  compounds  still  shows  that  they  are  not  felt  as  true  compounds;  see 
47.  3.  A.  e.  (4)  and  50.  A.  "j.f. 

b.  The  compounds  which  add  fyalfc  to  the  ordinal,  which  though 
formerly  declined  are  now  usually  uninflected  :  brtttfyatfc  or  brittefyalb 
two  and  a  half,  lit.  (two  and)  half  of  the  third,  JriertfyatS  or  ttiertefyalb 
three  and  a  half,  &c.,  but  always  anbertfyalfc  (for  anberefyatfc  half  of  the 
second ;  see  122.  i ;  the  t  in  place  of  e  after  the  analogy  of  ttiertfpalb, 
&c.)  instead  of  jroeit(f)^aI6.    Exs. :  £>a3  ftnb  fct)on  brittfyalb  3afyre  (Hebbel's 
Agnes  Bernauer,  4,  3).     llm  brittfyalb  Safyre  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny, 
chap.  ii).     . . .  l;atte  er  feiner  SBttttre  etnen . . .  ttiertefyalS  ftufj  fyofyen  ©ttafj* 
Burger  3Hunfler  j)intertaffen  (id.,  Vor  dem  Sturm,  III.  chap.  iv).     This 
construction  is  not  now  so  common  as  gtret(unb)etnl)al6  two  and  a  half, 
bre i(unb)etn^aI6  three  and  a  half,  in  fed?§(unt>)etnf)al&  3al)ren,  or  in  fecfyg  unb 
einent  fyalfcen  Safyre,  &c.     Qlnbertfyalfc,  however,  is  much  more  common 
than  the  other  words  of  the  same  formation. 

When  these  words  in  *fyal6  stand  alone  substantively  they  may  be 
inflected  strong :  2ftein  33atter  fyett  nur  einen  Qtrm,  (o  f)afc'  tc^  anbert^aI6cn 
(Fischart,  Garg.,  94  b).  The  original  nature  of  this  construction 
requires  the  sing,  form,  and  this  still  occurs,  but  the  plural  is  now 
more  common  :  aitf  etnen  <ScbeImen  anbcrtfyalfce  (Goethe).  5ur  jrcet  effen 
ober  icenigftenS  fitr  anbertfyatbe  (Kurz,  IV.,  89). 

Corresponding  inflected  forms  with  a  stem  in  =t  and  the  force  of 
ordinals  occur  occasionally :  nocfy  in  ber  ^rcotfteljalbten  ©tunbe  (Mont.- 
Ztg.,  17.  17)  in  the  last  half-hour  (before  twelve).  Sometimes  the 
form  without  t  is  used  here :  in  ber  jtrolftefyatfcen  ©tunbe. 

c.  In  the  following  idiomatic  compounds  : 

(1)  Inflected  :  ber,  tie,  bag  jtnettfcefte  the  next  to  the  best,  ber  brittfcejte 
the  third  from  the  best,  ber  cortege  the  next  to  the  last,  ber  brittlefcte 
the  third  from  the  last. 

(2)  Uninflected  (see  Note) :    fel&anber  (not  felfcjiteit)  myself  the 
second,  i.  e.  myself  along  with  another,  felbbrttt  myself  the  third,  felfc= 
inert,  £c. :  3cfy  £flege  felbanber  311  reiten.     Inflection  here  also  occurs: 
felSjrDcmjigfier  gefangen  (Lessing's  Nathan,  i,  5)  taken  prisoner  along 
with  nineteen  others.    The  use  of  the  cardinal  here  is  less  common, 
and  from  the  strict  standpoint  of  grammar  is  incorrect.     It  occurs, 
however,  in  the  best   authors :    felbfitnfe  (Goethe's   Wanderjahre, 
2,  12),  felfcfl  (instead  of  felt1)  funfjtger  (Lessing's  Emilia  Galotti,  3,  i). 

Note.  The  apparently  uniuflected  forms  felbbtitt,  &c.  are  mutilated  remnants  of 
older  weak  forms,  felbe  btttte,  &c.  The  force  of  the  weak  inflection  is  the  same  as 
described  in  111.  6.  a. 

d.  The  ordinals  can  be  compounded  with  mats  to  form  adverbs 
and  with  tnaltg  to  form  adjectives :    erfhnalS  for  the  first  time,  bie 
erfintalige   3ufammenfttnft   ber   beittfcfyen   Q(rcl)iteften   in   tfeityig   the  first 
meeting  of  the  German  architects  in  Leipsic.     Compare  i.  c,  above. 


128,  B.a.  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 


PRONOMINAL    ADJECTIVES. 
DEMONSTRATIVES. 

127.  The  demonstratives,  which  can  be  used  either  adjectively 
or  substantively,  are :   biefer,  btefe,  btefeS  this ;   jener,  jene,  jeneS  that ; 
ber,  bie,  bag  this,  that ;  ber'jenige,  bte'jenige,  baS'jenige  that ;  folcfyer,  folcfye, 
foldjeS  such,  such  a,  or  fold)  ein  (,  eine,  ein),  or  ein  folder,  eine  folcfye, 
ein  folcfyeg,  or  fo  ein  (,  eine,  ein),  or  simple  ein,  eine,  ein  (see  131.  2.  a) ; 
berfel'&e,  bicfel'oe,  baSfel'fce  the  same ;  fel'&iger,  fel'fcige,  fel'fcigeS  the  same ; 
ber  ndmticfye,  bie  ndmlicfye,  bag  namlid^e  the  same;   ber'artiger,  ber'artige, 
ber'artigeS  of  such  a  nature.     The  inflection  of  these  pronominals  is 
treated  in  the  following  articles.     For  a  few  demonstratives  or  deter- 
minatives which  are  always  uninflected,  see  161.  2  and  3,  also  143. 

128.  A.  2)iefer,  biefe,  biefeS  this,  and  jener,  jene,  jeneS  that,  are  inflected 
like  the  strong  qualifying  adjective  except  in  the  genitive  of  the 
masculine  and  neuter  sing.,  where  the  regular  strong  ending  =e8  is 
used  instead  of  the  weak  =en  (see  108).     In  the  nom.  and  ace.  neut. 
sing.  bicfeS  is  often  contracted  to  bieg.     In  the  masc.  and  neut.  dative 
sing,  we  sometimes  find  the  weak  ending  *en  after  a  strong  limiting 
adjective  after  the  analogy  of  qualifying  adjectives :   in  attem  biefen 
£rut>el  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Nov.  17,  1848),  aflem  biefen  Sammer  fern 
(Marriot's  Der  geistliche  Tod,  p.  266,  5th  edition). 

a.  The  forms  btcfeS  (or  more  commonly  bicg)  and  jeneS  remain 
uninflected  when  they  are  used  in  connection  with  the  verb  fein 
and  a  predicate  noun,  to  indicate  that  the  subject  is  identical  with 
the  predicate :  ©rtauben  <8ie  mir,  Sfynen  bie  «§erren  oorjiifteUen.     2)ie6  ift 
<£err  @d?mibt  unb  jetted  ifl  «§err  9)iei)cr.    £>ie3  ifl  eine  fcfyotte  SMume.    2)ie8 
ftnb  fd)6ne  SStumen.      3|1  bieS  3f)ve  5eber?     Note  in  these  sentences 
that  the  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate.      The  regular  inflected 
form  showing  the  proper  gender  and  number  can  also  be  used : 
ber  or  bieg  ifl  ber  <8d?ulbtge. 

b.  !)ie3  is  also  uninflected  when  it  is  used  as  a  subject  or  object 
referring  to  something  that  is   introduced  to  one's  attention  by 
a  gesture  or  explained   by  the  context   immediately  preceding : 
SBofiir  fatten  <Ste  bieS?   What  do  you  take  this  for?     2)tcfeS  alleS 
gefdmfy  auf  ber  3KittagSfeite  beS  <Sd?[ad)tfdbe3. 

B.  2)iefer,  often  strengthened  by  the  adverb  fyier,  refers  to  some- 
thing near  the  speaker,  while  jotter,  often  strengthened  by  some 
adverb  as  ba,  bort  there,  yonder,  points  to  something  more  remote : 
biefeg  >£>an3  fyter  unb  jeneS  bort ;  in  biefer  unb  jener  SBelt  in  this  world  and 
the  one  to  come.  Hence  biefer  is  often  translated  by  the  latter  and 
jener  by  the  former:  2>er  8"rufyling  unb  ber  >£>erbfl  fyat  feitte  ^reitben  :  biefer 
gifct  ftri'tdjte,  jener  33lumcn. 

Both  are  used  much  more  in  the  attributive  than  the  substantive 
relation.  The  neut.  sing.,  however,  is  often  used  substantively 
(see  A.  a  and  b).  Also  the  other  genders  are  frequently  employed 
in  the  substantive  relation  in  the  meanings  the  former,  the  latter. 

a.  Setter  is  also  much  used  to  indicate  something  well  known, 
either  by  referring  backward  to  some  definite  person  or  thing 


158  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES  128.  B.«. 

already  mentioned  or  represented  as  well  known,  or  by  pointing 
out  somebody  or  something  that  is  so  described  in  a  following  adj. 
clause  as  to  be  represented  as  standing  in  general  for  a  class  of 
familiar  persons  or  things  rather  than  for  definite  individuals  :  jene 
efcen  citterten  ©tetten.  3ene  QBtdtter,  nad?  benen  <5ie  fragten,  fyafce  id)  nod) 
nid?t  gefunben.  (£g  roar  jene  9kd)t,  in  ber  btc  birf&audnge,  fd?icar$geteerte 
^ottdnber  Jhtff  gegen  ben  23u(ener  2)eid)  jagte  (Frenssen's  Diedrei  Getreuen, 
III,  i).  Qlba  tear  nid?t  ton  jenen  C|3up£en,  bie  ntit  fid?  madden  Itejjen,  n?a8 
man  reoflte.  8^d?ten  t>on  jenent  fdjonen  Jlafhmientraun,  une  man  eg  in 
£)eutfd?Ianb  fo  felten  ftnbet.  3f)m  fam  ber  ©ebanfe,  fetn  Dfyeim  miiffe  aud? 
311  jenen  5Wenfd?en  getjoren,  bie  em  S3erfldnbni§  fur  bie  (&prad;e  ber  0?aturbtnge 
l&efd^en  (Jensen's  Das  Bild  im  Wasser,  p.  87).  (£t  ntetnt  jene  @orge,  bie 
imS  ^u  furd^tfamen  <£tlat)en  beg  £ageg  unb  ber  2)tnge  madjt,  jene  @orge;  burd? 
it»etd)e  nrir  Hiirfrcetfe  an  bie  SBelt  fcetfaflen  (Harnack's  ^)as  Wesen  des 
Christentums,  Fiinfte  Vorlesung). 

b.  Often,  especially  in  popular  ballads,  jener  is  used  in  a  quite 
indefinite  sense,  indicating  a  place  well  known  to  the  speaker,  but 
not  in  any  way  described  so  as  to  be  clearly  recognized  by  those 
addressed :    5) a  broken   aitf  jenem    33erge,  |  ba  fteljt  ein  feineS   ®d)Iop 
(Heine).     2)ie  (Sonne  f)e&t  ftd;  nod;  einmal  |  leud)tenb  oom  SBoben  empor,  | 
unb  geigt  ntir  jene  @tet[e,  |  n;o  id)  bag  Steofie  berlor  (id.). 

c.  For  determinative  use  of  jener,  see  130. 2.  a. 

129.  i.  2)er,  bie,  bag  that  are  used  either  adjectively  or  substantively, 
but  with  somewhat  different  inflection  for  each  use.  Adjectively 
used,  ber  is  inflected  exactly  like  the  def.  article,  differing  from 
it  only  in  being  strongly  accented,  and  hence  in  print  is  sometimes 
written  with  a  capital,  spaced  letters,  or  furnished  with  an  accent : 
2)er,  ber,  or  ber'.  Used  substantively  it  is  declined  as  follows : 

Singular.  Plural. 

Masc.             Fern.  Neut.  Common  form. 

N.     ber                 bie  bag  bie 

, ,  _               C  beren  r .  ,-  ( beren 

G-  ;fn  ? 

( berer  (.  beret 

D.      bent  ber  bem  benen 

A.      ben  bie  bag  bie 

2.  From  the  beginning  of  the  N.H.G.  period  there  has  been 
considerable  fluctuation  in  the  use  of  the  demonstrative  forms,  and 
usage  is  not  yet  entirely  settled.  The  prevailing  usage  of  our  time 
seems  to  be  as  follows  : 

A.  Genitive  Forms.  The  form  here  depends  upon  the  grammatical 
function : 

If  the  demonstratives  are  used  attributively  before  the  noun  the 
short  forms  are  uniformly  used  :  bee  SRame  beg  (that)  Jtnaben,  ber,  &c.; 
bie  9kmen  ber  Jtna&en,  bie,  £c. 

If  the  demonstratives  are  used  substantively,  the  forms  vary 
according  to  their  grammatical  function  and  fall  into  four  groups  : 

First  group.  If  they  are  used  as  pure  demonstratives,  or  instead 
of  personal  pronouns  (see  141.  2)  or  possessives  (see  138.  2.  d),  the 


129. 2.  A.  DEMONSTRATIVES  159 

forms  are  quite  uniformly:  (sing.)  beffen  (masc.),  beren  (fern.),  beffen 
(neut.);  (pi.)  berett  (for  all  genders).  Exs.  :  3d?  erinnere  mid?  beffen 
md?t  mefyr  I  do  not  remember  that  any  more.  @ie  empftng  ic)re 
greunbin  unb  beren  (her)  $od?ter.  @3  lagen  (Spanier  Ijter;  bereit  ertnnerc 
id?  mid?  fef)r  rcol)I.  0limnt  bie  Xrauben,  id?  tjabe  beren  (of  them)  genug. 

Second  group.  If  they  are  used  determinatively  followed  by 
a  relative  clause,  the  forms  are :  (sing.)  beffen  (masc.),  berer,  beren, 
or  still  more  commonly  ber  (fern.),  beffen  (neut.) ;  (pi.)  berer  for  persons, 
unless  it  stands  before  the  governing  noun,  where  the  form  is 
usually  beren  (sometimes  berer) ;  pi.  for  things  beren,  or  more  com- 
monly berjenigen,  sometimes  berer.  Exs. :  (£3  ift  ber  <£ofyn  beffen,  ben 
rctr  geflern  gefefyen  jjaben.  2)a3  ©lucf  berer,  bie  fern  t>on  itjm  roar  (Ompteda's 
Sylvester  von  Geyer,  LXXVI 1 1).  £>er  <§tmmel  f)at  burd?  bie  4cmb  berer,  bie 
bu  Itebft,  mid?  bat>or  gefd?u|t  (Jensen)  (also  beren  and  more  frequently 
ber,  but  better  ber  Dame.  It  is  often  better  in  the  gen.  of  the  fern, 
to  use  a  noun  here,  as  the  thought  will  otherwise  be  impaired, 
for  the  forms  berer  and  beren  are  felt  as  plural,  and  ber  has  not 
yet  become  fixed  here  as  a  sing,  in  contrast  to  the  plurals  berer  and 
beren).  2)a3  @d?tcffal  beren,  bie  if)  it  trug  (Auerbach's  Dorfgcschichten,  i, 
61).  <Sid?  Id'd?erltd?  git  mad?ett  in  ben  QCugen  ber,  bie  if?n  gu  einem  @ott  erfyeben 
fann  (Spielhagen's  Selbstgerecht,  II,  p.  45).  2)er  «§err  i?erntd?tet  bie 
3ftod?t  berer,  bie  fid?  rciber  i^n  aitfle^nen.  irorfne  bie  Jranen  Uon  beren 
@eftd?t,  bie  bann  itm  mid?  roeinen  (Kleist).  SBei  bem  ©tubieren  ber  9Biffen= 
fd?aften,  befonberS  beren,  rceld?e  bie  0latvtr  6ec)anbeln  (Goethe).  DaS  (Stiitf 
.  . .  (£8  rear  eing  berer  (now  more  commonly  berjenigen),  bie  bamalS 
SBeifatt  fanben  (id.).  £>a§  3a^rt)unbert  |  ijl  meinem  Sbeal  nid?t  reif.  3d? 
lebe  |  ein  SSitrgcr  berer  (now  more  commonly  berienigen),  iveld?e  Fommen 
icerben  (Schiller).  Olet^t  atte,  atte  [Stumen]  at),  |  fogar  bie  ^nofoen 
berer  (now  more  commonly  berfenigen),  bie  erfl  Fommen  (Hebbel's 
Nibelungen,  II,V,  7). 

Third  group.  If  they  are  used  determinatively  followed  by  a  gen. 
or  a  prepositional  phrase,  the  forms  are  :  (sing.)  beffen  or  be3  (masc.), 
ber  (fern.),  beffen  or  beg  (neut.) ;  (pi.)  berer  for  persons,  beren  (also  ber  and 
sometimes  berer)  for  things.  Exs. :  2>te  !8efpred?ungen  meineS  QtnrcattS 
unb  beffen  (or  be§)  metneS  ©egnerS  t)a6en  gu  einem  33ergleid?  gefii^rt.  3d; 
Bin  in  €>orge  ntd?t  foivo^I  rcegen  betner  -}(ngelegenl)eit,  rcie  ivegen  ber  betneS 
®ruber6.  <Sie  erinnert  ftd?  gern  ifjrer  ^reunbinnen,  BefonberS  berer  auS  it)rer 
^nlgeit.  @r  fanb  neue  33unbe6genoffen  fiatt  berer  au§  friitjern  %titen>  <Sie 
erinnert  ftd?  gern  i^rer  frit^ern  Srletjniffe,  befonberS  beren  (or  ber)  auS  ben 
@d?uljat)ren.  3t;re  Qtugen  fatten  nid?t  ganj  ba3  Ieud)tenbe  CBIau,  and?  nid?t 
ben  tkfw  (Srnft  berer  @opl;tenS  (Perfairs  Der  schone  Wahn,  p.  60). 
To  this  group  also  belongs  berer  before  oon  in  names  of  people  of 
noble  birth  :  bag  ®efd?led?t  berer  oon  Sogait. 

Fourth  group.  The  following  corrupted  gen.  forms,  beffent  (masc. 
and  neut.),  bcrent  (beret)  fern.  gen.  sing,  and  gen.  pi.  for  all  genders, 
are  not  infrequently  found  in  composition  with  ivcgen  on  account 
of,  unt  —  ii'itten  for  the  sake  of,  r)alb(en)  on  account  of :  berentivegen  on 
account  of  these  things,  &c.  There  is,  however,  a  tendency  in  choice 
language  to  restore  the  correct  form,  especially  in  case  of  unt  — 
ivtUen :  £Benig|1en3  fyojfe  id?,  bap  ftd?  3(?re  SScrrtdjtungcn  in  33raunfd?roeig  . . . 


160  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES  129. 2.  A. 

roerben  fo  geljauft  fyafcen,  bap  @ie  roenigften3  berenrcegen  fclei&en  mitffeit 
(Lessing).  3d)  roitt  feitt  ©elc  son  (Sud? ;  urn  beffen  reillen  bin  id)  nid?t 
gefommen  (Storm's  Im  Brauer-Hause,  p.  102).  (Sin  mutmafjlid)  au8 
einem  alten  matfifd?en  «§errenfyaufe  fyerflammenber  .  . .  $feilerfpteget .  .  .  Itefy 
ber  arntlicfyen  (Sinricfytung  tro£  if)re§  3ufammengefurf;tfein3  ober  ttiettetcfyt  and) 
um  beffen  nriflen  ettcag  con  einer  erlofcfyenben,  afcer  bod?  immertytn  'mat  t>a* 
gereefenen  Seiibalttdt  (Fontane's  Poggenpuhls,  chap.  i). 

a.  The  short  gen.  form  beg  is  now  quite  rare  aside  from  the  use  in  the  second 
•  and  third  groups  given  above  and  its  employment  in  adverbial  and  con- 
junctional compounds,  as  itm  begftnden  on  account  of  that  (with  reference,  not 
to  a  particular  object,  but  to  a  thought :    „  2Bte  fann  id)  je^t  aud)  an  mein 
ttrirbelnbeg  2>afem  etn  anbreg  ju  fetten  toagen?"     ,,S3egreifjt  bu  ntd)t,"  pfterte  fie, 
,,bafj  idj  gerabe  um  begnntten  $u  bit  ftefyen  ttnft?" — Telmann's  Wahrheit,  XXIV), 
begwcgen  on  that  account,  be6t)alb  (earlier  in  the  period  be^albenjyfrr  that  reason, 
beggletdjm  like-wise,  inbeg  (more  frequently,  however,  inbeffm)  while,  in  the 
meantime,  uttterbeS  (more  commonly,  however,  imterbeflen)  =  inbe3,  also  in  the 
combinations  b?3  unb  be^,  or  beg  unb  jeneS  of  this  one  and  that  one,  and  in  poetic 
language  and  old  sayings,  as  2Be3  58rot  id^  ejfe,  be3  8teb  i<^  |inge  I  sing  the  praises 
of  him  whose  bread  I  eat.      These  are  survivals  of  early  N.H.G.   usage, 
where  the  short  gen.  forms  ber,  beg  (later  also  falsely  written  bejj)  were  the  rule. 
The  short  form  De3  has  become  quite  firm  in  the  above-mentioned  adverbial 
compounds  beSwegen,  &c.,  where  the  reference  is  to  a  thought,  less  firm,  how- 
ever, in  tnbeS  and  itnterbeg,  where  the  same  idea  is  found.     The  long  form  bejfeu 
is  also  often  used  here  in  tnbeffen  and  unterbeffen.     The  corrupted  form  befjent 
is  sometimes  used  in  the  adverbial  compounds  beffenhtegen,  &c.,  where  the 
reference  is  to  a  thought,  but  it  is  more  commonly  employed  where  the 
reference  is  to  a  definite  antecedent.     Either  beg  or  bcffeit  is  used  in  con- 
nection with  um  ttnden  when  a  relative  clause  introduced  by  u>as3  follows : 
(Sr  (T.  Mommsen)  uiar  fett  langec  3«it  in  SBafyrfyett  ber  galjrer  ber  Untoer{ttat,  nid)t 
uut  um  beg  ©lanjeg  feineg  9lameng  nritten,  fonbern  um  beghntten,  tt?ag  er  tt)t  leiftete 
(Adolf  Harnack  in  National- Zeitung,  1903,  No.  588).     3d)  fage  bag  aber,  Jttnb, 
um  beffen  ict((en,  ttsag  mir  nodj  ju  erjaf)Ien  bteibt  (Spielhagen's   Was  will  das 
werden,  \,  chap.  xi). 

The  new  lengthened  forms  beret  (fern.  gen.  sing,  and  gen.  pi.)  and  benen  (dat. 
pi.)  were  formed  by  adding  the  regular  strong  adjective  endings  to  the  original 
short  forms.  The  origin  of  beffen  and  beren  is  not  yet  clear. 

In  early  N.H.G.  also  the  lengthened  forms  bere  and  bero  were  used  with 
the  force  of  beren  :  Senn  tt>eld)e  biefe  ©meet  tfynn  bere  fee(en  foden  auggerottet  werben 
»on  jrem  v>olcf  (Lev.  xviii.  29).  Of  these  25eto  Your,  His,  used  in  speaking  to  and 
of  persons  of  high  rank,  still  lingers  on  in  official  style  and  in  the  language  of 
the  princely  courts :  £>ero  (Srlaubnig  the  permission  of  Your  (or  His)  Highness. 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  distinction  that  the  short  forms  should  be  used 
in  the  gen.  and  dat.  for  attributive  and  the  long  ones  for  substantive  use  was 
not  known,  and  even  in  the  classical  period  was  not  yet  fully  developed: 
3d?  fyabe  oben  gefagt,  ber  (Haunt  fet  bte  prbnung  bcrer  2)inge,  bte  jugleid?  finb,  bie  3eit 
fjingegen  bte  Drbnung  beffen,  toag  auf  einanber  fotgete  (Chr.  Wolff).   35enen  S3atu)erten 
gefiel  mein  SBorfcfylag  fefyr  toofyl  (Goethe).     Present  usage  is  nicely  reflected  in 
the  following  sentence  from  Wildenbruch :    Seine  bunflen,  bfaugriinen  Slugen 
fatten  ben  fdjarfen  Stid  ber  2Jlenfd)enf  bie  »tel  unb   aitfmerffam  mit  ber  5Jlatnr 
»erfet)ren,  unb  fetne  fyageren  ©eftdjtgjuge  jeneg  nad)  tnnen  gefefjrte  2ad)e(n  berer,  bie  utel 
erlebt  fjaben,  unb  beren  (151.  l)  &r\  etn  guteg  ©ebadjtmg  beft^t.     The  lengthened 
forms  are  to-day  found  attributively  only  in  antique  or,  as  in  the  following 
sentence  from  Hans  Hopfen's  Studiosus   Taillefer,  p.  37,  in  comic  style : 
@g  fam  i()m  »or,  atg  fottt'  er  con  t^m  tute  »on  bem  9ieprdfentanten  ader  berer  brazen 
93urfd)en,  bie  eben  nid^t  »om  gleid^en  Sanbe  umfd^(ungen  geirefen  roaren,  bag  i^rtge  aber 
in  (Sfyren  getragen  fatten,  gleidjfaUg  gerii^rten  2lbfd;ieb  ne^men. 


129.2.c.(4)  DEMONSTRATIVES  161 

c.  The  genitive  forms  befien  and  beren,  which  are  used  instead  of  a  possessive 
(see  138. 2.  d),  are,  though  they  are  genuine  pronouns,  sometimes  treated  by 
the  authors  of  our  time  as  adjectives  and  inflected  like  fein  and  ifjt :  2JHnna 
blteb  con  ifyrem  ©atten  bi<3  ju  bejTem  Xobe  getrennt  (Stahr's  Goethes  Frauengestalten, 
2.  286).  3ene  Sefenfyeimer  $farrertod)ter,  »on  bercm  natuen,  Uebeooden  S&efen  mefyr 
a(S  eiu  3«9  auf  ba3  .klard)en  bet  £>trf)tung  ubergegangen  ift  (ib.,  i.  119).  @r  ntadjt 
eine  9Jeife  nad?  Statten,  au3  berem  @cf>tt?ei$er  Slnfange  weber  entjucfenbe  SBriefe  flammen 
(Gegemvart).  This  is  as  yet  confined  to  the  dat.  of  the  masc.  and  neut. 
See  also  151.  i.  c.  In  the  same  manner  within  historic  times  the  possessive 
i(;r  her,  their  was  developed  out  of  the  gen.  of  jte.  There  does  not  seem  to  be 
any  prospect  of  a  repetition  of  this  historic  development,  as  bejfem  and  berem 
are  losing  ground. 

B.  Dative   Forms.     The  form  depends  upon  the  grammatical 
function   in  the  dat.  pi.     The  distinction  is  the  same  as  for  the 
gen.,  namely,  the  short  form  is  used  attributively  before  the  noun, 
the  lengthened  form  substantively :    SJOH  ben  Lenten,  bie,  £c. ;    mit 
feinen  SSerreanbten  unb  bcnen  feiner  B'rciu. 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  lengthened  form  beren  was  also  used  in  the  fern, 
dat.  sing. :  .§ab  beren  ju  Sieb  ein  ncn'3  SHeblin  gebicfyt,  fo  (Siter  @nab  ba3  begefyrt  $n 
l)cven,  ivodt'  icfy'tf  beren  gur  ^c^e  ftngen  (Wickram's  Rollwageri).      Still  in  dialect 
in  the  form  of  bere,  beren,  or  berer  :  2Bann  tdj  nnr  »cn  berer  n?egf imm !  (Anzengruber's 
fCreuzelschreiber,  2,  9).    Also  in  adjective  function :  3cfy  frag'  bti^  nnv,  ob  bu 
glanbft,  ba§  bu  in  berer  Skifelrad  vid)t'ft?  (id.,  Schandfleck,  xiv). 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  distinction  between  attributive  and  substantive 
use  of  the  double  forms  had  not  developed  so  sharply  as  to-day :  von  benen 
(now  ben)  Senten,  bie,  £c.  (Goethe). 

C.  The  Nominative  and  Accusative  Form  bag.     The  neut.  nom. 
and  ace.  ba3  (in  dialect  frequently  spoken  beg  or  bos)  often  remains 
uninflected  in  the  following  cases  : 

(1)  Like  bieg  (see  128. A.  a)  the  nom.  is  used  to  express  identity: 
2)ag  ift  metne  Seber.     S)a3  ftnb  meine  frcbern.     It  is  often  very  similar  in 
meaning  to  bteg  :  3ft  bag  (or  bteg)  ber  SBea,  auf  ben  5Bafyn&of  ? 

(2)  It  is  often  used  as  subject  or  object,  a  more  emphatic  form 
than  eg,  referring  without  regard  to  the  gender  of  the  noun  to  some 
object  at  hand,  some  matter  in  hand,  a  condition  of  things,  or  an 
activity :  3Bie  fyeipt  man  bag  ?  What  do  you  call  that  ?    2)ag  gefcfnetyt 
itym  rectyt  That  serves  him  just  right.     5)ag  gefyt  bei  mir  ntd^t  fo  That 
won't  do  with  me.     £>ag  founen  unr  ntct)t  ru&tg  mit  anfebeit  We  cannot 
tolerate  that.     2) a 3  ijeranrfelt  ftd;  Matters  are  becoming  complicated. 
(Sr  arbcitet  unermiibUc^,  bag  ift  feine  &reute. 

(3)  2>aS  with  sing,  verb  is  used  to  represent  a  class  of  people 
as  a  whole :   jftnber  Ie6eu  fovglog  bafcin  ;    bag  ftngt  unb  fpielt  bet  bett 
crnfteflcu  ilaijen  beg  Sebeng.     Often  also  with  reference  to  one  or  more 
in  a  contemptuous  sense  :  5Sttt  bag  (referring  to  Riccaut)  ju  ling  ? 
(Lessing's  Minna,  4,  2).     2lber  bag  (i.e.  bie  -Slrfebufiere)  bcuft,  wie  ein 
(geifcnftefcr  (Schiller's  Lager,  1.  1006). 

(4)  As  a  predicate,   to   refer  emphatically  to   an    idea   already 
expressed  in  some  preceding  noun,  adjective,  or  participle  :    (£r 
ifl  ein  Settler,  or  (£r  i|t  arm.    Sag  war  er  fritter  ntd?t.    Siefeg  S'rauen* 
jimmer  gtbt  fid;  fiir  bie  ^od;ter  beg  engltfcben  Jlonfiilg  aug.      2>ag  ift  fie 
and)  in  ber  Stot. 

Also  eg  can  be  here  used  instead  of  bag,  and  indeed  much  more 

M 


162  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES  129. 2.0. 

frequently,  differing,  however,  from  it  in  that  it  is  less  emphatic 
and  has  not  the  freedom  of  word-order,  only  standing  after  the 
verb :  @r  ifl  je§t  em  Settler,  or  (Sr  tfl  jefct  arm ;  er  rear  eg  (or  bag)  after 
fritter  nicfyt.  £>iefe§  fttauenjimmer  gtfct  ftcfy  fur  bte  Socfcter  beg  englifdjen 
Jtonfulg  aug.  @te  tft  eg  aucfy  in  ber  Sat.  @te  metnt,  bu  fetft  entflotyn ;  unb 
fjalfc  unb  fyalb  fcifl  bu  eg  fcfyon. 

D.  Dative  and  Accusative  after  Prepositions.  After  prepositions 
the  demonstrative  usually  takes  the  adverbial  form,  if  it  points  to 
things ;  see  141. 5.  A.  b,  c,  d. 

Note.  This  adverbial  form  is,  however,  usually  replaced  by  the  inflected  form  of  the 
demonstrative  when  it  points  to  a  following  relative  clause :  £)er  SKintfter  t)at  bie 
JfcmtmfficngmitgUeber.  gebeten,  son  bem  (instead  of  baton),  »a$  er  jut  SBegtunbung  ber 
Shortage  gefagt  fjat,  ntdjts  in  bte  DfFentlidjFett  fommen  ju  laffen.  This  rule  is  not  rigidly 
followed :  Slucf)  nw§ten  fie  md)t3  ba'con  (instead  of  von  bent),  tt>as  an  biefent  fdjonen 
©cmttage  »orging  (G.  Keller). 

3.  2)er,  bte,  bag  this,  that,  are  the  most  popular  demonstrative 
forms,  although  the  least  definite,  as  they  are  used  in  a  general 
way  for  both  btefer  and  jener,  indicating  the  position  of  objects  as 
near  or  distant  only  by  the  aid  of  a  gesture  or  the  context. 

®er  is  used  substantively  more  than  attributively,  yielding  in 
large  measure  to  biefer  and  jener  in  the  latter  function.  In  several 
substantive  relations,  however,  biefer  and  tener  are  common ;  see 
128.  A.  a  and  b ;  128.  B.  Besides  the  meanings  of  biefer  and  jener,  ber 
has  other  meanings,  often  replacing  the  personal  pronouns  (see 
141.  2)  and  being  used  like  berfentge  (see  130.  2)  as  a  determinative 
followed  by  a  genitive,  prepositional  phrase,  or  relative  clause. 
Before  a  genitive  and  a  prepositional  phrase  it  is  much  more 
common  than  berjcnige.  In  all  these  common  substantive  uses  of 
ber  the  primarily  adjective  forms  biefer  and  jener  are  little  used. 

a.  5)er  is  not  infrequently  omitted  before  a  dependent  gen.,  not 
only  in  poetry  as  stated  by  grammarians,  but  also  in  plain  prose : 
llnb  rcelcfy  ein  SBanb  tjl  flcfyrer  alg  [ba§]  ber  ®uten  ?  (Goethe's  Tasso,  3,  2). 
S)urcfy  njeffen  ©cfyutb  ijl  fie  fo  qercorben,  rcenn  nicfyt  burd)  (i^arbg  unb 
©aleibeng?  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxiv). 

130.  i.  ^er'jentge,  bte'jemge,  bae'jenige  that  are  declined  as  if  each 
element  (ber  and  jentge)  were  written  apart  and  the  latter  element 
were  a  wk.  adj.  Used  adjectively  or  substantively,  their  declension 
is  as  follows : 


)    1U11 

wvo  • 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neut. 

Common  form. 

N. 

ber'jentge 

bie'ienige 

bae'jemge 

bte'jenigen 

G. 

be^jenigen 

ber'ientgen 

bee'jenigen 

ber'jenigen 

D. 

bem'jemgen 

ber'Jemgen 

ben/jcmgen 

ben'jenigen 

A. 

ben'jentgen 

bte'jentge 

bag'jenige 

bie'jenigen 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period  up  to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  we  find 
here  the  simple  wk.  form  of  Jen; :  bent  jenen,  i»etd)er . . .  (Opitz  i.  105).  From  the 
sixteenth  century  we  find  the  lengthened  form  jenig.     Earlier  in  the  period  it 
could  be  used  without  the  def.  art. :  id)  ttctfiucfy  alle  jenige,  tie  anbcver  3Jletnung 
fein  (Fischart). 

b.  The  form  biefcrjenige  this  one  (here]  is  used  in  popular  speech  :   3cfj 
benfe  tmmer,  bcv  fyat  fid)  au3  etner  anbcrn  9SeIt  in  biefejenige  »erirrt  unb  fann  ben  2Bcg 
ntd;t  hJteber  juriiciffinben  (Raabe's  Schudderump,  chap.  ix). 


131.  i.  a.  DEMONSTRATIVES  163 

2.  £)erjenige,  unlike  ber,  which  is  either  a  determinative  or  a  pure 
demon.,  has  only  determinative  force,  i.  e.  is  followed  always  by  a 
gen.,  prep,  phrase,  or  a  relative  clause  :  berjenige,  rcelcfyer  that  one  who; 
ntd;t  inein  <£>ut,  fonberu  berjenige  uteineS  SBruberS  ;  md;t  biefeg  SSud;,  fonbern 
baSjentge  im  rotcn  ©tnfcanb ;  berjentgc  9Wann,  ireld;er.  There  is  no  difference 
of  meaning  between  the  determinative  bcr  and  berjenige  except  that 
the  latter  is  a  heavier  and  consequently  more  emphatic  word. 
2>er,  however,  is  much  more  common  with  a  gen.  or  prep,  phrase. 

a.  Sometimes  also  jener  is  used  determinatively  instead  of  bcr  or  bcrjeniger 
either  modified  by  a  gen.  or  a  relative  clause.  £>cr  fyehe  Slbcl  jurnte  fiber  ben 
potttifcfyeit  Qinflup  bc3  23uvgertitm3,  uield;e3  im  9ieid)Srat  bag  Slnfetjit  bn3  .£>emnl)aufe$ 
burd;  jeneS  ber  9lbgeorbncten  in  ©fatten  fieffte  (von  Sybel).  2Jlir  bicnen  |  al3 
Beugen  jene,  bie'3  mtt  9lugen  fafy'n  (Fulda's  Der  Talisman,  4,  6).  9lur  gering  ift 
bie  3af)(  berjcnigen,  \vtlfy  fid;  mit  bev  S3emt3  befcfydftigt  t|abm,  nod;  gertnger  bte  3af;l 
jener,  toclcfye  attf  biefem  $(anetett  ert»a$  gcfcl;en  Ijaben,  unb  am  adcrgertngften  bie  &&\]l 
jener,  beren  ®eobac^tungen  UnrfUc^  einen  2fiert  bcft^en  (Leo  Brenner).  2Benn  er  »on 
jenen  JDingen  fprac^),  bie  er  ber  SBelt  unb  bem  Sebcn  atjurtngen  . . .  Ijoffte,  ft>  h>ar 
tmmer  nur  von  inncren,  feetift^en  ©en?tnnen  bie  9?cbe  (Ganghofer's  Der  Gliick- 
sucher).  Also  in  general  usage  jener  or  its  governing  word  is  followed  by 
a  relative  clause,  but  it  here  differs  in  meaning  from  the  determinatives  ber 
and  berjenige  in  that  it  only  points  out  somebody  or  something  that  has  already 
been  mentioned,  or  refers  to  something  well  known,  or  some  class  of  familiar 
persons  or  things.  For  examples  and  further  explanation  of  this  use  of  jener 
see  128.  B.  a. 

131.  i.  ©old)  such,  such  a  is  strong  or  weak  as  any  adjective, 
but  is  uninflected  before  eiit  and  inflected  or  uninflected  before  an 
adjective.  If  strong,  the  gen.  of  the  masc.  and  neut.  sing,  ends 
properly  in  e3,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  qualifying  adjectives,  a  weak 
gen.  is  often  found.  Exs. :  folcr/er  fleine  ^uitb,  or  em  folcfyer  fleiner 
<£hmb,  or  fold;  Hetner,  or  (perhaps  the  most  common  form)  fold;  ein 
fleiner  4j>unb;  foId^eS  or  foldjen  ©lurfeS  ungercotynt.  Not  such  is  trans- 
lated by  feiu  fold; :  3d)  bin  fein  fold;cr  £Rcirr.  Substantively :  ©old; 
ciner  fottte  nur  fommen!  Just  let  such  a  fellow  show  his  face  to  me! 
SKujjte  nid;t  Gf)tifht3  fotfyeS  letben?  (Luke  xxiv.  26).  2>aS  fmb  fin  $aar 
D^rge^dnge,  wie  ber  4?err  fetne  jtvctten  fotdje  ftnbet  in  33enebig  (H.  von 
Hofmannsthal's  Der  Abenteurer  und  die  Sdngerin,  p.  171). 

a.  In  colloquial  language  fold)  is  very  commonly  replaced  by  fo  ein,  nega- 
tively often  in  popular  language  in  the  form  fo  fcin  :  93on  fo  einem  SDJanne  fvricfyt 
man  3a()r()itnbcrte.  ©o  ciner  such  a  one,  &c.  (So  fein  ©cftcfyt  fat;  ic^  in  nteinem  Seben ! 
(Goethe's  Faust,  2808).  3d)  I)abe  einen  J&unger,  fo  I)ab'  id;  mein  Sebtag  fctnen 
serfpurt.  Instead  of  the  neuter  substantive  form  folcfyca  we  now  more  com- 
monly hear  in  colloquial  speech  fo  etwasJ :  £at  man  je  fo  etu?a<3  geljcrt?  <2o  etwa« 
vcrlcrnt  ftd;  nid;t  fo  leid;t.  Instead  of  the  attributive  fold;  we  often  find  the 
adverbial  form  fo  in  popular  language:  (S<3  gibt  fo  ©ans?d)cn  (i.e.  girls),  bie 
Ijiibfd;  it>eid;e  ©d;nabcl  I;abcn  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfurstcn,  chap.  i). 

Note  i.  <£o  ein  is  often  used  referring  to  something  so  well  known  that  there  is  no 
need  of  detailed  description  :  (5r  trdgt  and;  fo  einen  flrofjcn  brettframpigen  £ut  He 
also  wears  one  of  those  large  broad-brimmed  hats  (which  are  now  so  commonly  worn). 
3d;  mpd)te  fo  ein  SMlberbud;  fwr.  ein  Heineg  ^inb  Ijaben  I  should  like  to  have  a 
picture  book  such  as  would  be  suitable  for  a  little  child. 

Note  2.  @o  ein  is  often  contracted  to  fo'n  and  quite  frequently  takes  a  plural, 
although  simple  tin  has  no  form  for  the  plural :  3d;  bddjte,  tt>entgflen3  unfere  ftreng 
Qtfittetcn  Jlreife  Jjalten  ftd;  —  fo  —  nen  —  fo'ne  <£ad;en  »om  Jjalfe  (Sudermann's  Heimaty 
J»  7)- 

M  2 


164  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES  131.  i.  A. 

£.*  Instead  of  fold)  we  sometimes  find  in  colloquial  language  fo  \vtlfy,  only, 
however,  in  the  substantive  relation  :  ($3  ftnb  ffialbbceten ;  fo  ttjeldje  loadjfen  itt 
ben  ©arten  nic^t  (Storm's  Unter  dem  Tannenbaum,  vol.  I.  p.  191). 

c.  Different  from  the  above  is  the  case  where  a  qualifying  adjective  follows 
the  demonstrative  and  the  idea  of  the  intensity  of  the  quality  is  more 
prominent  than  the  demonstrative  idea.  Here  such,  such  a  are  usually 
translated  by  fo,  fin  fo  :  such  bad  weather  fo  fd)led)te3  SBetter,  such  a  good  man 
ein  fo  gutev  5Kann. 

2.  (Sold)  is  also  a  determinative,  followed  by  a  relative  clause, 
a  genitive,  or  a  prepositional  phrase:    3ur.  SBeglettung  etneg  ftliigelS 
fang  bort  eine  angenefyme  njeibticfye  (Stimme  ein  leibenfcfyaftUcbeS  Sieb,  ein  fold?e3, 
ba8  <5turm  itnb  Qlufrutyr  bcr  tyeftigften  ©efiifyle  barfleflte  (H.  Seidel's  Lorelei). 
2)er  ineife  ©rjiet/er  lefyrt  feinem  Sogling  fold)e  SBatyrfyeiten,  bie  ber  <Stufe  feiner 
drfatyrung  unb  feineS  SSerftanbeS  entfyred)en  (Kuno  Fischer).   Die  Jtranfljett, 
iretdje  eben  ttomnegenb  eine  foldje  be3  S&tfteng  gereefen  roar  unb  nicfyt  be3  Jtdrperij 
(Frenssen'sDteSandgrqfin,  chap.  viii).    93i§tang  njar  eg  mir  nod)  nie  in  ben 
(Sinn  gefommen,  ba^  metn  93ater  ftcfy  »ietlei^t  mit  noc^  anberen  entfc^eibenbereu 
©ebanfen  trug  aI0  nur  mit  fofdjen  ber  (Sorge  unb  beS  Summer 8  (R.  Huch's 
Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxii).     (Jbenfo  trtc^ttg,  rcte  dltere  3^ac^Treife  fur 
Xotlreiit  ftnb  mir  naturlic^  folc^e  fur  tofliriitig  (Stosch  in  Zeitschrift  fiir 
deutsche  Wortforschung,  I.  Band,  p.  374).     <SoIcfy  differs  here  from 
the  determinatives  ber,  berjenige,  and  ein*,  in  that  it  refers  not  to 
individuals  as  do  they,  but  to  a  kind  or  kinds.    It  is  often,  however, 
used  where  we  would  expect  ber,  berjenige,  or  ein* ;  see  3,  below. 

a.  Accented  ein  is  often  used  here  like  fold) :  @3  toat  eine  (=  eine  fotd)e) 
5ftad)t,  in  toetdjer  man  ntcfyt  gcrn  ftneit  §unb  ^htau«jagt.  Sa3  (Senjl  ifl  eine,  bie  tinen 
£D?ann  glucfttd?  mac^en  fann  (Voss's  Psyche,  VIII). 

3.  <3oM)*  is  also  often  used  instead  of  a  personal  pronoun,  the 
numeral  ein,  the  indefinite  rceld)*,  and  ber  or  berjenige  before  a  gen. 
or  prepositional  phrase,  in  all  of  which  uses  it  is  condemned  quite 
generally  by  grammarians :  9hmmef)r  fntyr  ber  Jenifer  6ei  bem  %dt  an, 
betrat  folrf>e§  (=  e§)  unb  .  .  .  (Goethe).     Crin  ^aufe  ^ranctireurS  lUerfiet  bie 
SBrucfe  unb  f^rengte  fold^e  (=  fie)  in  bie  Suft  (Kolnische  Zeitung).     Unter 
ben  ja^Irei^en  Selegrammen   fcefinbet  ftd}  aud^  ein  fold)e3  (=  etneg)  au3 
01ercsg)orf  (ib.).     SSei  attebent  t»erbraurt)te  er  aber  ®elo,  o^ne  j;undd)ft  foIdjeS 
(=  rceldjeg)  etnjune^men  (R.  Huch's  Schlaraffis,   p.  140).     2)abet  fa* 
fdjrceren  fid)  bie  Surfen  itfcer  SBeoorjngung  ber   S^rij^en,  bie  (SerBen  fiber 
fotcfye  ( =  bie)  ber  Xitrf en.     Grammarians  have  written  a  good  deal 
upon  the  false  use  of  fold)?,  but  their  censure  is  often  indiscriminate. 
In  very  many  instances  the  use  of  fold)  is  not  incorrect  as  in  the 
preceding  examples,  but  manifests  a  keen  sense  for  a  fine  shade 
of  meaning,  the  fotd)=  referring  not  to  some  particular  individual 
as  in  case  of  er,  jte,  eg,  ein*,  ber,  berjenige,  but  rather  to  an  object  or 
objects  of  some  particular  kind,  often  described  by  the  modifying 
element  of  the  compound  in  case  of  a  compound  antecedent,  or  by 
a  modifying  word  following  or  preceding  a  simple  antecedent :  3d? 
burfte  ben  arnten  ©tubenten  bod)  ntd?t  fiir  etnen  fed?grcdd?tgen  JlurfuS  tbre 
lefcten  Srcan^tgmarfftucfe  aug  bcr  £afrt)e  flietyen,  njenn  fte  itberfyaupt  nod;  fold?e 
befafjen  (H.  Hoffmann).     3d)  banfe  Sfynen  fefyr  bafur,  baf?  @ie  fo  giitig 
roaren,  bem  <§er,$og  in  metnent  0lamen  ein  (Sremplar  ber  «§oren  ^u  iiberreid)en. 
(£3  folgt  fo!d;eS   [=  bafiir  ein  anbereg  (Srem^Iar  ber  -§oren]  tyier  juritct 


132.  i.  B.  a.  DEMONSTRATIVES  165 

(Schiller  an  Goethe,  i.  105).  (£r  errcartete  sjou  it;r  unBefcingt  ben  erjlen 
SBrtef  unb  biefer  9Brtef  fam  ntcfat,  benn  fte  cncartete  einen  folcfyen  son  ifjnt 
(Ompteda's  Frieden,  chap.  xii).  3cfy  fyatte  mir  .  .  .  eingelnlbet .  .  .  auf 
bent  23ocf  fdpe  ber  $ob  in  einem  fdjrcarjen,  flatternbcn  3KanteI,  auf  fetnem 
ftappernben  (Scfyabel  ctnen  btanfen  niebngen  >£>ut,  une  icfy  folcbe  an  unferen 
2)rofrt;fenfutfcfaern  311  fefjen  gercofynt  irar  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu, 
chap.  xxvi).  <8oW}  often  refers  similarly  to  a  simple  noun,  where  in 
English  we  use  the  word  mere  before  the  repeated  noun  :  (£r  meinte, 
fte  ivcire  felbftfitcfytig,  fte  gonue  ifym  ba3  93ergnita,en  (of  studying  Spanish 
dialects  in  Spain)  mcfyt,  bag  ifym  met)r  alS  ein  fotcftcS  (mere  pleasure)  n?ar 
(Ompteda's  Frieden,  chap.  xii).  <8olcfy  also  as  a  determinative  refers 
to  a  simple  noun ;  see  2,  above. 

132.  i.  A.  SerfefOe,  btefel'be,  bagfel'fce  the  same  are  inflected  like 
berjenige;  see  130.  i. 

a.  If  contraction  with  a  preceding  preposition  takes  place  the  parts  are 
separated  :  am  fclbcn,  $ur  fclben,  £c. 

b.  Sometimes  the  article  is  dropped  and  fclb  is  inflected  strong :  urn  felbe 
3cit  (Schiller).    3d)  nefinte  tnetnen  Jtinbcrn  a(le  33ud)cr  ab,  fcbalb  fte  fclbe  nid)t  me^r 
braud^en,  unb  lecje  fit  in  33ertt>al)rung  (Rosegger). 

c.  Lengthened  forms  both  with  and  without  the  article  were  common  earlier 
in  the  period  :  betfetbtge,  fetbiger.     With  the  article  the  form  is  weak,  without 
it  strong.    The  lengthened  forms  are  little  used  to-day  in  plain  prose,  but 
still  occur  not  infrequently  in  poetic  language  or  in  antique  or  solemn  style. 
It  is  sometimes  used  as  an  emphatic  form  of  bcrfctbc :  Slucfy  ftenn  man  jtoctmal 
basfclbe  tut,  ift  t$  gfetcf)fa(te  ntcfyt  mefyr  baSfctbtge  (Raabe's  Alte  Nester,  I.  chap.  x). 

d.  In  S.G.  dialects  berfetbe  or  fclbigcr  have  developed  various  forms,  as  bcrfuH, 
bcrfc((,  fcder ;  befeb,  fcb.     These  forms  usually  have  demonstrative  force  =  bcr  or 
jener ;  see  B.  a.  Note,  below.    These  dialects  use  bet  namlidje  instead  of  the 
literary  berfelbe. 

e.  The  form  biefer  felbe  is  occasionally  found,  usually  with  a  slight  shade  of 
difference,  in  that  it,  as  the  English  this  same  or  this  very  same,  has  more 
distinctly  demonstrative  force  and  conveys  more  emphasis  :    Sicjc  plcjjlicfye 
grage  fcfcte  ba3  SJlabdjen  faum  in  ©rfkunen,  ba<3  ftcfy  fycute  unb  gcftcvn  mit  ntdjt^ 
anbcvent  a(<3  nur  mit  bicfem  fclben  ©cgcnjianbe  bcfc^aftigt  I)atte  (C.  F.  Meyer). 

f.  The  form  jener  fctbc  that  same  is  occasionally  found  :  3n  jcnem  fclbcn  3a^re 
ncd)  h?ar  e3,  h?o  ufw.  It  was  in  that  very  same  year  that,  &c. 

B.  2)erfeI6e  has  a  wider  range  of  meanings  than  the  English 
the  same  as  used  in  ordinary  prose.  Besides  its  primary  meaning 
it  is  also  used  in  the  following  derived  meanings  : 

a.  5)erfelfce  is  often  used  instead  of  a  personal  pronoun.  See  141. 
2,  3,  4,  5.  B.  b,  6,  7.  This  use  developed  out  of  its  employment  as 
a  demonstrative,  which  was  common  in  early  N.H.G.  See  Note. 

Note.  The  demonstrative  idea  and  that  of  identity  approach  each  other  at  times  very 
closely.  In  reply  to  the  question  <2tnb  <£te  ntcfyt  ^>err  SBalbfueb,  bes  ©cfytt  bf$ 
SSejtrbfcrjhrS?  the  answer  may  be:  3d}  bin  berfelbe,  or  £)er  bin  id).  From  such  or 
similar  cases  berfelbe  assumed  in  early  N.  H.  G.  pronounced  demonstrative  or  deter- 
minative force :  2IM)  abet  bent  Menfdjen  |  burd)  »cld)en  beg  menfdjen  ©on  tterrljaten 
tmrb  |  ES  lucre  bent  felben  3flenfd)cn  bcjTer  |  bag  er  me  aebcrn  icere  (Mark  xiv.  21). 
SBenn  bn  in  einem  ungeiciiTen  unb  jireifelljaften  SScrfe,  ba  bu  jiceierlei  fur  bit  fyafi, 
begriffen,  fo  erircljle  (ertraljle)  benfelbcn  Seil,  iwldjcr  am  letd?tejiten  in  t^un  ift 
(Olearius,  Rosenthal).  Also  used  substantively  :  \jnb  itenit  bu  feinen  Munb  auffj 
ttjujl  |  hJtrftn  einen  ,@tatcr  finben  |  S)cn  felbta.cn  utm  »nb  gib  jn  fur  mid)  unb  bid) 
(Matt.  xvii.  27).  As  can  be  seen  in  the  first  two  sentences  of  this  Note,  both  ber  ana 
berfelbe  may  have  the  force  of  emphatic  personal  pronouns.  Both  of  them  often  lose 
their  original  force  and  are  then  used  merely  to  replace  personal  pronouns,  as  described 


166  ADJECTIVES  132.  i.  B.  a. 

in  141.  r,  2,  3,  4,  5.  B.  b,  6,  7.  The  older  use  of  berfelbe  as  a  demonstrative  or  deter- 
minative pure  and  simple  has  in  a  large  measure  disappeared  in  the  literary  language 
of  our  time,  surviving  only  in  dialect  (see  A.  d,  above).  Its  use,  however,  instead  of 
the  personal  pronouns  has  increased.  See  141.  8. 

b.  2)erfel6e  is  used  in  connection  with  nflerf)ocfyft,  ^ddjft,  J)ocfy  in 
addressing  an  emperor,  king,  and  other  potentates,  and  also  legis- 
lative bodies,  to  replace  the  title  (Sir.  Jfaiferltcfye  aKajefid't,  «§ol;er 
Oteidjgtag,  &c.,  or  the  usual  @ie  employed  in  common  intercourse. 
The  exact  form  depends  upon  the  title  in  question :  9lUerf)ixl)|t* 
biefelfcen  (to  the  emperor;  pi.  in  form,  also  with  pi.  verb),  «§ocfyberfel6e 
(to  the  Reichstag),  &c. 

NOTE.  Wherever  berfelfce  in  the  cases  in  a  and  b  is  used  to 
replace  a  personal  pronoun  it  is  more  weakly  accented  than  in  the 
primary  demonstrative  use. 

2.  2>er  namlicfye  the  same,  the  very  same,  the  identical  is  inflected 
like  berfel&ej  the  parts,  however,  are  separated  in  writing.  The 
parts  of  berfetfce  were  also  written  separately  early  in  the  period. 
£)er  ndmlicfye  has  a  much  narrower  range  of  meanings  than  berfelfce, 
not  being  used  at  all  in  the  groups  a  and  b  under  i.  B,  above.  It 
is  sometimes  used  with  the  primary  meaning  of  berfelbe,  sometimes 
with  a  different  shade  in  the  sense  of  identical:  itnter  bemfel&en  SBIaii, 
fiber  bent  namlicfyen  ©rim  (Schiller's  Spaziergang,  199).  SBit  gefyen 
toufenbmat  ben  ndmlicfyen  (identical)  3Beg,  aber  nimmer  rcieber  benfelben 
(Raabe's  Alte  Nester,  I.  chap.  x). 

133.  2>erartig  of  such  a  nature,  strong  or  weak,  or  less  frequently 
berart  uninflected :  berart  or  berarttge  ^Beletbigungen  insults  of  such  a 
nature.    £>ag  93ert)dltnig  tear  nid)t  berart  or  etn  berartigeg,  ba£  eg  Sonatina 
grofje  SSerlegenljeit  »erurfad?t  tyatte.    (Sine  berartige  <£d?nefligfeit  tear  bigtyer 
nnerfyort.    £>erartigeg  fommt  ntc^t  tior  Such  things  do  not  occur. 

Note.  The  form  berart  or  bet  Slrt  should  remain  uninflected,  as  it  is  in  fact  a  fern, 
noun  in  the  gen.  However,  it  is  sometimes  felt  as  a  demon,  adj.  and  accordingly 
inflected  :  »cn  berarten  3ftajmaljmen  (Volks-Zeitung). 

INTERROGATIVE  AND  RELATIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

134.  i.   The  interrogative  adjective  trelcfyer,  tretdje,  iretd)e3  which, 
what,  used   adjectively  or  substantively,  in  questions  direct  or 
indirect,  is  always  strong  when  declined,  but  must  be  uninflected 
before  ein,  and  may  be  before  an  adjective  and  sometimes  before 
a  neut.  noun  in  the  nom.  and  ace.  sing. :   teetdjer  ©cfyiiler  ?   rcelcfyeS 
eble  £er£  ?    SBelcfy  ebten  or  treld;e§  eblen  SKanneS  Sat  ifl  bag  ?    3d;  moc^te 
nriffen,  tceld^er  2)iann  bag  gefagt  ^at  (indirect  question).  The  uninflected 
form   is  especially  frequent  in   exclamations :    SBelcfy   ebler  2>iann ! 
SBetd)  ©litrf!  What  good  fortune! 

•2.  The  parts  of  the  interrogative  tt>ag  fur  ein  (eine,  etn)  what  kind, 
used  in  questions  direct  and  indireqt,  are  indeclinable  except  ein, 
which  is  declined  as  the  indefinite  article  when  used  adjectively, 
and  like  strong  adjectives  when  used  substantively :  2Bag  fiir  ein 
SBu$  ift  bag?  (Sin  beutfcfyeg.  3Bag  fiir  eing?  What  kind  of  a  book  is 
that?  A  German  book.  What  kind?  3d)  motyte  retffen,  tcag  fur 
etn  2?ud)  <Sie  Icfen  (indirect  question). 


134.3.         INTERROGATIVE  AND   RELATIVE  167 

The  eitt  drops  out  before  a  noun  denoting  an  abstract  idea 
or  a  material  and  in  the  plural  of  the  adjective  use,  but  in  the 
substantive  use  it  is  replaced  throughout  by  the  strong  indefinite 
weld)  some:  2Bag  fiir  $orf)ett  tretbfi  bu  ba?  2&ag  fiir  2Bein  fyafcen  <3ie 
fletrunfen  ?  SBtr  fyafcen  fkrf  en  9Beiu  getrunfen.  2Ba3  fur  rcelcfyen  ?  Jf/tatf 
*kind?  SBa8  fiir  aSiidjer  fmb  bag?  £>eutfd?e  Sitter.  SSag  fiir  rceld;e?  What 
kind?  @r  fyat  Sreunbe,  a&er  reag  fiir  ireldje?  2)ttt  tvag  fitr  einem  SBteifh'ft 
fd?rei6t  er?  The  fitr  in  these  examples  is  not  a  preposition,  but 
a  particle  introducing  the  following  appositive.  For  the  history 
of  this  construction  and  the  relation  in  meaning  between  tcag  fitr 
ein  and  irelcfy-,  see  d,  below. 

The  use  of  iceldj*  in  the  substantive  relation  after  names  of 
materials  and  abstract  ideas  and  in  the  plural,  as  found  in  the 
above  examples,  is  quite  common  and  general.  Some,  however, 
prefer  to  drop  the  tt>e(d}»:  5Bimfd)en  €>ie  SSittter?  28ag  fiir  fyaben  <3ie? 
(instead  of  2Ba3  fur  irelcfje  tyafcen  @ie?).  3d?  faufte  jrcei  93iid?er.  9Ba3 
fitr  ftnb  eg?  (instead  of  SBag  fiir  rcelcfye  flnb  eg?).  In  popular  language 
eine  is  often  heard  in  the  plural  instead  of  vrelcfye :  3n  bent  $arf  ir>ad)fen 
Saume.  2Ba3  fiir  eine  ? 

When  the  reference  is  not  to  a  material  or  an  abstract  idea,  but 
to  a  single  thing,  tcag  fiir  icag  is  used  in  the  substantive  relation : 
,,2Bte  tyeijjt  er  benn?"  „ $i6eriuS."  ,,2Ba8  fiir  wag?"  frug  er,  unb  baS 
Jtinb  n:teber^olte  baS  5Bort  (Storm's  Botjer  Basch,  p.  27). 

a.  In  the  nom.and  ace.  fur  can  be  separated  from  luaS :  2Ba3  tft  bag  fiir  fin  SSogel? 

b.  2Ba3  fiir  ein  is  often  used  like  roeld)*  in  exclamations :  22a^  fitr  ein  fd)oueS  .£>au3 ! 

c.  In  questions  direct  and  indirect,  also  in  indefinite  or  general  relative 
clauses,  toaS  fur,  often  strengthened  by  the  adverb  odlee,  is  used  in  the  general 
indefinite  sense  of  what,  -what  all,  -what  different,  all  the  various  (things,  &c.) 
"which :  2Ba3  ifl  bag  a((etJ  fur  ein  ©djreten  unt>  Sloben?    Sffiag  ftnb  bas  nii^t  al(e3  fiir 
Slutfflucfyte !    2Ba^  bu  btr  bod)  aKeS  fur  ©crgen  ntad)ft  !     <Sie  ftng  an,  Tjerju^aijlen, 
m$  a(le«  f«r  gttte  Singe  imb  fdjone  ©ac^en  tm  ^>aufe  feien,  toa3  jte  fetbji  fitr  -£>auptfad)en 
in  einer  flcinen  !£ruf)e  bejtfce. 

d.  In  M.H.G.  and  early  N.H.G.  WAS  with  the  partitive  genitive  was  used, 
where  we  now  find  »na$  fitr  ein  :  28ag  9ht{$enS  fyaft  bit  »cn  nttr  V  (Steinhowel)  In 
what  have  you  received  any  benefit  from  me  ?    Here  as  elsewhere  the  genitive 
passed  over  into  the  appositional  construction,  later  the  appositive  being 
usually  introduced  by  fitr  :  3n  U>a<3  2anb  [now  n?a<5  fur  ein  Sanb]  jtefyeit  nid)t  bie 
Stgctncr  [3igcuncr]  ?  (Fischart,  1590).  91$,  iua3  iji'd  ein  9Kanu !  (Goethe's  Egmont, 
I,  Biirgerhaus).   Now,  and  even  in  Goethe's  time,  the  usual  form  is  2Bad  ifi'(J 
fiir  ein  SDJaitn !    The  simple  appositional  construction  is,  however,  still  common 
in  colloquial  language,  especially  in  exclamations :   Qfi  >va3  ©mnJTenfyaftigfcit ! 
( Ludwig's  Ziuischen  Himmel  und  Erde,  XIX).    2Bas5  ein  ©cfid?t !  (M.  Dreyer's 
Drei,  3).    D  nxiS  fomifc^e  ©ad)en  !  (id.,  In  Behandlung,  i).    For  a  fuller  history 
of  the   construction  see  147.  I.E.     In  such  sentences  iv-aS  fiir  ein  may  be 
replaced  by  Iveld)  when  it  inquires  after  a  particular  thing:    2iMd?en  Dtufcen 
(what  particular  benefit)   fyaji  bu  won  mir?     There   is   often,   however,   no 
difference  between  tt>a<5  fitr  ein  and  uield);,  but  the  growing  tendency  has  been 
to  differentiate  the  meanings  of  the  two  expressions,  the  former  expressing  an 
inquiry  after  a  particular  kind  or  sort,  the  latter  an  inquiry  after  a  particular 
thing:  SBa<3  fitr  ein  *l>ferb  ifl  bag?   What  kind  of  a  horse  is  that?  but  2Beldje3 
$fcrb  wolien  Ste  rcitcn?  —  Sen  Sraunen  Which  horse  are  you  going  to  ride  f  — 
The  bay.    In  some  dialects  n?eld}er  is  not  used  here  at  all,  toaa  fiir  ein  still  being 
used  for  toeldjer  :  SBaS  for  en  SDtann  t<3  beg?  (dialect  of  Mainz). 

3.  The  early  N.H.G.  form  tvafer  has  been  entirely  replaced  by  toad  fiir  ein : 


168  POSSESSIVES  134. 3. 

9lu<3  toafer  (now  ftaa  fiir)  mad)t  tfyujhi  ba$?  (Mark  xi.  28).    See  also  147. 1.E 
for  explanation  of  the  form. 

135.  The  relative  adj.  rcetcfcer,  tretdje,  reetcfyeg  is  declined  like  the 
interrogative :  @r  fagte  „  guten  Sag/'  rcelcfyen  ®rufj  fte  freunbltcfy  enriberte ; 
with  noun  understood :   SHe  93et»6Iferung  9ftumdnieng  6efief)t  ju  |  aug 
SRumdnen,  einem  SKtfcfytinggttolfe  aug  latetnifcben  unb  flattifcfyen  SBeftanbtetlen, 
irelcfye  Ie|teren  (the  latter  of  which)  romantftert  rcurben. 

a.  3SeId)er  is  usually  a  pure  pronoun  with  the  additional  function 
of  a  subordinate  conjunction,  and  requires  the  verb  at  the  end  of 
its  clause.  Even  as  real  adjectives,  as  in  the  preceding  examples, 
enough  of  the  pronominal  and  conjunctional  nature  is  left  to  re- 
quire the  verb  at  the  end. 

POSSESSIVES. 

136.  The  possessives  are  mein  my,  bein  thy,  your,  fetn  his,  its, 
i^r  her,  its,  their,  unfer  our,  euer  your,  Sfyr  your.     These  words  are 
used  either  adjectively  or  substantively,  but  with  different  inflection 
for  each  use.     For  their  use  see  138. 

a.  In  S.G.  dialects  other  possessives  are  in  use  :  enfer  =  euer  your,  tljner 
their,  [oner  their. 

DECLENSION. 

137.  i.  Used  adjectively  the  possessives  are  inflected  exactly 
like  the  indefinite  article  in  the  sing,  and  like  the  strong  adjective 
in  the  pi. :  mein  «§ut,  meine  Seber,  mein  93uc^),  btefer  mein  (Sofen  this  my 
son,   pi.  meine  <§ute,  ^ebern,   9Bud;er.     When   a  strong  pronominal 
precedes,  we  not  infrequently  find  weak  inflection  of  the  possessive 
after  the  analogy  of  qualifying  adjectives  :  in  biefent  unferen  $fyantajtcs 
jlitfccfyen  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  90).     23ei  aftem  feineu 
grofjen  3ftiif)m  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Glaubenslos,  chap.  iii). 

a.  In  poetry  the  uninflected  form  following  the  noun  can  still  be  found : 
<£tef)  auf,  bit  @^h>efier  mein  (Uhland).  This  word-order  is  also  found  in  the 
first  words  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  always  when  used  as  a  noun :  33atcr  unfer 
u(tt».  Our  Father,  &c.,  bag  SSaterunfer  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Also  the  form  duer 
(sometimes  found  in  the  contracted  form  <2ht>.,  which  form  is  explained  by  the 
older  spelling  etuer)  is  still  sometimes  uninflected  when  used  in  addressing 
people  of  high  rank  or  station  :  55te  jJlad^ri^ten  au3  9>art3,  ftefdje  (£uer  (frccdenj 
butcfy  bag  Slu&Ddtttge  8lmt  ntitgetetlt  toorben  flub,  &c.  (General  Tresckow  to 
General  Roon). 

2.  A.  Used  substantively  they  agree  in  gender  with  the  noun  to 
which  they  refer  and  are  inflected  like  any  adjective,  and  hence 
have  three  forms — the  strong,  weak,  and  in  the  predicate  the 
uninflected  form. 

a.  When  standing  alone  without  a  preceding  modifying  word 
they   are,    especially  in   familiar   language,   inflected   like  strong 
adjectives,  except  in  the  gen.  of  the  masc.  and  neut.  sing.,  where 
they  still  have  the  strong  form  eg  instead  of  the  wk.  en  (see  108) : 
nom.  meiner,  meine,  meineS,  &c.     3ft  bag  3f?t  <£wt  obec  ifl  eg  meiner? 
SDlein  93ruber  unb  fetner,  unfer  <£>ang  unb  3f)reg. 

b.  If  preceded  by  the  def.  article,  which  form  is  now  a  favorite 
substitute  for  the  simple  possessive  (see  a,  above),  they  are  declined 


137. 2.  A.  c.  DECLENSION  169 

exactly  as  the  wk.  adj. :  ber  meine,  bie  meine,  bag  metne ;  mein  SBruber  unb 
ber  feine,  meine  <5d)irefter  unb  bie  feine,  tiietn  93itd)  unb  bag  feine. 

Often  the  stem  mein,  bein,  &c.  is  lengthened  by  adding  tg  and 
then  inflected  in  the  same  way :  ber  meinige,  bie  meinige,  bag  meinige ; 
llnfer  <§aug  unb  bag  3f)rige.  These  lengthened  forms  have,  perhaps, 
become  more  common  than  the  unlengthened  ones.  The  latter, 
however,  are  in  no  wise  felt  as  unusual,  and  are  even  favorites  in 
choice  prose  or  poetry:  SBenn  3f)r  ®efe£  benn  anberg  lautet  alg  bag 
metne,  fo  fann  id;  nur  bent  meinen  folgen.  Siefter  untt  id)  ein  geciualter 
(2imber  Heifcen  alg  cine  $uppe  in  ber  -§anb  meiner  Gutter  ober  in  ber  Sfyren 
(H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister). 

c.  These  possessives,  with  the  exception  of  if)r  her,  their,  3f)r  your, 
which  are  now  usually  inflected  or  replaced  by  some  other  construc- 
tion, may  like  adjectives  remain  uninflected  in  the  predicate  after 
the  intransitives  fein,  iverben,  bleifcen,  fcfyetnen,  and  sometimes  gef)6ren 
(not  only  colloquially,  as  often  stated,  but  occasionally  even  in 
elevated  discourse),  and  as  an  objective  predicate  after  nennen, 
unffen,  glaufren,  fitfylen,  emvfinben,  madjen,  &c.,  if  they  express  the 
abstract  or  general  idea  of  ownership,  authorship,  but  they  are 
inflected  strong  or  weak  if  it  is  simply  desired  to  indicate  that 
the  thing  represented  by  the  predicate  is  identical  with  that 
represented  by  the  subject :  2ikg  euer  ift,  fofl  cuer  Mctfcen  What  is 
yours  shall  remain  yours.  5)er  9Bagen  ift  nur  fyatf)  mein.  2)ag  ®elb 
ift  fein.  <£o  lang  bag  <5d)trert  id)  fdwinge,  |  getyort,  irag  id)  fceftge,  «§err, 
and;  bein !  (M.  Greif's  Heinrich  der  Lowe,  i,  2).  25etn  g't;ort  atteg  ba 
fceruin  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Glaubenslos,  chap.  vii).  2)er  'Jag  ifl  unfer 
(Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen ,  battle  of  Vionville).  9)?ein  fd)eint  bie 
@d)u(t'/  bod)  iretfj  id)  fte  bein.  2)er  2Jcenfd)  t;at  nur  ftd)  felber  fein  jit 
nennm  (P.  Heyse).  Earlier  in  the  period  also  ifyr  was  used 
predicatively,  but  it  is  also  possible  to  construe  this  form  in 
early  N.H.G.  as  a  gen.  of  the  personal  pronoun  (see  140.  b),  and 
later  in  the  period,  where  the  reference  is  to  one  woman,  as 
a  dative  of  the  personal  pronoun  (see  258.  i.  A.  c):  <2elig  ftnb  |  bie 
ba  getftltd)  arm  fine  |  £>enn  bag  «£>iininelreid)  ifl  jr  (Matt.  v.  3).  @agen  (Sic 
meinem  ft'ran^en,  bafii  id)  nod)  immer  tfyr  tin  (Goethe  to  K.  Fabricius, 
June  27,  1770).  3t;r  bin  id),  fcilbenb  fott  fte  mid)  bcfifcen  (id.,  Tasso,  2,  2). 
Instead  of  3t)r  and  if)r  in  the  predicate  we  now  often  find  3t)re  and 
tfyrcr  (see  Note  2,  below).  Perhaps  most  people  would  avoid  this 
construction  here  and  use  another. 

But  inflection  for  the  expression  of  identity :  9Jietn  ®efd)inacf  ift 
immer  and)  ber  feine  (Fulda's  Talisman,  2,  6).  <£ctn  Sog  ift  unf'reg ! 
(Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  III,  IV,  4).  2He  3.Bitnfd)e,  bie  fte  t)cgt,  ftnb  and) 
bie  ineinen  (Fontane's  V or  dem  Sturm,  III,  8).  Compare  these  last 
examples  with  3l;r  fyafct  mid)  ausmvalUt  \\\.  Gurem  8'iU;rer,  |  mein  untrbc 
(Suer  SBttle,  Sure  Sat  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows,  2). 

Note  i.  If  the  subject  is  er,  fie,  03,  the  uninflected  form  of  the  possessive  is  usually  em- 
ployed in  the  predicate,  but  if  the  indefinite  eg  (141. 9.  a),  which  does  not  change  form  for 
gender  and  number,  is  made  subject,  the  inflected  substantive  forms  must  be  used  :  SB  cm 
getyert  ber  £ttt  — bic  SeCer  — hi3  93ud)?  Answer:  (§r  ift  mem — ftc  ift  jjteiit  —  eg  ift 
mein ;  or  eg  ift  mctncr  (,  tcr  meinige,  or  ber  meine)  —  meine  (,  bie  mettttfle,  or  btc  metr.c) 
—  tneine<5  (,  ba3  metniflc,  or  basJ  mctitc),  and  in  tlie  pi.:  c$  (speaking  of  hats,  pens, 


170  POSSESSIVES  137. 2.  A.  c. 

books)  jtnb  ntetne  (,  bie  nteinigen,  or  bie  meinen).  The  uninflected  form  emphasizes 
the  idea  of  possession,  and  the  inflected  form  that  of  identity.  Even  if  the  subject  is  er, 
fte,  or  eg,  the  inflected  form  must  be  used  if  the  idea  of  identity  is  prominent :  SDeilt 
3Beg  ift  frumm,  er  tft  ber  nteilte  nidjt  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  2,  7).  Also  here  the 
uninflected  form  emphasizes  the  idea  of  possession  and  the  inflected  form  that  of  identity. 

Note  2.  In  familiar  conversation  still,  especially  in  the  Midland  and  North,  and  also 
in  the  classics,  there  is  an  uninflected  form  in  the  predicate  which  in  case  of  tfir  her, 
tfjr  their,  3fyr  your  ends  in  e,  as  ihre,  3fyre,  which  is  a  survival  of  the  M.H.G.  form 
ire,  employed  in  the  Midland  for  the  usual  M.H.G.  ir,  the  fern.  gen.  sing,  and  the 
gen.  pi.  of  the  personal  pronoun  si  (fte) :  3$  fiircbte  fafl,  bafj  biefeg  Srauenjittttner 
niemafg  3fire  nrirb  (Schiller).  Sag  [Dag  Jtrujiftr]  tft  nun  3{jre  (Fontane's  Vor  dent 
Sturm,  IV.  26).  £rub  unb  ©erbt  fdjritten  langfant  bie  lange  ©trafje  Ijinunter,  big  an 
bag  SDJtnbefdjie  £aug,  bag  nun  ihve  h>ar  (id.,  Crete  Minde,  chap.  vii).  5Bir  benfa  Ijalt 
al(e,  bag  SRabcfien  trdr'  3fyre  (Hauptmann's  Fuhrmann  Henschel,  Act  2).  This  is 
a  survival  of  older  periods  when  there  was  no  possessive  adjective  for  the  fern.  3rd 
person  and  for  the  3rd  pers.  pi.,  although  there  were  elsewhere  regular  adjective 
possessive  forms.  The  possessive  idea  was  in  these  places,  where  special  forms  were 
lacking,  expressed  by  the  gen.  of  the  personal  pronoun.  The  surviving  pronominal 
forms  ifyre,  3fyre  were,  however,  after  the  formation  of  a  possessive  adjective  for  the  3rd 
pers.  fern,  and  3rd  pers.  pi.,  construed  as  a  weak  predicate  adjective,  and  hence  similar 
forms  were  sometimes  made  from  the  other  possessives :  @it  bocfj  toeuigfieng  hrijfen, 
bafj  bag,  toag  ntetne  if},  aud)  3fcre  ifl  (Lessing). 

Instead  of  the  colloquial  tfyre  we  find  in  choice  language  the  form  ifyrer,  the  modern 
genitive  of  the  personal  pronoun  fte :  58ir  felbjl,  atg  <Sdj»eftern  betner  Siitfim  gleid),  | 
ge^otc^en  if)r,  toeil  ifirer  n>arb  bag  flfietc^  (Grillparzer's  Libussa,  3).  ®enn  ihter  (i.  e. 
bet  Seibenf^aften)  ifi  ja  bag  9Jeic^  unb  bie  ^errlid^feit  ber  SSett  (Raabe's  Schiidderump, 
chap.  xii).  Sljtft  ifl  bie  ©djulb,  —  Qanj  afletn  ihver !  (Telmann's  Wahrheit,  X). 

B.  These  possessives  can  also  be  used  as  real  substantives 
without  antecedent,  in  which  case  they  are  written  with  capitals, 
with  inflection  as  follows : 

a.  Referring  to  one's  relatives,  friends,  party  associates,  and 
also,  in  neut.  form,  to  one's  property  or  duty,  they  are  inflected 
weak :    (£r  lefct  nitr  fur  bie  (Seintgen  He  only  lives  for  his  family. 
£>ie  5Ketnigen  trerben  erfreut  fetn,  bie  3f)tigen  ju  begritfjen  My  folks  will 
be  glad  to  greet  yours.      5)ie  —  Sfteintgeu  ?    3d?   fjafce  fetne  9Mnen 
(Wildenbruch's  Konig  Laurin,  3,  i).     2>ie  bret  Sjerbunbeten  «§errfd;er 
|ielten  fel6fl  auf  etner  Qln^o^e  in  ber  3*id^e  unb  fafyen  bie  iibermenfc^Iie^en. 
Qlnflrengungen  ber  3^rigen.     In  letters:   ®anj  ber  3f)rtge,  bie  2)einige. 
SKeine  (Scfytrefler  ^at  att  baS  3^rige  serloren  My  sister  has  lost  all  her 
property.     3d)  fya&e  bag  2Reintge  getan  I  have  done  my  duty. 

Note.  Provincially  these  substantives  may  be  heard  strong  :  5Re iner  my  husband,  my 
master,  2Retne  my  wife,  my  mistress.  35te  hat  elite  ^uftn,  ber  3f)ter  (whose  husband)  trijft 
nut  a(le  tier  9Boc^en  einmal  nad^  £aug(Ebner-Eschenbach'sA'*V/;«m/*/-2?ra«d?,V). 

b.  The  short  forms  2)iein,  2)etn,  &c.  are  uninflected  neut.  sub- 
stantives when  used  in  the  abstract  or  general  sense  of  possession, 
right  of  possession  :  <8tmt  urn  2Bein  unb  2)ein  contention  as  to  what  is 
mine  and  yours.     5)ctn  unb  3Wein  fcringt  ntteS  Unglit(f  berein  Contention 
as  to  the  right  of  possession  of  property  brings  about  a  good  deal 
of  misfortune. 

NOTE.  From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  aside  from  the 
special  case  in  B.  b,  above,  there  are  four  substantive  forms  for 
the  predicate,  but  only  three  for  the  subject,  while  there  is  only 
one  form  for  the  adj.  use :  2>a3  Slid;  tft  mein,  metneg,  bag  meine,  or 
bag  indulge  (predicate).  3tyr  (adj.)  SBitd)  ifl  neuer  atg  meineg,  bag  metne, 
or  bag  meintge  (subject). 


138. 2.  USE  171 

USE. 

138.  The  following  points  as  to  the  use  of  possessives  may  be 
of  practical  value : 

1.  As  there  are  three  forms  corresponding  to  the  three  forms  for 
the  second  person  of  the  personal  pronoun,  care  must  be  exercised 
as  to  their  proper  use.     £>ein  your,  thy  is  the  form  of  the  possessive, 
corresponding  to  the  familiar  form  bit  (140.  a) :   £>u  urirjl  bag  Detne 
empfangen  You  will  get  what  is  due  you.     3d?  Ijabe  twin  9Bud?  9er= 
geffen ;    leifye  (bit)  niir  beine3.       The  form  of  the   possessive  corre- 
sponding to  <2ie,  the  polite  form  of  address,  is  3fyr :  9Bo  ^abeu  <5te 
Sfyreu  Uberrocf  gcfauft  ?    The  form  of  the  possessive  corresponding 
to  if)r,  the  familiar  address  to  two  or  more,  is  euer:   3d?  rate  end?, 
Mummer  t  ifyr  cud?  mit  ettreu  ^mjefjorujeu   md;t   urn  meine,  fmtbern  um 
cure  5lngelegentyeiten.     Thus  in  familiar  language  beiu  or  euer  is  used 
according  as  the  address  is  to  one  or  more  persons,  but  each  must 
agree  in  gender,  number,  and  case  with  the  following  noun  which 
it  limits :  beiu  33ud?  your  (speaking  to  one  friend)  book,  pi.  beine 
93ttd?er  your  books;  euer  23udj  your  (speaking  to  several  friends  who 
own  one  book)  book,  pi.  eitre  23iid?er  your  books. 

All  pronouns  and  their  corresponding  possessives  are  written 
with  capitals  when  employed  in  direct  address  in  letters  (not 
usually,  however,  elsewhere  except  in  case  of  the  polite  form  of 
address) :  £teber  93ruber !  3d?  ^)abe  feit  £>eiuem  le^teu  4?icrfetu  feme  9tad?rid?t 
Sou  5>ir  erfyalteu.  The  polite  form  of  address  @ie  (with  reference  to 
one  or  more)  and  the  corresponding  possessive  3|r  are  always  written 
with  a  capital,  and  usually  also  the  other  forms  of  conventional 
address  explained  in  140.  a.  Note,  namely  (Jr,  <Sie  (fem.  sing.),  3t)r 
(with  reference  to  one  or  more)  along  with  their  corresponding  pos- 
sessives <2ein,  3i?r,  dhter.  Usage,  however,  fluctuates  here  at  several 
points,  some  using  capitals  more  freely,  others  more  sparingly. 

a.  In  addressing  potentates,  dignitaries,  kings,  &c.,  the  usual  possessive  is 
(Suet,  although  the  corresponding  personal  pronoun  is  no  longer  3I)t :  SOlciit 
$etj  iveitffacjt,  (S».  (=  Suet)  iBurdjtaiidjt  tocrbm  bie  Grfyattung  meine3  8ebene,  ba^ 
gang  3()um  gcfyort,  ntd)t  »erf^ma^en  itnb  ntic^  aucr;  in  bet  Sftne  al3  3()tett  uut»et; 
oupcrten  Untcttanen  bcttvic^ten  n>ol(eu  (Voss  to  the  Duke  of  Oldenburg,  May  20, 
1802).  Notice  here,  however,  that  (S'liet  is  used  only  immediately  before  the 
title,  and  is  elsewhere  replaced  by  S()t.  3fyt  and  3f)ro  (uninflected)  were 
earlier  in  the  period  also  used  here  like  (Suet.  See  140.  a.  Note. 

2.  There  are  two  pronominals  for  the  third  person.     Referring 
either  to  a  masc.  or  neut.  noun,  feiu  is  used  and  hence  must  be 
translated  by  his,  one's,  or  its :  @r  fyat  feiu  <£djlafd?en  gemadjt  He  has 
taken  his  nap.     2)?an  feuttt  uid?t  immer  feme  reafyreu  ftreunbe  One  does 
not  always  know  one's  true  friends.     3ebe3  Saub  ^at  fetue  sBorjuge 
Every  land  has  its  advantages.     When  the  reference  is  to  a  neut. 
collective  noun,  the  German  possessive  is  feiu,  which  must  in  some 
cases  be  translated  by  their :  5)a3  33olf  beftaub  auf  feine  Otedjte  The 
people  insisted  upon  their  rights.     The  form  ifyr  may  mean  in 
English  her,  its,  their.     If  it  refers  to  a  female,  it  is  to  be  translated 
by  her:  2Marie  fd?retbt  ifyreu  Qluffu§  Mary  is  writing  her  essay.     If  it 
refers  to  a  thing  of  fem.  gender,  it  is  translated  by  it :  £>ie  ©ad?e  f)at 


172  POSSESSIVES  138.2. 

ifyre  gutc  <£ette  The  affair  has  its  bright  side.  If  it  refers  to  more 
than  one,  it  is  translated  by  their :  2)te  2Hbd)f u  fcfyreifcen  ifyre  Qluffafce 
The  girls  are  writing  their  essays. 

a.  The  adverbial  expression  feinerjcit  is  used  with  reference  to  a  word  in 
the  first,  second,  or  third  person,  sing,  or  pi.,  mas.,  fern.,  or  neut.,  with  the 
meaning  in  our  (your,  his,  her,  its)  day  or  time,  once  upon  a  proper  occasion 
in  connection  with  a  past  tense,  and  in  due  time  or  season  in  connection  with 
a  reference  to  a  future  time :  aiHr  toaren  feinerjeit  aud)  rujltge  SBergjhiger  We  were 
also  in  our  time  (lit.  in  its  time,  in  the  time  for  it)  sturdy  mountain  climbers. 
Stefe  Jlird)e  gait  feinerjeit  (in  its  day)  fur  bie  fd)cnjh  bet  Stabt.    Seine  Slbljanfclung 
uber  Cynips  scutellaris,  bie  ©aKapfelttjefpe,  ntad)te  feinerjeit  (at  the  time  of  publica- 
tion) in  ben  betreffenben  JJretfm  Stuff efyen  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs, 
p.  10).     2Reine  J?tau  fagte  feinerjeit  (once  upon  a  proper  occasion) :  ,,©uter  ©ott, 
we  banfbar  fctmen  fair  bod)  fein,  ba$  bu  nidjt  fo  uwrjt  une  bie  beiben  anberen  ton 
end) "  (ib.).     3d)  toerbe  feinerjeit  (in  due  season)  auf  bie  ©ad)e  jurucffommcn. 
Sag  hnrfi  bu  feinerjeit  (in  due  time)  erfafyren.     Some  prefer  here  to  select  the 
possessive  according  to  the  gender,  person,  and  number  of  the  word  to  which 
it  refers  :  Sine  ©efd)id)te  beg  beutfdjen  JBolfeg,  icetdje  an  <Ste((e  bet  ifyrer  Sett  tiid)tigen 
.  .  .  ©efd)idjte  bcr  Seutfdjen  »on  spftfccr  tretcn  fctt  (Augsb.  Allg.).    This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  to  bring  out  a  contrast :  Slud)  ©dvten,  bie  an  einanber  grenjten  .  . . 
gab  (6  ba  nod)  ju  unfcrer  3eit,  atg  bie  <Stabt  nod)  nid)t  bag  ,,erfte  ^unberttaufenb  " 
iiberfd)rttten  Ijatte  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  8). 

b.  The  possessives,  like  the  personal  pronouns,  may  be  used  reflexively 
referring  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  and  when  the  subject  is  pi.  may 
also  be  used  reciprocally :  3d)  fcrbere  tneine,  bu  forberfl  beine,  er  forbert  feme,  fie 
fcrbert  ifyre  Sntereffen  I  further  my,  you  further  your,  he  furthers  his,  she  furthers 
her  interests.     Sie  fcrbern  if>re  Sntcreffen  They  further  their  own  interests,  or  it 
may  mean  their  mutual  interests. 

In  case  of  the  third  person  of  the  reflexive  possessive  and  the  reciprocal 
possessive  throughout,  the  reference  cannot  always  be  made  clear  by  the  use 
of  the  simple  pronominal.  It  may  not  be  clear  whether  fein  his  and  U)t  her 
refer  to  the  subject  or  to  another  party,  and  whether  unfer  our,  euer,  31)t  your, 
ifyt  their,  are  to  be  considered  as  personal,  reflexive,  or  reciprocal  pronominals, 
hence  it  is  often  necessary  to  add  etgen  own  to  the  reflexive  and  gegcnfeitig 
mutual  to  the  reciprocal  possessive :  Gr  forbert  feine  eignen  Snterefien.  <£ie 
forbern  ifyre  gegenfeittgen  Snterejfen. 

Note.  In  careless  and  in  popular  language  fein  is  sometimes  found  as  a  reflexive 
possessive,  referring  indifferently  to  a  fern.,  masc.,  or  pi.  noun  instead  of  the  usual  fein 
for  the  masc.,  iljr  for  the  fern,  and  pi.:  SMe  Vtnterfudjung  toiber  ©onjogncg  SKorbet 
geljt  feinen  regelmajjigen  ©ang  (Volkszcititng,  23.  39).  Side  biefe  tenbeitjiofen  <£tellen 
tnufjten  feine  fulntinante  SBirfung  ubcn  (ib.,  24.  56). 

c.  In  the  classical  period  we  often  find  a  possessive  of  the  third  person  in 
conjunction  with  the  gen.  or  dat.  of  a  pronoun  or  noun,  where  the  literary 
language  to-day  requires  the  simple  gen.  of  the  pronoun  or  noun,  or  chooses 
some  other  construction :  £>a,  nimm  meinen  9Hng,  »er»al)re  ifjn  unb  gib  mir  beg 
SWajorg  feinen  (for  gib  ntir  ben  beg  SWajorg)  bafiir  (Lessing's  Minna,  4,  5).     31)r 
artet  ntef^r  nad)  (Sureg  95aterg  ©eift,  |  a(g  nad)  bcr  SJluttcr  i()rcm  (Schiller's  Wallen- 
steins  Tod,  3,2).     ©cgen  bent  feine  ©eie^eit  (Lessing).     This  construction  is 
still  common  in  popular  and  colloquial  language,  the  dative,  however,  being 
now  the  favorite :  ffiem  fein  ^>nt  ift  bag  ?  for  the  literary  form  SBfjfeti  Jput  ifi 
bag  ?     @g  ijl  bem  SSttljelm  feincv  for  6r  gefycrt  bent  SBil^elm.    Sent  fein  £ut,  bcr 
i()v  ^inb,  &c.    £a  fd)(agt  5ri|"  fttne  ^pcnbute  elf  Ufjr  (von  Moltke  in  a  letter). 
Su  btfl  nteine  §rau  unb  nid)t  bcr  Sivtomaten  ifyre  (Bismarck's  Briefe  an  seine 
Braut  undGattin,  14.  Mai  1851).    2)u  f>ajl  cine  gute  Stirn,  ganj  wic  bent  s-l5dterd)en 
feine  (Schulze-Smidt's  Dentf  ich  an  Deutschland  in  tier  Nacht,  II). 

d.  The  demon,  genitives  beffcn  his,  bcren  her,  their,  are  much  used  instead 
of  the  declined  forms  of  fein  and  il)r  to  avoid  ambiguity,  bejfen,  bcrcn  referring 


139.  USE   OF  POSSESSIVES  17a 


to  an  oblique  case,  and  fein,  tljr  to  the  subject  :  <£te  farad)  inet  »on  ifjrer 
fter  nub  eqdfylte  »iel  von  beren  ©djicffalen  She  spoke  much  of  her  sister  and 
related  a  good  deal  of  her  (i.e.  the  sister's)  experiences.  But  if  the  reference 
is  to  her  own  experiences,  it  should  read  :  won  ifyren  (£d)icffalen.  £>er  ©raf  tjat 
biefem  SWanne  unb  beffen  <£ol)ne  af(e3  ansertraut  The  count  has  entrusted  all  to  this 
man  and  his  (the  tatter's)  son.  But  if  the  reference  is  to  the  count's  own  son, 
it  must  read  :  feinem  (Sofyne.  Also  berfelbe  can  be  used  instead  of  beffen,  bercn  in 
such  cases  :  25er  ©raf  I)at  biefem  2Ranne  unb  bent  @oljn  beSfelben  a((e3  anvertraut. 

!l)effen,  beren  are  also  used  in  a  following  independent  proposition  instead 
of  the  possessive  when  the  reference  is  to  a  nom.  or  an  oblique  case  in 
a  preceding  independent  or  subordinate  proposition  :  Slb(ath)  unb  Sofatto  ftnb 
ant  frufjeflen  untergegangen,  fd)on  in  urgermanifdjer  Beit,  itnb  btc  iibng  gebliebenen 
JtifuS  mufjten  beren  fritfyere  Slufgaben  init  »ertreten  (Behaghel's  Die  deutsche 
Sprache,  p.  316,  2nd  ed.).  Sulefct  trat  Jpeinricfy  in  biefem  trauernben  £aitfe  fafl 
ganj  in  bie  <2tel(e,  bie  €?ubolf  cingencmmen  fyatte.  @t  tuofynte  in  beffen  ©tube,  er 
benu^te  beffen  Sucker  (Raabe). 

2>effen  and  beren  are  also  used  elsewhere  instead  of  fein  to  avoid  ambiguity  : 
fcie  ©rdfin,  ifyre  33ertt>alterin  unb  bereit  (i.  e.  the  latter's)  Softer. 

SDeffeu  and  beren  are  often  used  of  persons  of  high  rank  or  position  even 
where  no  ambiguity  would  arise  by  the  use  of  fein,  ifyr  :  ber  JWnig  nnb  beffen 
©einafyltn. 

e.  Instead  of  the  possessive  the  demonstrative  ber  or  berfetbe  is  much  used 
if  the  reference  is  to  things  :  <Sie  legte  bie  £anb  auf  ben  <3tein  unb  empfanb  beffen 
9Bdrme,or  bie  SBdrme  begfelben  rather  than  feine  SBdrnte.  DJleine  Slbfic^ten  ft>il(  id) 
verteibigen,  uic^t  beren  funjllerifc^e  Slutffufyrnng  (Fulda's  Die  Kameraden,  Vor- 
wort). 

/.  Earlier  in  the  period  31>r  or  the  uninflected  3f)ro  was  used  instead  of  <Setn 
His,  when  the  reference  was  to  a  person  with  a  high  title,  as  it  was  thought 
proper  to  use  a  possessive  which  would  accord  with  the  fern,  title  or  the 
plural  form  of  the  verb  :  3d)  bin  fein  9?ebef(,  fyabe  gcgen  3fyro  Jlaiferttdje  tKajeftat 
md)t3  serbrocfjen  (Goethe's  Gotz^  4,  z).  We  now  say  here  ©eine  2JZajeftdt,  with 
reference  to  the  queen  or  empress  3I)te  aftajejidt.  With  reference  to  a  pre- 
ceding fern.,  ifyr  is  still  used  ;  see  263.  1.  3. 

3.  The  possessive  is  often  in  German  replaced  by  the  article  in 
connection  with  the  dative  of  a  personal  pronoun.    For  examples  of 
this  usage  see  258.  3.  B.  a.    The  simple  article  without  the  personal 
pronoun  is  often  employed  instead  of  a  possessive,  provided  no 
ambiguity  could  arise  thereby  :    <Sie  ^jatte  bie  93lumeu  in  ber  <§anb  She 
had  the  flowers  in  her  hand. 

Also  beffen,  bercn,  and  berfetfcen  may  under  certain  circumstances 
replace  the  possessive,  as  explained  in  2.  d  and  e,  above. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  popular  and  colloquial  language  the 
possessive  is  a  favorite  and  is  often  used  even  where  it  does  not 
seem  necessary  :  ©etnc  ftetenjtij  Safyre  fyat  er  fcalD  gut  auf  bent  0iacfen 
(Raabe's  Meistcr  Autor,  chap,  xviii).  2)er  Sling  ifl  feine  100  2)iarf  wert. 
This  unnecessary  use  of  the  possessive  is  especially  frequent  in  the 
popular  constructions  described  in  2.  c,  above,  and  in  258.  3.  B.  a. 

4.  Notice  the  difference  of  idiom  in  the  two  languages  in  the 
following  expressions  :  em  35encanbter  yon  3£)nen  a  relative  of  yours, 
etn  ftreunb  turn  mir  a  friend  of  mine.     'Die  €tyerlinge  ftnb  nod)  mem  £ob 
(H.  Seidel's  Eine  Sperlingsgeschichte)  The  sparrows  will  be  the  death 
of  me  yet. 

139.  Indefinite  numerals.  The  indefinites,  which  are  used  ad- 
jectively  or  substantively,  may  be  divided  into  three  groups  : 


174  INDEFINITE   NUMERALS  139.1. 

i.  The  following  contain  the  idea  of  number : 

a.  aUcrljaitb  all  kinds  of,  every  kind  of,  uninflected :  aflerfjanb  gute 
SBeine,  mit  aflerfyanb  guteu  $Betnen,  aUerl;anb  guter  2Betn,  mit  aflerljanb 
B'Utter  gefcfmtitcft,  alierfyanb  llnserftdnbltcfyeg.     Substantively :  einent  after* 
tyanb  mitteilen.    See  161. 4. 

Note.  This  form  is  in  fact  a  loose  compound  consisting  of  the  noun  Jjanb  kind'm.  the 
gen.  pi.  and  its  modifying  adjective,  which  in  M.H.G.  were  written  apart :  allet  foanbe 
of  all  kinds. 

b.  allciici  all  kinds  of,  every  kind  of,  every  kind  of  a,  uninflected  : 
al'Ierlei  gutc  9Beine,  mit  al'Ierlei  gutett  SBeinen,  al'Ierlei  guter  28ein,  al'Ierlei 
UntierfidnblicfjeS.     @ie  fufyren  in  al'Ierlei  ©efaljrt  (Use  Frapan's  Mamsell 
Biene}.     Substantively :  <Sie  fprecfyen  t>on  attetlet'.    See  also  126.  i.  a. 
For  accent  see  47.  2,.  A.  a. 

c.  ait&er*  other,  str.  and  wk. :  etn  (inb(e)rcr  SWann ;  bcr  <mb(e)re  SWann ; 
anb(e)re  banner;   ein  anb(e)rer  another  (man);   cine  anb(c)rc  ^rau;  cm 
onb(f)reg  SSitcfy ;  am  anbcren  (see  122.  i,  '  2nd ')  £age  the  next  day. 

d.  beib*  both,  str.  and  wk. :   fceifce  «§cinbe,  or  bic  fceiben  «£>dnbe,  bic 
(meinc,  biefe,  jene)  fceiben  Jtnafceu  both  of  the  (my,  these,  those)  boys. 
The  neut.  sing,  is  used  collectively,  embracing  two  nouns  or  the  ideas 
contained  in  two  verbs :  fceibeg,  SBrief  imb  $afet  both  letter  and  package. 
dr  irrtc  ftcfy  in  fceibem  He  was  mistaken  in  both  points.     2>a3  fcctbeS  ijl 
ri^tig  Both  points  are  correct.      SSMr  muffen  tufjen  unb  irir  fonnen 
fit^ncn ;  btefe  §rau  i)at  e§  fceibcS  getan  (Ompteda's  Frieden,  chap.  xiii). 
Much  used  in  idiomatic  combinations  :  wr  tetbc,  or  less  commonly 
fceibe  wir  both  of  us,  biefe  fceifen  ^nafcen  more  common  than  bicfe  Jlnaben 
fcetbc,  or  6cibc  biefe  ^nafcen,  the  latter  forms,  however,  being  more 
emphatic ;  fciner  Son  fceiben  neither  of  them,  aHe  fceibe  (or  in  popular 
language  jttiei  fcetbe,  or  atte  jtuei  fceibe)  both  of  them,  icel^c  fceibe  both  of 
which. 

Note  i.  Following  pronouns,  the  inflection  of  Betfc;  is  strong  except  after  frit  and 
tljt,  where  after  the  manner  of  qualifying  adjectives  we  also  find  the  weak  inflection, 
and  even  more  frequently  so  after  if)r :  toir  beibe  (Raabe),  ftir  beibm  »ertornen 
(M.  Halbe),  i^r  beibe  (Grillparzer's  Konig  Ottokar,  i),  i^r  betbeit  barren  (Raabe), 
iljr  beiben  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  $),  tieg  beibcg  both  of  these,  ba3  beibeg 
both  of  those,  a((e3  beibeS  both.  @ein  Xob  i(i  etn  fdjtoeter  Sc^Iag  fiiir  bie  ©emablin 
unb  fur  bie  Jtonigin,  bie  beibe  (both  of  whom)  niebergefdjntettert  finb. 

Note  a.  Seibe  and  a((e  have  a  position  in  the  sentence  differing  sometimes  from 
English  :  (i)  They  usually  follow  pronouns,  standing  in  the  appositional  construction, 
when  all  are  embraced  in  the  statement :  3$  fanit  mcfyt  Sfytten  alien  fyelfen  I  cannot 
help  all  of  you  (or  as  in  German  you  all).  @ie  fcbicften  ttttr  £anbfd)ube,  tt>etcbe  ttttt 
al(e  JU  flto^  ftnb  You  sent  me  gloves  all  of  which  are  too  large  for  me.  !•  or  examples 
of  the  position  of  beibe  see  examples  in  Note  I  above.  When  a  partitive  idea  is  to  be 
expressed,  they  usually  stand  in  the  dat.  after  »on :  diner  »on  betben  fommt  One  of 
the  two  will  come.  (2)  They  may  for  emphasis  follow  a  noun :  3dj  fafy  bie  (Sltern 
beibe  I  saw  both  of  the  parents.  @r  ttcmbte  fid)  son  feinen  5«nnben  alien  ab.  (3)  When 
they  are  modifiers  of  the  subject  they  may  for  emphasis  stand  after  the  verb :  55te 
(Sdjlllbigen  »erfhtmmten  alle  Every  one  of  the  guilty  ones  became  silent.  3)eine 
(Sltern  ftnb  beibe  h?o^t  Both  of  your  parents  are  well,  or  as  in  German  Your  parents 
are  both  -well.  (4)  For  especial  emphasis  they  may,  when  they  are  modifiers  of  the 
subject,  also  stand  first  in  the  sentence  followed  by  the  verb  and  later  by  the  subject : 
Stile  tooflen  fie  beS  .KaiferS  Slntlifc,  fefcen  (Wildenbruch's  Kaiser  Heinrich,  2,  2).  SJeibe 
ftanfcen  nnr  am  genfier.  (5)  S3eibe  differing  from  alle  usually  follows  a  gen.,  a  posses- 
sive, or  other  pronominal,  less  frequently  does  it  precede  :  all  feineS  93atcr6  ©lit  and 
alle  meine  Sucker,  but  meines  Saterg  beibe  (Sitter  and  ntit  ntetnen  betben  Slugen,  or 
sometimes  earlier  in  the  period  mit  betCen  ntetnen  Slligcn.  But  beib;  precedes  the 


139.  i./.  INFLECTION  AND  USE  175 


possessive  when  it  is  itself  preceded  by  the  article  :  SKeutert  Ijatte  itberrafdjt  bte 
fetue«  S3efud)er3,  bie  er  big  batjtn  in  ben  beiben  feinen  geljalten,  loegetaffen  (Telmann's 
Wahrheit,  1).  The  last  examples  show  how  betbe  in  a  greater  degree  than  af(e  is 
becoming  more  like  attributive  adjectives,  in  that  it  now  usually  follows  the  article  and 
the  pronominals.  They  were  both  originally  predicate  appositives,  which  accounts  for 
their  peculiar  position  in  the  sentence. 

e.  tin  one,  any,  some,  often  in  connection  with  the  adverb  irgenb, 
which  gives  the  generalizing  force  in  the  sense  of  any,  some,  any 
at  all,  inflected  like  the  indefinite  article  when  used  adjectively,  and 
like  a  strong  adjective  when  used  substantively  :  311  irgenb  einer  Beit 
at  any  time  whatever.  SScnu  id)  nur  irgenb  etn  SJiittel  bagegen  rciifjte  ! 
If  I  only  knew  some  remedy  for  it  1  Substantively  :  irgenb  einer  any 
one  ;  jeneS  93nd)  ober  irgenb  eineS. 

The  wanting  plural  of  irgenb  em  is  supplied  by  irgenb  roetdje  or 
simple  ivelcfye  in  declarative  sentences,  and  in  questions  either  by 
irgenb  rce(d)e  or  irgenb  alone  :  3rgenb  eine  $erfon  l;at,  or  in  the  plural 
irgenb  rceldje  $erfonen  tyaben  eS  iijnt  fcerraten.  2)ie  Sifdjletn  ivaren  .  .  . 
fo  fd)on,  ivie  er  nod)  nie  rceldje  gefefjen  tjcitte  (R.  Huch's  Schlaraffis, 
p.  94).  ^a6en  irgenb  vceld)e  $erfonen  or  irgenb  ^Jerfonen  attjjcr  3f)nen  barnnt 
getcufjt'?  In  the  substantive  relation  rceldje  cannot  be  dropped  here. 

The  wanting  plural  of  ein  in  the  meaning  several,  a  few  is  supplied 
by  rec!d;=  (used  as  a  rule  only  substantively)  or  etnige  (used  adjectively)  : 
«£>aft  bit  ein  ))aat  ^fennige?  3d;  f)abe  ^tetdje,  but  usually  (Sr  ifl  fd^on  etnige 
Sabre  tot.  In  popular  and  colloquial  language  ivetcr;  is  often  used 
here  adjectively  :  3$etd?e  (in  choice  language  eintge)  3)(xen(d)en  ftnb  nid)t 
gufriebcn.  Other  forms  than  rcelcfye  and  eintge  occur  in  dialect,  such 
as  ere  (a  partitive  gen.  =  ifyrcr),  eine:  >§afl  bit  ein  ^aar  ^fennige?  3d; 
^a6e  ere  or  eine.  With  reference  to  materials  ein  is  replaced  in  the 
singular  by  iveld)*  in  the  substantive  and  by  eticaS  in  the  attributive 
relation  :  £Benn  <8ie  ©elb  fyafcen,  fo  geben  <£te  ntir  tvetd^eg.  @eben  <2te  ntir 
etwaS  @elb.  The  indefinite  rcetd)*  is  well  supported  by  good  usage 
here,  but  a  number  of  grammarians  are  unfriendly  to  it,  and 
recommend  its  omission:  3d;  fcrcwdje  $a^ier,  tyaft  bit?  —  3a,  ba  ifl; 
nimm  btr,  &c. 

So  great  a  favorite  is  rceld)*  that  it  is  often  used  in  the  singular 
where  ein  might  be  used  :  Jtann  id)  nnb  roitt  id)  fritter  abreifen,  fo  fann  id) 
ja  am  2)onner^tag  nod;  irgenb  rcelcfye  ntir  trtftig  fcfyeinenbe  QUtgrebe  nad?  Se^* 
lingen  fenben  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Oct.  21,  1850).  <2ie  ftnb  ant 
aflermadjtigften  o^ne  irgenb  rceld;en  Otang  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den 
Kurfiirsten,  chap.  x). 

/.  \ft>s  every,  each,  any,  strong  (see  108),  or  if  preceded  by  the 
indefinite  article  mixed,  used  adjectively  or  substantively.  The 
indefinite  article  must  precede  the  genitive  in  the  substantive  rela- 
tion. Exs.  :  ein  jeber  red?tfd?affcne  SBitrger  (Goethe's  Egmont,  2],  or  jeber 
red)tfd?affene  SSiirger  j  ba8  ©efiifyl  eineg  jeben,  but  ba§  ©efitfyl  jebeg  or  eineS 
jenen  eblen  93ienfd)en.  6tn  jcber  ifl  feineS  ©litrfeS  (Sdmtieb.  3ebe  5'eber  ijl 
gut  genng  Any  pen  will  do.  3eber  (anybody)  fann  3t)tten  fagen,  roo  id) 
icobne. 

Earlier  in  the  period  jeb=  could  be  used  in  the  plural  with  the 
force  of  atte  :  iebe  anbern  2)iittcl  (Goethe's  Egmont,  i,  Palast  der 
Regentin),  jete  jef)n  Sdjritte  (Heine). 


176  INDEFINITE   NUMERALS  139.  i./ 

Earlier  in  the  period  jebtrebs,  jebireber*,  and  jeglid)*,  all  with  the  inflec- 
tion and  meaning  of  jeb=,  were  frequently  used,  and  with  the  exception 
of  jebweber*  still  occur  in  choice  language,  especially  in  a  solemn  or 
dignified  style:  iebirebe  Qlrt  t>on  <8imre  (Ranke),  ein  jeglidjer  ivunberlidje 
23ogel  (Raabe's  Unseres  Herrgotts  Kanzlei,  chap.  v). 

Note.  Instead  of  etn  jebet  we  find  jet;  eills  in  N.G.  dialect,  just  as  in  English  :  S)amit 
friegt  man  jeben  einen  miirbe  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,  2). 

g.  innucf)  many  a,  many,  a  number  of,  strong  and  weak,  but 
uninflected  before  ein,  also  often  before  an  adjective :  manner  2ttann, 
mcmd)e  ^rau,  mand)e3  Jttnb,  manner  many  a  man.  3d)  fya&e  3fynen  fo 
mand)e3  gu  fagen  I  have  a  number  of  things  to  tell  you.  2Eand)e 
gute  Seute  a  number  of  good  people ;  bie  mcmd;en  ©tnnben,  bie  id)  barcmf 
oenrenbet  fyafre.  But  mand)  etn  ftorfer  2Wann,  or  mand)  ftarfer  SWann,  or 
more  commonly  manner  ftarfc  2ftann.  It  is  rather  uncommon  in 
general  to  place  the  indefinite  article  before  manrf)=,  although  in 
some  sections,  as  in  the  S. W.,  it  occurs  occasionally :  (£in  manner 
fcliefc  fyaften  (Scheffel's  Ekkehard,  13). 

SWand)  differs  from  Diel  in  that  it  denotes  only  number,  while  the 
latter  denotes  also  quantity:  Diet  (not  inondj)  (^elt>.  Both  »tel  and 
mand)  denote  number  in  the  plural.  The  former  denotes  a  large 
number  and  stands  in  contrast  to  voeniQtfew,  while  mcntdie  indicates 
an  indefinite  number  larger  than  einige  several.  2J?ancf)  differs  from 
iriel  also  in  having  individualizing  force,  which  explains  its 
frequent  use  in  the  singular,  just  as  many  a  in  English.  On 
account  of  its  individualizing  force,  it  cannot  be  used  in  questions 
asking  after  the  number :  £Bte  ttiele  (not  mancfje)  roaren  ba? 

h.  mefyrer:  (117.  i.  b]  several,  strong  and  weak  :  mefjrere  icid)tige  2)tnge, 
met)rere§  2Bid;ttge  several  important  things.  SBie  fottte  man  bie  mefyrern 
SSagen  fortkingen  ?  (Goethe).  A  little  earlier  in  the  period  the  form 
mefyr  was  not  infrequent :  mit  inefyren  "£)amen  (Bismarck  to  his  be- 
trothed, Feb.  i,  1847). 

i.  eiit  paar  a  few,  several,  uninflected  (see  121.  i.  A.  a) :  mit 
etn  ^aar  SBorten.  A  demonstrative  may  precede  ^aar :  5lt»er 
biefe  ^aar  cmfyaifHfcfyen  5t6reetd)itngen  ftnt)  faunt  t>on  93elang  (Wacker- 
nagel's  Altindische  Grammatik,  I.  p.  xlv).  The  demonstrative 
is  always  inflected.  When  $aar  is  written  with  a  capital  and 
ein  is  inflected,  the  expression  takes  again  its  original  meaning, 
i.e.  a  pair:  mit  cineut  $aar  Jlanarienooge[.  See  also  253.  I.  i.  g. 
Note  i. 

•2..  The  following  contain  the  idea  of  quantity : 

a.  Mfjcfecu  (S.G.  ftiffel)  little,  little  bit,  more  confined  to  the  style  of 
every  day  than  etn  rcentg,  and,  moreover,  implying  a  smaller  amount. 
It  is  uninflected,  but  may  be  preceded  by  an  inflected  article, 
demon.,  or  possessive,  which,  however,  does  not  agree  in  gender 
with  the  noun  following  fctfjd^en,  but  is  neut.,  agreeing  with  bi§d)en 
itself,  thus  distinctively  indicating  its  original  substantive  nature  : 
£>te  3ofyanni8irurmd)en  ftnb  urn  beS  fctjjcfyen  ®lanjc3  ifiOen  nod;  feme 
©terne  Glow-worms  are  not  by  any  means  stars  because  of  the 
little  light  they  shed.  £>cmUet  tytncwS  mofyte  id)  fur0  erfte  aflerbtngg 
ben  fcerbletbenben  SRefl  metneS  tipd;en  JtapttalS  nid;t  angreifen  (Boy-Ed). 


139. 2.  d.  INFLECTION  AND  USE  177 

^K\i  ttirem  Hjiidjen  tfraft.  Used  substantively :  5)ie  gan^e  SBett  fontmt 
nttr  init  einent  2Wal  fo  bumm  iinb  imftnnig  fcor,  bafj  auf  baS  6tf?d)en,  rcaS  id? 
con  ber  <£orte  baju  gefce,  nn'rflid)  nid)t3  anfomntt  (Raabe).  9Rid;t  ein 
6i£d?en  mefyt !  Don't  take  the  least  bit  more  !  Usually  the  indef.  art. 
before  fcifidjen  remains  uninflected  after  the  analogy  of  ein  rcenig,  ein 
paar:  mit  ein  bi^djen  93erflanb.  The  uninflected  itenig  can  only  be 
used  after  ein,  and  hence  could  not  stand  in  the  first  four  examples 
above. 

Note,  Often  bitten  is  used  adverbially  :  SSorteit  @ie  ein  ftein  bipdjen.  @r  ifl  nidjt 
ein  btjjdjen  ettel  He  is  not  a  bit  (or  not  in  the  least)  vain. 

b.  ettoaS  some,  uninflected :  ettraS  SSetn,  etreaS  ®elb.     It  is  often 
used  adverbially :  etrcaS  fauer  somewhat  sour. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  fttt>a3  was  felt  as  a  neut.  substantive  and  could  have  a  follow- 
ing gen.  depending  upon  it :  etn>a3  £ro)l3  (Luther).  Later  the  gen.  passed  over  into 
the  appositional  construction :  tth)a3  Xrofl.  To-day  etoa3  can  in  such  cases  be  regarded 
as  an  uninflected  adj.  with  the  same  general  meaning  as  the  inflected  adj.  einig;,  with 
this  modification,  that  ethxiS  is  now  in  general  used  with  singular  nonns  for  an  indefinite 
amount,  mass,  while  cintg;  may  be  used  for  an  indefinite  amount,  but  is  more  particu- 
larly used  with  pi.  nouns  or  the  singular  of  adjective-substantives  for  an  indefinite 
number:  etfrag  58 utter,  ettt»a3  (Sfore,  etroag  9Kut,  einigea  ©elb,  einige  23ud)er,  einiged 
SntetefTante  several  interesting  things.  However,  before  abstract  nouns  in  the  sing., 
cinig*  is  often  used  instead  of  ettpad :  einige  3eit,  einige  (Srfaljrung,  nad)  einigem 
(Btclfcerrt  iiber  aHer^anb  Unebenfyeiten  (Raabe's  Finkenrode,  chap.  ii).  In  the  sub- 
stantive relation  ttwa8  is  replaced  by  iodfyi ',  see  1. 1,  above.  For  etoa$  as  a  real 
substantive  (with  dependent  noun)  see  145.  f. 

c.  gaitj  all,  whole,  entire,  strong  and  weak,  but  may  also  be 
uninflected  before  names  of  countries  and  places  which  have  no 
art.  before  them,  when  used  in  a  figurative  or  inexact  sense : 
ein  ganjer  Qlvfel  a  whole  apple,  ber  ganje  Wpfel,  ein  ganger  2Wann  a  man 
every  inch  of  him;    bag  ganje  $eutfd)tanb  the  whole  of  Germany, 
Germany  one  and  undivided,  but  ©anj  £)eittfd?Icmb  lag  in  <8rt;madj  unb 
(2d?merj  All  Germany  lay  in  disgrace  and  grief.     3d;  burdjreifte  gang 
£>eutfd)lanb.     But  the  ending  cannot  be  dropped  in  case  of  those 
countries  which  always  take  the  art. :  bie  gcuije  ©djnjeij  all  Switzerland, 
not  ganj  Scfyiceij.     It  is  much  used  in   idiomatic  expressions :   im 
gan^en  on  the  whole,  im  ganjen  einfaufcn  to  buy  by  wholesale,  im 
ganjen  nnb  gro§en  nberfd^Iagcn  to  make  a  rough  estimate,  &c. 

©anj  is  often  used  in  the  plural,  but  it  never  denotes  number, 
indicating  also  there  entirety,  i.  e.  the  completeness  of  each  whole  : 
see  3.  d.  Note,  below,  toward  end. 

Note  i.  The  usual  adverbial  form  is  ganj  quite,  entirely,  very:  ganj  gut.  Formerly 
gamlidj  was  the  usual  adverbial  form  and  is  still  sometimes  used.  This  form  is  also 
used  adjectively,  only,  however,  before  abstract  nouns  denoting  an  activity  or  a  quality, 
where  the  original  adverbial  nature  of  the  form  is  largely  preserved  (see  245. II.  n.  2. 
A./) :  gdmlidje  SSefreiung,  gdnjlidje  93erfd}iebenljeit. 

Note  2.  (jJatlJ  is  also  used  as  a  neut.  noun,  but  with  its  original  adj.  declension  :  SttJet 
fialbe  (halves)  ftnb  ein  ©anjea  (a  whole).  SSier  £albe  finb  jteei  ©an$e,  or  jtnb  jn?d 
©an$en  gteid)  (equal  to).  Sin  fyarmonifd)  gcotbnetfe  ©anje  or  ©anjes  (see  111.  4.  a), 
ber  britte  Xeil  eined  J^alben.  Also  masc.  referring  to  ©djcppen :  einen  ©angen,  einen 
Jpalbett  trinfcn  to  drink  a  whole,  a  half-measure  (of  beer  or  wine). 

d.  f)flH>  half,  strong  and  wk.,  and  like  ganj  remains  uninflected 
before  names  of  countries  and  places  which  have  no  article  before 
them,  when  used  figuratively  or  in  an  inexact  sense :   ein 

N 


178  INDEFINITE   NUMERALS  139.  2.  d. 


half  of  an  apple,  ber  ^alfce  5fyfel,  bie  Jjalfce  ©tabt,  tin  tyalfcer 
bag  tyalfce  $ari§  half  of  Paris,  bag  tyalBe  ^ari§  or  more  commonly 
§al&  $art8  half  of  the  people  of  Paris,  burcl)  ^al6  $art3.  2Me  franjoftfdjc 
^Resolution  erfcfyutterte  tyalfe  (Suropa.  But  always  bie  fyalbe  <5cfyn>eij. 

A0/«  i.  It  is  uninflected  in  the  form  tin  tyalb  used  as  a  fraction,  also  in  the  form 
lja(b  when  used  adverbially,  and  in  a  few  expressions  substantively.  3tl)n  Jtttt  tin  ftalb 
ntultipttjiert  gibt  funf.  2)ie  ©tunbe  ift  fcfyon  tyalb  urn  The  hour  is  already  half  up. 
3>ie  Mr  fcfofagt  tie  fyatbe  @tunbe,  or  fcbtagt  fyalb.  @3  iji  Ijalb  ntun  (o'clock).  Formerly 
and  still  in  popular  language  inflected  in  the  predicate  :  3d)  bin  Ijalber  itn  £vaum  ; 
see  111.  8. 

Note  2.  Jpalb  is  also  used  as  a  neut.  or  masc.  noun,  but  with  its  original  adj. 
declension  ;  see  Note  2,  under  c. 

e.  tin  tocttig  a  little,  uninflected  ;  see  2.  a,  above. 

Note,  ©in  toenig  is  much  used  adverbially  :  <Sie  fyabtn  bie  ©adje  etn  toentg  iibereUt 
You  have  hurried  the  matter  a  little  too  much. 

3.  The  following  contain  the  idea  of  quantity  or  number,  according 
as  the  noun  is  in  the  sing,  or  pi.  : 

a.  aller/  allc,  allc*  all,  usually  strong  when  inflected,  but  may 
remain  uninflected  before  an  article  or  pronominal,  usually  with 
the  form  aft,  but  often  in  popular  language  atte  :  atte  ftreube  all  the  joy, 
atteg  ©ute  all  that  is  good,  aft  or  afle  ber  SBein,  all  or  aUe  be§  5BftnS,&c.; 
all  ber  SGBetn  all  the  wine  (quantity),  but  afle  (Scfyuler  all  the  pupils 
(number)  ;  atteS  in  aflem  all  in  all,  but  afle,  ©ute  unb  236fe  all  people, 
good  and  bad  ;  ott  ber  <Sd?merj  all  the  pain,  but  @ie  fanten  otle  They  all 
came.  For  further  details  concerning  inflection  see  111.  8. 

In  referring  to  definite  persons  and  things  which  are  clearly 
indicated  by  the  context,  the  definite  article  is  not  used  so  fre- 
quently after  aft  as  in  English,  being  usually  employed  only  when 
it  has  strong  demonstrative  or  determinative  force  :  alter  2Betn,  afle 
35utter  all  the  wine,  butter  (in  the  house,  &c.,  according  to  the 
connection).  Qlfle  ©dfle  Sjerliepen  eiligfl  bag  J|5au3  All  the  guests  left 
the  house  in  great  haste.  But  with  demonstrative  or  determinative 
force  :  5ltt  bag  ©elb  reicfyt  nicfyt  f)tn,  if)n  jufrteben  511  ftetten  All  this  money 
(which  has  been  given  him)  does  not  suffice  to  satisfy  him.  2?ei  all 
ber  ^racfyt  tji  er  ntcfyt  gliicfltcfy  In  the  midst  of  all  the  splendor,  which 
surrounds  him,  he  is  not  happy.  $111  bie  (or  afle  bie  or  simply  atte) 
©emalce,  bie  er  auf  bie  2lu8fteflung  gefanbt  tyat,  ftnb  fcerfauft. 

For  the  position  of  atte  in  the  sentence  see  i.  d.  Note  2,  above. 

Note  i.  Instead  of  the  regular  str.  forms,  af(  often  has  wk.  forms  in  the  gen. 
(see  108)  sing,  when  not  preceded  by  def.  art.,  and,  perhaps,  still  more  frequently  in 
the  gen.  and  dat.  sing,  when  preceded  by  the  article  :  trefc  aflen  SSertrauend.  Unb  fiel' 
tin  gtinb  in  unfte  ©autn,  |  hnr  iviirben  be3  af(tn  bie  8rud)te  fdjauen  (Grillparzer's 
Libtissa,  2).  2Wir  tfi  fo  angjl  bti  bem  aKen.  3^  iterbe  nidjts  »cn  bent  alien  tun. 

Note  i.  In  the  predicate  in  the  sense  of  out  vfthe  invariable  form  alle  is  much  used  : 
Set  SSttn  tft  atle  We  are  out  of  wine.  Perhaps  the  form  al(e  was  originally  a  predicate 
appositive  in  the  nom.  pi.,  originating  in  such  sentences  as  bie  .Rucfyen  jtnb  ttde 
[wiefjrt]. 

Note  3.  Before  the  dat.  neut.  sing,  the  uninflected  form  af(e  is  quite  common  :  ircfe 
aflebem'  in  spite  of  all  that. 

Note  4.  In  the  classical  authors  aid  is  sometimes  equal  to  jjeb*  :  <So  ftfjlaft  Him  after 
SSogel  (Goethe).  In  a  few  cases  we  can  still  use  both  allt  and  jeb;,  the  former  with 
general,  the  latter  with  individualizing  force  :  9U(et  or  jebtr  Slnfang  ifl  filter.  2Btr 
fatten  af(en  ©runb  (every  reason,  in  a  general  sense)  jum  SBerbadjt  gegen  t^n.  @etra* 


139. 3-  c.  INFLECTION  AND  USE  179 

geneg  3eug  flHer  2lrt  (H.  Seidel's  Das  Atelier,  I).  Usage  now  generally  prefers  here 
the  sing,  of  jet);  or  the  plural  of  a((;,  especially  the  latter,  in  a  number  of  expressions  : 
olle  paar  9ftinuten  every  few  minutes,  alle  £age  every  day,  atte  brei  Sage  every  third  day. 

Note  5.  After  cfine  we  translate  both  ad;  and  jet);  by  any :  cljnt  af(e  (or  cljnt  jebe, 
or  cftne  atte  linb  jebe)  llrfadje  without  any  reason. 

Note  6.  In  the  course  of  the  present  period  aid  has  gradually  been  supplanted  by 
gang*  in  the  meaning  whole,  entire,  but  the  older  usage  still  survives  in  poetic  language : 
burdj  af(  fcin  Seben  (Geibel,  2,  241),  now  usually  burdj  fein  games  Seben.  Differentia- 
tion of  meaning  here  has  taken  place  in  a((e  SSelt  everybody  and  tie  gange  2Bett 
the  universe.  Compare  bte  gange  9lad}t  all  night;  gang  £>eutfd}lanb  all  Germany; 
bie  gange  Samilie  all  the  family. 

Note  7.  In  dialect  the  neut.  form  afleg  is  frequently  contracted  to  alg,  which  often 
by  reason  of  this  change  of  form  becomes  isolated  from  the  original  form,  and  takes 
on  more  general  meaning,  especially  that  of  the  adverb  imtnerfcrt :  25a  faitgt  Tttir  baS 
SWdbel— »ei§  ©ott,  was  ate  (for  af(ea)  fur?  —  uberfiimmltfdje  SUfangereien  ein  (Miller  in 
Schiller's  Kabalc  und  Liebe,  i,  i).  ©oUtefl  nut  bie  ttunberljubfdje  93Uleter  aud) 
lefen,  bie  bcr  gndbige  £err  an  beine  £od)ter  aid  (=  tmnterfort)  fdjreiben  tut  (ib.,  Frau 
Miller). 

b.  eitttgs,  earlier  in  the  period  =  O.  H.G.  einag  one,  only,  single, 
later,    in    N.H.G.    harmonious   (in    this    meaning    still    in    use), 
and  O.H.G.  einig  =  irgenb  ein  (see  i.  e,  above),  from  the  latter  of 
which  come  the  common  meanings  of  our  day,  a  few,  some,  several, 
inflected  strong  and  weak :  ber  etnige  ©ott  (Matt.  xix.  17),  ein  einiger 
<Son  (Tobit  vi.  16).     3)enn  bit  fcermagft  nid)t  ein  einigS  Har  iteiS  »nt> 
fc^Trar^  gu  mac^en  (Matt.  v.  36).    Jtetn  Hanbreerrf^man  einigeg  HanbtcercfS 
(Rev.  xviii.  22),  au8  fturcfyt  beS  2obe§  ober  fonfl  eintgeS  2)inge8  (Claudius) 
from  fear  of  death  or  some  other  thing;   etnigeg  frif^e  £)6fi  some 
fresh  fruit,  einige  ©c^rttte  baoon  several  steps  away,  in  etniger  Snt* 
fernung,  einige  B^it  barna^.     3n  biefem  Sud^e  finbet  ftcb  nefcen  eintgem 
©uten  auc^  einigeS  2ftittelmafjtge  unb  einigeg  <£d)Iec^te.    9^ur  einige  rcaren 
ba  Only  a  few  people  were  there.     (5r  fcefal)  tie  jn:ei  ©efpanne  Or^fen, 
bie  Jtiifye,  bie  cinigen  @c^afe  (Stifter's  Witiko,  i.  202).     See  also  2.  b. 
Note  and  i.  e,  above. 

aa.  The  forms  ttiify  (strong  and  weak  =  tinity  and  now  being  gradually 
displaced  by  it)  and  ehv>e(d)i  (strong  and  weak  =  irgenb  ein  or  trgeab  totli);,  or 
einigs  in  the  sing,  and  irgenb  iwelc^e  and  eiuige  in  the  pi.)  still  occur  in  the 
literary  language.  The  former  was  very  common  in  Luther's  language  and 
is  still  sometimes  used,  and  quite  frequently  so  in  archaic  and  biblical  style. 
The  latter  form  was  not  common  earlier  in  the  period,  but  it  still  lingers  on  in 
choice  language :  (StwclcfyeS  Heine  ©efd)enf  mitgubringcn  fei  immet  empfefylensnjert 
bei  gtofjen  Jpevren  (H.  Hoffmann's  Teufel  vow,  Sande,  p.  174).  3um  itberfhtfj 
^atte  et  bie  ©ewoJjnfyeit,  jebedmal  (elbft  gleid)fam  feine  SSifitenfavte  abgugeben,  ^ermoge 
etweldjen  Heineu  UnfugS,  ben  er  in  bent  betretenen  JRaume  gn  »eruben  fur  gut  fanb 
(id.,  RohledershoheMinne).  2)cnn  biefer  ^flegte  an  bergleidjen  niebUd^en  ©efc^cpfen 
SBo^tgefallen  gu  fyaben,  ioeldje  int  ©runbe  bo^  nteljr ,11)11  mefjtten,  al3  er  if|nen  fiulbigte, 
ba  fein  SUter  unb  feine  getjHge  Sebeutung  eine  liberlegen^eit  mit  ftc^  bra^ten,  bie 
n\i)t  einmal  burd)  etroel(^e  ^erUebttjett  fetnerfeits  augjugleidjen  »»ar  (R.  Huch's 
Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xv).  35ann  etnjel^e  ^ortionen  ^affee,  fagen  irir  fortaufig 
fiinf  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap.  xi).  3)a3  anuertraute  ©ut  »t?ar  l>icl  gu  fojibar, 
um  e3  etivclc^cn  ©efafyren  au^gufe^en  (H.  Hoffmann).  In  the  language  of 
Switzerland  it  is  often  preceded  by  ein  and  ber :  Jpierauf  trat  eine  etrcel<$e 
S3effevnng  ein.  fficgen  ber  etroeldjeit  Unjt^cr^eit,  in  iceldjcr  bie  2Rdnnet  bie  Sett  fatten 
(Keller's  Seldw.>  -2.  311). 

c.  fl(c|mifl  (sometimes  genung  earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in 
poetry  for  the  sake  of  a  rhyme)  enough,  uninflected :  @r  ^at  genug 


180  INDEFINITE   NUMERALS  139.  3.  c. 

®elb,  or  ®elb  gemtg;  genug  9Bitcf?er.  It  formerly  governed  the  genitive, 
which  is  still  sometimes  used  :  (S3  i]i  be§  SLBeinS  genug,  or  genug  bei 
SBeinS,  or  genug  SBein,  or  SBein  genug.  See  i.  Note. 

d.  fjefamt  and  famtlid)  all,  entire,  complete,  both  strong  and  weak  : 
bie  fdmtUcfyen  jrcolf  ^effel  beg  2)ampffd?tffe3  icaren  int  83etrie&.     <8ct)ifter3 
famtlicfye  QBerfe,  bie  gefamte  ^antilie,  mit  gefamter  -^eereSmacfyt,  bie  gefamten 
5Irmen  be3  DrteS;  eine  Qlrfceit,  bie  ityre  gefamten  ©eifieSfrafte  in  Qlnfyrucfy 
naljm. 

Note.  Usually,  as  in  the  above  examples,  gefantt,  in  accordance  with  the  force  of  its 
prefix  gt;,  denotes  a  union  of  homogeneous  or  integral  parts  into  one  whole,  and  even 
when  used  in  the  plural  has  the  force  of  one  mass  or  a  corps  of  forces  working  as  one, 
while  fdmtltd)  in  the  sing,  or  pi.  indicates  that  there  are  different  distinct  units  which 
form  the  whole.  They  both  differ  from  the  more  common  and  general  a((;  in  that  the 
latter  simply  indicates  that  the  quantity  or  number  is  complete  and  lacks  the  distinct 
idea  of  a  union  of  integral  or  homogeneous  parts  or  individual  forces  working  toward 
a  common  end.  Different  from  the  preceding  is  ganj,  which  does  not  refer  at  all  to 
the  parts  that  make  up  a  whole,  but  represents  in  idea  an  undivided  whole,  or  in  the 
plural  undivided  wholes  :  bet  ganje  ^ovper  the  whole  body,  mit  ganjent  J&erjen  with 
all  my  heart,  baa  ganje  £au0  the  whole  house,  bie  ganie  Sfamtlie,  bie  etn$ige  fd)6ne 
Stan  bet  ganjen  (Jtyffn  (G.  Ompteda)  the  only  beautiful  woman  in  all  the  different 
branches  of  the  Eysen  family,  gatt$e  @d)utje  shoes  that  are  not  rent.  2)te  .ftrtege  bet 
©egentwrt  ritfen  bie  ganjen  SSolfet  ju  ben  SBaffen  (Moltke). 

e.  f  tin  no,  none,  not  a,  not  (see  Note),  no  one,  not  a  one,  inflected 
like  the  indef.  article  ein  when  used  adjectively  in  the  sing.,  but  like 
a  strong  adjective  when  standing  alone  (see  108)  in  the  sing,  or  pi., 
or  when  used  adjectively  in  the  plural  :   fetn  33udj.     ©in  23ud?  ifl 
teffer  ol3  fein(e)8.     2)a3  fie$t  in  fetneS  or  feineS  2Eenfcfyen  SJiacfyt.     ^eine 
33iicfyer.      For  the  partitive  genitive  after  lein  see  Note  under  it 
below. 

Note  i.  The  adverb  no  is  translated  by  netn.  The  adjective  no  is  rendered  by  fetn, 
but  f  cin  has  a  broader  field  than  the  English  adjective  no,  as  it  also  generally  corresponds 
to  not  a,  not  (with  intervening  words)  a,  not  any,  and  not  (before  a  noun  or  a  noun 
and  its  modifiers)  :  35a3  tft  fetn  ubter  (StnfaU'  That  is  not  a  bad  idea.  2Bei($e  fetncn 
Stngerbreit  »on  ©otteg  SBegen  ab  Do  not  deviate  a  finger's  breadth  from  God's  ways. 
SMtte,  gebcn  <Sie  mit  Jldfe.  3d)  fyabe  fetnen  im  -§aiife  Please  give  me  some  cheese. 
I  haven't  any  in  the  house.  @S  tft  nod)  f  eine  fed)3  llf)t  (colloquial)  It  is  not  six  o'clock  yet. 
•ftetn  is  the  negative  of  ein,  but  it  has  a  broader  field,  as  it  can  stand  where  etn  usually 
cannot,  namely,  before  names  of  materials,  abstract  nouns,  and  in  the  plural  :  3d)  Ijabe 
fetn  ®elb.  @t  fennt  fetnen  Jtumtner.  3>a3  J?tnb  Ijat  fetne  (SItetn.  ^ein  is  replaced 
by  md)t  or  ntd)t  ein  when  it  is  desired  to  bring  out  especial  emphasis  or  a  contrast  : 
Sin  25atct  fd)itf  bie  2Bett,  fetn  (or  emphatically  nid)t  ein)  ®ott  be3  ©trafgetidjtes.  2)itd) 
tettet  ntdjt  ©e»aU,  md?t  8ijl. 

Note  2.  In  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  dialect  fetn  has  also  the  meaning  any.  For 
example  see  277.  1.  B.  a.  This  double  meaning  of  no  and  any  comes  from  the  fact 
that  two  different  M.H.G.  words  (dechein  any  and  nechein  no)  have  received  the  same 
form,  namely,  fetn. 

f.  lantcr  and  now  less  commonly  citcl  nothing  but,  indeclinable  : 
lauter  fcfyone  SSIumen.    0}aturlicfy  ifl  bag  afleS  eitel  SBinb  (talk,  wind)  !     (£3 
tyerrfcfyte  eitel  9iut;e  unb 


Note.   These  words  are  still  inflected  in  early  N.H.G.  :  ailS  laitterm  £afj  (Ezek. 

XXXV.   II). 

g.  meljr  more,  usually  uninflected  :   metjr  ©elt);  nte^r  £eute.     See 
i.  Note.     For  the  form  mefyrer*  see  117.  i.  b. 

Note.  Throughout  the  period  attempts  have  been  made  by  good  authors  to  introduce 
inflection,  and  such  forms  still  occur  :  (Sin  JDufeenb  «£>dufet  fieljen  fd)on  in  Sranb,  unb 


139.3-*.  INFLECTION  AND  USE  181 

cd  fontmen  ityrer  nodj  feljr  »iel  nteljre  bran  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfursten, 
chap,  xxviii).     Inflection  is  most  common  in  the  adverb  mdjrenteU<3  =  ntetjlenteild. 

h.  iibrifl  the  rest,  remaining,  superfluous,  strong  and  weak:  (?r 
tut  nie  em  ufortgeS  He  never  does  more  than  he  has  to  do.  3m 
it&rigen  (Europa  in  the  rest  of  Europe;  bie  uOrigen  $erfonett;  int 
it&rtgen,  or  tcaS  ba8  ufcrige  fcetrifft  as  to  the  rest. 

i.  Dtcl  much,  pi.  many,  strong  and  weak,  inflected  or  uninflected, 
but  inflected  always  when  preceded  by  the  definite  article  or 
a  pronominal  adjective  and  almost  always  in  the  pi.  when  used 
substantively  :  tiiel  or  xriele  SSuefyer,  *>tcle  (or  Jriel)  gitte  5}ud)er,  bte  ttielen 
SSttcfyer,  iriel  (Suteg,  trieleS  ®ute,  mit  fciel  ©utem,  Otele  many  persons,  bte 
Jrielen.  £afj  betn  uieleS  9Reben. 


Note.  93ief,  toentg,  tneljr,  genug  are  here  for  practical  reasons  classed  as  adjectives 
inflected  or  uninflected,  but  the  following  is  a  more  scientific  statement  of  the  case. 
They  were  in  earlier  periods  construed  as  indeclinable  substantives,  requiring  a  dependent 
partitive  gen.,  and  still  admit  of  this  construction,  but  take  now  usually  the  appositional 
construction  after  them,  especially  in  the  sing.,  or  in  case  of  Btel  and  ftemg  are  also 
used  as  inflected  attributive  adjectives  :  early  in  the  period  ttiel  93olj£d  (Mark  viii.  i), 
»iel  falfdjcr  *|Jrojjljetm  (Matt.  xxiv.  11);  now  »iel  ©elb,  »iel  ebte  2Kdnner  (in  apposi- 
tion with  Btfl),  or  »iele  (adjective)  ebte  2Rdmter.  When  the  article  or  a  pronominal 
adjective  precedes,  twl  and  toemg  are  always  inflected:  (Er  [ebt  VOtt  beat  toeittgen 
93erntegen,  bad  tfynt  ubrig  geblieben  ijl.  In  certain  set  expressions  coined  in  an  earlier 
period,  the  older  construction  of  the  indeclinable  substantive  with  its  dependent  partitive 
gen.  remains  intact,  and  cannot  be  replaced  by  the  newer  one  of  attributive  adj.  before 
its  substantive  :  »iel  Slufljebend  Son  etinad  mad)en  to  make  a  great  fuss  about  something, 
»tel  SBefenS  Won  etttdS  madjen  to  make  much  ado  about  something.  After  the  analogy 
of  such  expressions,  a  gen.  stands  after  eitt  and  fetn,  which  are  themselves  uninflected 
after  the  manner  of  »iel  :  J?ein  QRenfd)  Ijat  batton  tin  9luffjebett$  gemadjt  (Bismarck's 
Reden,  2.  76)  No  one  has  made  a  fuss  about  it  ;  but  also  3$  ntetnte,  <Ste  ltdren  bod) 
ttiet  ju  feljr  »ott  bee  SBiffcnfdjaft  tinb  SpljUofopJjie,  «m  urn  fold)  'ne  Jlfeinigfctt  fo'n 
(Suf^eben  gu  ntadjen  (Raabe's  Der  Lar,  p.  23).  (Sr  ntadjt  fein  gcbertefeng  He  will 
make  short  work  of  it.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  feeling  for  the  partitive  gen. 
in  such  cases  is  very  faint  or  entirely  absent,  for  when  a  qualifying  adj.  stands  between 
the  pronominal  adj.  and  the  noun,  both  pronominal  adj.  and  qualifying  adj.  are  appar- 
ently considered  as  attributive  modifiers,  and  hence  agree  in  case  with  the  noun,  which 
is  itself,  in  spite  of  its  gen.  ending,  construed  as  a  nom.  or  ace.,  i.e.  the  subject  or  object 
of  the  verb  and  not  as  a  partitive  gen.  :  3)ie  Suptterfiatue  beg  ^Jljibia3,  won  ber  bamalfl 
einijwa  2luff)cben$gemad)hPurbe(Ebner-Eschenbach).  2Rad)'  mirfetn  groped  3luf(jeben$! 
Don't  make  a  great  fuss,  I  beg  of  you  !  Also  without  a  limiting  word  :  ofine  (Huljmejtd 
(ace.)  (Griinebaum  in  Raabe's  Hungcrpastor,  chap.  vi). 

The  words  Btel,  toenig,  Utefyr,  genug  are  differently  treated  when  they  express  the 
idea  of  number  and  stand  alone  or  before  a  pronoun  or  a  noun  which  is  modified  by  an 
article  or  pronominal  adj.  In  these  cases  »iet  and  hjentg  are  usually  inflected,  and  if 
modified  must  be  followed  by  the  partitive  gen.,  or  by  »ott  or  uitter  with  dat,  while 
genug  and  meljr,  are  indeclinable  here,  but  like  viel  and  toentg  are  followed  by  the  gen., 
or  fcon  with  dat.  :  stele  fraren  ba  many  persons  were  there,  abet  btefem  SRufe  fotgten  fteute 
Hltt  locnig  [as  a  survival  of  older  usage  ;  more  commonly  toenige]  (Fontane's  Quitt, 
chap,  vi),  »ie(e  »on  iljnen,  side  biefer  93ud)er,  or  »iele  son  (or  untet)  biefcn  SSiidjcrn  ; 
genug  ivaren  ba  enough  people  were  there,  meljt  foldjer  (or  fc(dje)  fieute,  mefjr  »on 
xtjnen,  genug  ber  Xrdume. 

©enug,  nte()r,  Viet,  and  toenig  are  all  used  as  indeclinable  substantives  when  they 
denote  an  indefinite  mass  or  amount,  in  which  case  they  may  stand  alone  or  be 
followed  by  the  gen.  or  the  dat.  after  the  prep,  von  :  3dj  Ijabe  genug  ba»on.  ©eniig 
bed  ©efdj»a&es  or  genug  von  bent  ©efdjwa^.  2)u  retail  ntit  tvenig  »on  bent  bejTern 
Stoff  (or  bed  bcffern  ©toffed)  toeiter  aid  ntit  tnct  von  bent  fd)Ied)tern  You  will  accomplish 
more  with  a  little  of  the  better  material  than  with  much  of  the  worse.  See  also  253. 
i.  g-  Note  2,  with  reference  to  the  number  of  the  verb  after  these  words.  The  substan- 
tives ttiel  and  toenig  may  also  be  inflected,  taking  the  neut.  forms  of  the  strong 
adjective,  however,  usually  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning  from  the  uninflected 


182  INDEFINITE   NUMERALS  139.  3.  *. 

forms.  The  former  may,  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  neut.  gender,  contain 
a  collective  idea,  while  the  uninflected  form  emphasizes  the  idea  of  amount  :  3d) 
nteine  ntdjt  vieleg,  fonbmt  met  :  ein  toentgea,  abet  mtt  Sleifj  (Lessing's  Emilia,  i,  2) 
I  do  not  mean  [that  an  artist  should  work  on]  many  things,  but  much  of  one  thing  : 
a  few  things,  but  with  diligence. 

j.  fccttig,  earlier  in  the  period  and  in  a  few  expressions  still  little 
in  size,  value,  importance,  now  and  throughout  the  period  more 
commonly  little  in  amount,  pi.  few  ;  strong  and  weak,  inflected  or 
uninflected,  but  inflected  always  when  preceded  by  the  definite 
article  or  a  pronominal  adjective  and  almost  always  in  the  plural 
when  used  substantively  :  £>enn  bu  fcift  bag  rcenigft  twter  fltten  fcotrfern 
(Deut.  vii.  7).  Stfeine  rcenige  $erfon  (Adelung);  rcenig  ©uteg,  rcenigeg 
©ute,  nrit  rcenig  ©utem  ;  wenig  or  ivenige  2}ud)er  ;  mit  feinem  ttenigen  ©elbe  ; 
bag  rcenige  ©clb,  rcag  id)  fcefap  (Raabe).  3d;  malte  eg  mit  aug  mit  ber 
rcenigen  ${)antafte,  bie  mtr  gege&en  (Ompteda's  Frieden,  VI).  £)te  rcentgen 
33itd?er,  irenige  few  persons,  bie  toenigen.  See  i.  Note. 

Note.  The  comparative  form  luentger,  though  inflected  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
period,  now  prefers  decidedly  non-inflection  except  where  ambiguity  would  arise  there- 
from :  @g  toaren  fyeiite  rceuiger  Slbgeorbnete  tterfammelt  al3  geiiern  There  were  fewer 
representatives  present  to-day  than  yesterday.  But  tt>ett  tteiligere  Sreifinnige  much 
feiver  Liberals  is  clearer  than  hKtt  iveniger  Sreiftnntge,  which  might  mean  far  less  liberal- 
minded  men,  as  Itentger  can  be  construed  as  an  adverb.  As  the  positive  is  sometimes 
inflected  and  sometimes  uninflected,  the  form  lt?entger  is  sometimes  ambiguous,  as  it 
may  be  construed  as  a  fern.  gen.  or  dat.,  or  as  the  uninflected  comparative.  Thus  in 
ntit  fteniger  9D?iiIje  the  meaning  may  be  -with  little  trouble  or  -with  less  trouble.  The 
ambiguity  can  be  avoided  by  dropping  inflection  in  the  former  meaning  and  by  substi- 
tuting the  inflected  comparative  of  gettng  little  for  the  uninflected  comparative  loettiger 
or  the  rare  inflected  form  ttenigeret  :  mit  irenig  2RuBe  with  little  trouble,  mtt  geringeret 
SD?U^e  with  less  trouble.  On  the  other  hand,  the  uninflected  form  should  be  avoided 
in  the  positive  when  it  would  stand  before  an  adjective,  as  it  might  be  construed  as  an 
adverb  :  not  6r  »erifel)rt  mit  toenig  gebitbeten  £emn,  but  ©r  uerfeljrt  mit  toentflen 
-iperren  He  associates  with  few  educated  men. 


k.  tpelcf)  some,  strong  :  $a&en  <Ste  3u&r  —  SKitcfy  —  ©elb  —  Qfyfel?  3d) 
tya&ercelcfyen  —  irelcfye  —  rcelcfyeg  —  irelcfye.  It  serves  as  the  plural  of  ein  and 
is  also  used  instead  of  the  singular  of  ein  when  the  reference  is  to 
materials  ;  see  i.  e,  above,  also  134.  2.  Sometimes  with  the  definite 
article  :  3)  a  (au£  bem  SCBaffer)  ftnb  fte  (bie  ©Differ)  n?a§  un  ba  ^jaben  fte'n 
wtten  aBltrf  —  bie  rcelcfyen  wenigftenS,  bie  rce(d)en  aud;  nify  (M.  Dreyer's 
In  Behandlung,  i).  A  number  of  grammarians  are  unfriendly  to 
this  word,  but  they  are  not  supported  by  actual  usage  :  SBenn  bie 
$ferbtf;en  nicfyt  ©efcfycifte  ^aben,  (o  incite  id;  33dterd;ett  \vofy  Bitten,  bajj  er 
iceld;e  jii  tyeut  ufcer  adjt  3!age,  27.  frii^  nad>  <Sd}Iatre  ober  @tolj  fcfyirfte 
(Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Oct.  21,  1850).  llnanfecfytfcare  SSJa^r^eiten  gibt  eg 
uberi)au)3t  nid^t,  unb  trenn  eg  rceld^e  gibt,  fo  ftnb  fte  langroeilig  (Fontane's 
Stech/in,  chap.  i).  If9ftofen!"  ,,2)ag  ftnb  nunbefhng  fitr  fiinfjig  3}Jarf 
tteld^e/1  nteinte  2Warie,  ,,fo  ein  «§aufen!"  (H.  Bohlau's  Adam  urid  Eva, 
chap.  vi).  The  examples  could  be  indefinitely  increased,  as  the 
word  is  a  general  favorite  in  colloquial  language. 


140.  a. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 


183 


PRONOUNS. 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

140.  The  personal  pronouns  are :  id)  /,  bit  (familiar  form)  thou 
or  you,  @ie  (polite  form)  you,  er  he,  fte  she,  e3  *'/.  These  are  declined 
as  follows : 

Singular. 


First  Person 
(for  all  Genders). 


Second  Person 

(for  all  Genders). 
Familiar.    Polite  (see  a). 


Third  Person. 

Masc.        Fern.  Neut. 


N. 
G. 

D. 
A. 


N. 
G. 

D. 
A. 


id; 

meiner 

(mein) 

mtr 

mid) 


n;ir 

unfer 

unf(e)rer 

unS 

unS 


bu 

beiner 

(cein) 

bir 

bid) 


euer 
eu(e)rer 
eud; 
eud; 


<3te 


31)nen 


Plural. 


S^rer 


er 

feiner 
(fein) 


f?e 


fie 


feirter 


For  all  Genders. 

fie 

•  OW 
ilprcr 
tfynen 
fte 


a.  The  polite  form  of  the  second  person  is  in  reality  only  the 
capitalized  forms  of  the  3rd  person  pi.  The  pi.  is  exactly  like  the 
sing.  This  form  is  now  used  in  all  ordinary  intercourse  between 
people  except  in  the  familiar  language  of  close  friendship.  Although 
it  is  so  common  in  actual  life,  it  is  almost  unknown  in  poetic  lan- 
guage and  higher  diction  generally,  as  the  air  of  conventionality 
associated  with  it  ill  accords  with  the  spirit  of  poetry. 

The  familiar  form  bit  in  the  sing,  and  ifjr  in  the  pi.  is  used  towards 
animals,  children,  and  friends,  also  quite  commonly  in  lyrical  poetry 
and  in  the  solemn  language  of  the  Church  .and  prayer,  and  stating 
general  truths  not  directed  to  any  person  in  particular,  and  occa- 
sionally in  addressing  individuals  not  as  such,  but  as  a  class  in  an 
informal  and  general  way,  where  it  is  not  necessary  to  observe  the 
formalities  of  polite  society,  and  furthermore  in  polemical  treatises 
in  directing  words  directly  to  one's  opponent :  @age  inir,  mit  item  bit 
umgefyft  unb  id;  witt  bit  fagen,  irer  bit  fcift  (a  proverb  couched  in  familiar 
language,  since  the  address  is  to  no  person  in  particular).  Slfrer  bie 
4?emn  Sournaliften  fyafcen  9}er»en,  rcie  bie  Srauen.  5ltfe3  regt  eud)  aitf,  jebeS 
SBort,  bag  jemanb  gcgcn  eud;  fagt,  emport  eud; !  ©etyt  mit  (away  with  you), 
ifjr  feiD  empftnbltdje  ifeute  (Freytag's  Journalisten,  i,  i).  In  the  last 
three  sentences  the  speaker  addresses  in  a  general  way  several 
sharp  remarks  in  the  familiar  form  to  journalists  as  a  class,  but  he 
would  not  be  so  impolite  as  to  use  this  form  in  speaking  directly  to 


184  PRONOUNS  140.  a. 


any  one  person  or  a  definite  group  of  persons,  tfurjftcfytigiler  alter 
<5ctyuIIeJ)rer,  ucrf  nocfyertftcr  alter  ^ebanten,  ifl  bir  benn  mentals  bawrt  eine  ©pur 
ber  (£rfenntru3  aufgegangen,  baft  gerabe  ifyre  unerfd?6pflid?e  grucfytfcarfeit  ber 
grojjte  93orjug  ber  beutfcfyen  ©pracfye  ifl  ?  (the  reply  of  Dr.  Karl  Kaerger 
to  the  lamentations  of  Dr.  Gustav  Wustmann  over  the  decay  of  the 
German  language). 

Note.  The  Roman  and  Byzantine  emperors  spoke  of  themselves  in  their  official 
announcements  in  the  pi.  instead  of  the  sing.,  as  '  We  decree  '  instead  of  '  I  decree.' 
This  usage  was  imitated  by  German  kings,  bishops,  dukes,  &c.,  in  their  official  decrees, 
and  still  in  our  own  time  the  German  emperor  writes  (Oct.  28,  1893):  SBir  2Bilhehn, 
jjon  ©otteg  ©naben  beutfdjer  Jlaifer,  JWnig  Bon  SPreufien  ufn>.  Betorbnen  uf». 
A  person  of  high  rank  speaking  thus  of  himself  in  the  1st  person  pi.  must  use  the 
possessive  unfet  instead  of  ntein  :  ($3  ijl  un$  jii  Dljrm  gefommcn,  bafj  unfere  getreuen 
lieben  Untertanen  uf». 

In  the  ninth  century  such  persons  in  high  standing  who  thus  spoke  of  themselves  in 
the  1st  person  pi.  were  by  others  addressed  by  3  for  (2nd  pers.  pi.)  instead  of  the  2nd 
person  sing.  Later  all  persons  of  rank  or  even  of  good  standing  were  addressed  by  3fir, 
and  thus  Sifir  became  the  universal  polite  form  till  the  fourteenth  century.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  children  also  addressed  each  of  their  parents  by  3>{jt,  which  custom 
lingers  still  in  places  in  the  country:  SBater,  ba3  erfte  9tet3,  bag  (Slid)  aitf  (Surent 
•§etntn?fg  an  ben  Jput  ficpt,  bad  brecfot  fur  mid)  ab  (from  Grimm's  Marcheri). 

Within  the  period  between  the  fourteenth  and  the  sixteenth  century  a  new  form  of 
address  became  gradually  established  towards  persons  of  high  rank.  From  a  feeling  of 
hesitation  to  approach  them  directly  they  were  addressed  indirectly  by  their  pompous 
titles,  which  caused  the  verb  to  be  placed  in  the  jrd  person,  at  first  either  in  the 
singular  or  plural,  later  only  in  the  plural.  SBenn  (Slier  furfurfHtdje  ©nabe  gtaubte, 
fo  ir-iirbe  @ie  ©cttetf  £errlid)feit  fefcen  (Luther).  Jpaben  (Slier  furfttidje  2)urd)leiid)tigf  eit 
(£>lird)laild)tigfeit)  aildj  {yalfen?  (1594,  H.  J.  v.  Braunschweig).  As  in  the  preceding 
examples,  the  possessive  (Slier,  which  was  used  in  connection  with  the  old  polite  form 
of  address  Sfyr/  was  still  inconsistently  retained  in  connection  with  the  new  polite  form 
in  the  3rd  person,  but  the  new  possessive  3Jjr  referring  to  a  fern,  or  pi.  noun  in  the 
3rd  person  soon  sprang  up.  The  possessive  form  3>f)t  was  used  either  because  the 
title  to  which  reference  was  made  was  usually  fern.,  or  it  was  thought  that  the  pi. 
form  of  the  verb  which  was  so  often  used  with  these  titles  required  a  possessive  which 
referred  to  more  than  one.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the  uninflected  possessive  3r)r0 
sprang  up  to  vie  with  @uer  and  3Jjr.  See  also  138.  I.  a. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  direct  address  in  the  3rd  person,  so 
common  with  persons  of  rank,  began  to  be  used  also  in  polite  address  generally.  The 
titles  §evr  Mr.  and  §rau  Mrs.  were  used,  and  farther  on  in  the  same  sentence  or 
following  ones  replaced  by  the  pronouns  (5r  and  @ie.  Finally  £ert  and  5WU 
dropped  out,  and  dr  and  @ie  with  the  3rd  person  sing,  of  the  verb  were  used  in  direct 
address  :  SBcfiin  gefyt  (Sr?  Where  are  you  going?  (addressed  to  a  gentleman).  2BcI)tn 
Qefit  @ie?  (to  a  lady).  Frederic  the  Great  addressed  his  highest  officers  by  @r.  2»fjr 
was  the  next  polite  form,  and  bit  was  used  towards  friends  or  to  inferiors. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  a  new  polite*  address  arose,  which 
began  a  struggle  for  supremacy  with  the  polite  forms  (5r,  @ie,  and  3fjt  already  in 
use.  The  new  polite  form  was  (£ie,  the  3rd  person  pi.  instead  of  the  3rd  person  sing., 
thus  only  having  one  form  for  the  two  genders.  This  new  form  gained  the  final  victory 
somewhere  near  1740  and  became  firmly  fixed  by  the  rich  prose  literature  which 
sprang  up  at  this  time.  However,  (Sr,  @ie,  31JV,  bit  still  continued  to  be  used  with 
varying  shades  of  meaning.  Towards  the  third  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
<£ie  (with  the  verb  in  the  3rd  pers.  pi.)  was  the  very  polite  form  used  to  persons  of 
high  rank  or  position,  or  as  a  special  mark  of  respect.  Gr  and  <2>ie  (with  verb  in  3rd 
pers.  sing.)  were  the  ordinary  polite  forms  for  ordinary  people  not  well  acquainted, 
for  older  people  in  addressing  respectfully  those  younger,  for  those  in  higher  station 
in  addressing  in  respectful  tone  those  in  lower  station,  or  for  young  people  who  desired 
to  be  respectful  to  older  people  but  not  coldly  formal.  3f)r  was  still  less  formal,  and 
bit  with  its  pi.  ifir  was  used  towards  intimate  friends  or  towards  young  people.  This 
state  of  things  can  be  seen  in  Lessing's  play  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  and  continued 
over  into  the  nineteenth  century,  and  even  lingers  still  in  the  conservative  country 
districts,  as  can  be  seen  in  recent  authors  who  give  us  pictures  of  rural  life,  as  in 


140.  b.  PERSONAL   PRONOUNS  185 

Ludwig's  Der  Erbforstcr  and  Ebner-Eschenbach's  Die  Unverstandene  aufdem  Dorfe. 
The  student  must  remember,  however,  that  this  relation  of  <£ie,  3I)t,  and  (ft  to  each 
other  will  not  usually  be  found  in  the  more  stately  language  of  the  higher  forms  of  the 
dramatic  literature  of  this  period,  for  @ie  is  here  replaced  by  3f)t.  Thus  in  Goethe's 
Faust,  Margaret  addresses  her  neighbor  Martha  by  (fcie  (srd  sing,  fern.),  towards  whom 
she  desires  to  be  at  once  respectful  and  cordial,  while  she  addresses  Faust  at  first  by 
the  more  formal  and  dignified  3Ijr.  Martha  addresses  Margaret  by  the  familiar  bit, 
but  usually  uses  3fjr  to  the  stranger  Mephistopheles.  For  our  own  time  usage  is  given 
above.  (ft  and  (Ste  (with  verb  in  sing.),  once  so  polite,  have  sunk  in  rank  even  below 
3 for,  and  are  now  very  rarely  used  except  in  a  half-jesting  familiar  tone,  while  3fyt, 
which  was  promoted  to  use  in  poetry  and  elevated  discourse,  especially  in  the  more 
serious  dramas  of  the  classical  period  and  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  has 
been  relegated  to  use  among  peasants,  where  it  is  in  sections  still  employed  as  a  form 
of  address  to  avoid  the  too  familiar  bu  and  the  too  polite  @ie  (with  verb  in  pi.).  The 
polite  form  @ie  has  in  the  drama  of  our  day  in  large  measure  replaced  the  stately  3fjt 
of  the  classical  period,  as  the  language  of  the  drama  has  in  general  taken  on  to 
a  greater  extent  than  ever  before  the  form  and  tone  of  the  living  spoken  language.  In 
the  recent  dramas,  however,  that  are  of  a  high  ideal  character,  removed  from  the 
common  scenes  of  every  day,  the  traditions  of  the  classical  drama  are  faithfully 
preserved  and  the  stately  3f)t  prevails. 

For  the  peculiar  use  of  pronouns  in  over-polite  language,  seey,  below. 

b.  The  short  forms  for  the  gen.  sing,  are  now  rarely  found  except 
in  a  few  set  expressions  and  in  poetry.  Though  grammarians 
concede  that  the  long  forms  have  gained  the  victory  for  the 
gen.  sing.,  they  still  dispute  the  victory  of  all  the  long  forms 
except  ifyrer  for  the  pi.  Of  these  short  forms  if)r  (earlier  spelling 
jr.)  for  the  gen.  fern,  and  gen.  pi.  for  all  genders  is  now  (except 
occasionally  in  the  gen.  pi.  before  after,  as  in  3^r  after  ©lurfrriinfribe 
entpftng  id))  entirely  obsolete,  although  used  much  in  early  N.H.G., 
and  even  occurring  sometimes  in  poetry  up  to  our  own  time : 
£er  *§Srr  tcbarf  jr  (Matt.  xxi.  3).  S)a  ivurben  jr  fcciber  $Utgen  aujfgetfyan 
(Gen.  iii.  7).  Qlftein  \t  md)r  bie  <Seele  rcert,  jc  metyr  ber  £eufel  ityt  fcegeljrt 
(Uhland).  But  now  U;rer,  not  only  in  the  sing,  but  also  in  the  pi. : 
tijrer  better  5lugen.  Hence  it  is  only  natural  that  the  plural  gen.  of 
the  other  pronouns  often  assume  the  long  form  after  the  analogy 
of  iljrer.  In  spite  of  the  oft-repeated  protests  of  the  grammarians, 
these  forms  are  quite  common  in  every  style  of  literature :  3ct) 
erinnere  mid;  Surer  nicfyt  (Goethe's  Gotz,  3,  6).  D  meine  Sltern !  3Jtu§ 
id?  erft  jefct,  je§t  eurer  mid;  erinncrn !  (Grillparzer's  Sappho,  2,  i).  Jtein 
merfroiirbigerer  ©egenfafc  fya'tte  unferer  icarten  fonnen  (G.  Keller's  Nach- 
gelassene  Schriften,  223).  <£o  3fyr  (£ud)  nur  icacfer  ijaltet,  \  rcartet  (Surer 
nod;  ein  @tul)l  im  |  fyofycn  SRetcfySgertdjt  ju  SSe^Iar  (Scheffel's  Trompcter, 
zweites  Stuck).  @o  finb  Surer  gu  tiiel  (Frey tag's  Rittmeister,  chap.  iv). 
@o  mufj  id;  e3  tun  ftatt  eurer  (Fontane'sSc/iacA  von  Wuthenow,  chap.  iv). 
503  man  unferer  after  anftcfytig  untrbe  (id.,  Stechlin,  chap.  vi).  80  Iad;en 
rcir  eurer  (Raabe's^.lT.,  chap,  xxiii).  llnb  lapt  bieS  2?ett  ftatt  Surer  mid) 
fcefteigen  (M.  Greif's  Heinrich  der  Ltiwe,  2,  i).  SBir  mittjten  unferer 
^unbert  fein,  urn  ba§  Srforberltd;e  tun  jit  fonnen  (Suttner's  Die  Waffcn 
nieder!  Ill,  p.  270).  55 ie  Xafel  rcartet  Surer,  -§err  ^'ontg  (Wildenbruch's 
Konig  Heinrich,  1,9).  3a  ^onig,  um  unferer  after  rcittcn  (Sudermann's 
Tejat  3).  5)u  ^orft  ben  Subel  after  Srutjltnggjanger,  bie  unfrer  icarten  (Haupt- 
mann's  Versunkene  Glocke,  1.  1208).  93or  eurer  after  Qlugen  (Fulda's 
Talisman,  i,  9).  llnb  bann  rcare  and;  rco^t  mal  bie  3«t  gefommen,  bafi  bu 
bid;  unferer  flefdjamt  ^attefl  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XCI). 


186  PRONOUNS  140.  b. 

3e£t  ober  nie  fccbarf  idji  eurer  (H.  von  Hofmannsthal's  Die  Hochzeit  der 
Sobeide,  p.  97). 

In  Luther's  earlier  writings  the  old  dat.  pi.  3rd  pers.  jn  (M.H.G.  in) 
is  still  used.  The  weakened  form  en  is  still  found  in  the  language 
of  the  youthful  Goethe  :  3d?  iritt  'en  bte  2Burme  (now  SBurmer)  fcfyon  au3 
ber  0ta(e  jtefjn  (Urfaust,  p.  23).  This  weakened  form  is  still  in  use  in 
colloquial  language,  but  is  no  longer  written. 

The  lengthened  forms  meiner,  beiner,  feiner,  i^rer,  instead  of  older 
inein,  betn,  fein,  ifyr,  have  probably  arisen  under  the  influence  of  the 
ending  er  in  the  gen.  pi.  forms  unfer  and  euer.  The  modern  ending 
en  in  the  dat.  pi.  itynen  has  probably  been  added  to  older  if)n  under 
the  influence  of  the  dat.  pi.  ending  in  nouns  and  adjectives. 

c.  The  old  neut.  gen.  sing.  e8  is  still  found  in  a  few  set  expressions, 
but  is  in  fact  not  felt  as  a  genitive  :  3cfy  Inn  e3  iniibe  I  am  tired  of  it. 
Crr  nritt  e8  ntcfyt  SBort  fyafcen  He  will  not  acknowledge  it.     2)ann  initb  eg 
jcber  2)cmf  nriffen,  ttenn  $reupen6  Sftcgent  unb  $teiifjen3  <£eer  terett  ftnb 
(Raabe's  Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  xix).    This  eS  is  now  felt  as  a  nom. 
or  ace.,  and  this  false  conception  has  led  to  the  use  of  the  nom.  or 
ace.  of  other  words,  where  the  gen.  should  stand  :  @3  (gen.  construed 
as  nom.,  hence  also  bae)  nimmt  mtcfy  QBunber  It  surprises  me,  lit. 
wonderment  seizes  me  on  account  of  it.    (53  ftanb  alfo  rctrflicfy  fcfyltmnt; 
after  ba3  (ace.)  iroflte  er  nid?t  SEort  tyafan  (Spielhagen's  Freigeboren, 
p.  264).     3cfj  rceifj  bir  betne  (ace. ;   better  fitr  beine)  5«igebig!eit  gropen 
2)an(  (Alex.  Konig,  1001  Nacht,  II.  p.  15).     See  also  260.  3.  b,  and 
262.  II.  B.  b). 

d.  The  gen.  of  all  genders  and  numbers  in  composition  with  the 
prepositions  iregen  on  account  of,  voifanfor  the  sake  of,  fjaI6en  (or  fyalfc) 
on  account  of,  change  the  last  letter  of  their  long  forms  to  t: 
meineticegen  on  my  account,  for  all  I  care ;  meinetrriflen  for  my  sake ; 
nietnetfyalbeu  on  my  account ;  betnetiregen,  &c. 

Note  I.  This  is  only  a  convenient  way  of  stating  this  rule,  for  ct  in  metttet,  betnet, 
&c.  is  in  reality  not  the  gen.  ending  of  the  personal  pronouns  at  all,  but  the  corrupted 
form  of  a  possessive  adj.  In  compounds  with  tyalben  (sometimes  contracted  to  Ijalb) 
and  tvegett,  the  second  element  is  in  reality  a  noun  in  the  dat.  pi.,  used  adverbially  (see 
223.  1.  10.  c),  the  first  element  is  the  modifying  possessive:  tneinen  Ijalbett,  lit.  upon 
my  sides  (i.  e.  account),  or  tneilteit  hJegert.  The  compounds  with  ttnflen  are  in  reality 
in  the  ace.  sing,  governed  by  the  .prep,  um :  (itm)  if)re(n)ttoif(en  =  Itm  iljtett  SBtHen  (still 
in  this  form  in  Luther's  Bible,  Gen.  xii.  16).  In  all  these  cases  an  excrescent  t  has 
forced  its  way  into  the  words  after  the  n  of  the  possessive,  followed  by  the  dropping 
of  n.  However,  by  popular  conception  these  possessives  are  construed  as  the  genitive 
of  the  personal  pronouns,  and  indeed  often  the  real  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns 
can  be  heard:  2Begen  ttteinet  Iie3!  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  i)  Read  for 
all  I  care !  The  genitive  forms  are  the  rule  when  the  pronoun  is  separated  from  the 
preposition  by  several  words :  meiner  felbjl  unb  bemetwegen,  beiner  unb  ber  aflutter. 
wegen. 

Note  2.  Instead  of  the  ending  ;et  or  ;er  we  often  find  ;3  in  colloquial  language  after 
the  analogy  of  the  genitive  of  nouns  in  such  expressions  as  (Redjtg  fyalben,  ©efunbljeitg; 
icegen :  2Wein^l)albett  rebet  bod),  tt>a$  iljr  tooflt  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  i). 
SWein3t»egen  (ib.;  also  Hirschfeld's  Agnes  Jordan,  Act  3).  We  sometimes  find  the 
double  ending  tS  :  inein 'tgtoegett  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap.  xiii). 

e.  On  account  of  the  enclitic  or  proclitic  nature  of  the  personal 
pronouns   they   often    in    colloquial   language    suffer    aphaeresis, 
syncope,  or  a  shortening  of  the  vowel.     If  monosyllabic  the  initial 


141.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  187 

vowel,  if  disyllabic  the  unaccented  e,  may  drop  out,  as  in  the 
following  examples  taken  from  Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen: 
Unb  ber  Suttee .  .  .  na  ja !  £)em  gifct  man  feinc  2Wild?;  man  fyalt'n  (for  if)n) 
fauter  .  .  .  afcer  bag  fanu  'nc  2)Jagb  aucfy  madjen,  unb  fpdter  .  .  .  fpdter  fann 
id?'m  (for  ifym)  bod)  nidjtg  metyr  fcieten.  3d)  muf?  3fyn'n  fagen.  3d?  f)a6'3 
(for  eg)  fd)on  lange  fcemerf  t.  The  one  form  '3  (for  ee)  is  now  common 
even  in  the  literary  form  of  speech.  In  colloquial  language  un- 
accented @ie  often  becomes  @e  (s0). 

Note.  In  dialect  the  personal  pronouns  are  often  curiously  deformed,  as  in  the 
following :  tnir  (for  Itir),  arising  from  assimilation  to  the  final  consonant  of  the 
preceding  verb,  as  in  fyabm  tnir  (for  fyaben  ttrir) ;  bit  (or  ber)  or  tit  (or  ter)  =  iljr, 
arising  from  such  forms  as  fei  bit  (for  feib  iJjr)  ;  n3  (for  fie),  from  such  forms  as  JjabnS 
(for  fyaben  fie). 

f.  In  over-polite  language,  when  the  address  is  to  a  superior, 
the  direct  form  @ie  is  avoided  in  the  first  instance  and  the  title  in 
the  third  person  used  instead.     Later  on  in  the  sentence  when  the 
same  person  is  again  addressed,  the  third  person  pi.  form  of  the 
personal  pronoun  is  used  and  also  the  possessive  corresponding  to 
this  form,  both  pronoun  and  possessive,  however,  being  written 
with  a  capital  letter  to  indicate  direct  address  :  2) em  Jtarl  mup  man 
gut  few,  ber  ift  fo  alert,  nne  ica§,  «§err  5lmt3rat  rcerben  3^re  Sreube  tyafcen 
(Arnold).      SWein  «§erj  iretSfagt,  @n>.  S)urc^Iau(^t  Jcerben  bie  @r^)altung 
uteineS  iJetenS,  bag  ganj  3^nen  gefyiirt,  nid?t  »erfd)ntd^en,  itnb  mid;  in  ber 
$erne  alg  3bren  un»erdu§ertcn  llntertanen  ietradjten  wotten  (J.  H.  Voss). 
In  early  N.H.G.,  however,  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person  sing, 
could  also  be  used  here,  as  the  verb  could  also  be  in  the  sing,  (see 
Note  under  a,  above) :  3)a  nun  @re.  f itrfurfllicfye  ©nabe  fcegefyrt  ju  roijfen, 
Jvag  <Sie  tun  fott  in  btefer  ©adje,  jumal  @ie  meint,  @ie  ^afce  »iel  $u  icenig 
getan,  fo  anttrorte  id)  imtertama,,  @ic.  furfurfiltd;e  ©naben  tyat  fdjon  atlguijtet 
getan,  unb  fodte  gar  nid;t3  tun  (Luther). 

When  the  person  is  spoken  of  in  the  third  person,  the  third 
person  pi.  form  of  the  pronoun  is  now  also  used  here,  but  is 
written  with  a  small  letter :  £>er  <§err  Staler  lafjen  fid)  empfefyten,  unb 
fte  jvurbcn  ant  ©onntag  j;um  2)iner  erfdjeinen  (report  of  a  servant  to 
his  mistress  in  Wildenbruch's  Eifernde  Liebe,  chap,  vi)  The  artist 
sends  his  compliments  and  begs  to  say  that  it  will  give  him  great 
pleasure  to  dine  with  you  on  Sunday. 

g.  In  Gothic  the  personal  pronouns  have  a  dual,  i.  e.  a  form  used   in 
addressing  two   persons.      Later  the  dual   disappeared  from   the   literary 
language,  and  the  plural  assumed   its  office  in  addition   to   its   own.      In 
Bavarian  and  Austrian  dialects,  however,  the  dual  forms  for  the  second 
person,  e3  or  c$,  enfer,  enf,  enf,  replaced  the  plural  forms  ihr,  eucr,  eucfy,  eud),  and 
are  still  generally  used,  filling  the  office  of  both  dual  and  plural :  UmfeJjren 
fount's  (for  fennt  eS  =  fount  ifyr),  fHcfj  ber  SSote  hervor.     9lu$  iji'S.     2)er  ?Inbert 
(name)  (aft  fagen  :    2Jhr  (for  l»ir ;  see  e.  Note]  braud)en  enf  nid^t  (Rosegger). 
From  the  frequent  contraction  of  the  verb  with  the  following  dual  has  arisen 
the  idea  that  the  2nd  pers.  pi.  ending  of  the  indie,  and  imper.  is  t£  :  £)3  Jung' 
SJeut'  fcnnta  freilid)  nur  'n  luftigen   <SteinHopferl)ann(5   (Anzengruber's  Kreuzel- 
schreiber,  3,  i).    ©efyts  je^t,  ^inber,  gefyts  ein  njenig  in  ben  £of  'naus  (Raimund's 
Der  Verschwender,  3,  7). 

141.  Personal  pronouns  have  a  much  narrower  range  of  useful- 
ness in  German  than  in  English.  The  lack  of  accent  and  other 


188  PRONOUNS  141. 

defects  cause  them  very  often  to  be  replaced  by  heavier  or  more 
explicit  forms. 

1.  When  the  third  person  is  emphasized,  the  demon,  ber,  tie,  bag 
very  often  takes  the  place  of  the  personal  pronoun  :  2>itt  bent  fann  man 
ntcfytg  macfyen  You  can't  do  anything  with  him.     llnb  ein  «§ut,  em  >§ut ! 
2>iit  bem  gtng  ict;  ntcfyt  in  ber  9Sii|te  (Sahara  urn  2)ittternacfyt  What  a  hat ! 
I  wouldn't  wear  it  in  the  desert  of  Sahara  at  midnight. 

2.  The  gen.  sing,  and  pi.  of  pronouns  representing  things  is 
regularly  replaced  by  the  demon,  genitives  beffen,  beren,  or  begfelfcen, 
berfelfren:   23e§alte  bein  ©elo;  ict;  fcebarf  beffen  nicfyt  Keep  your  money; 
I  am  not  in  need  of  it.     <Spare  bie  SBorte ;  e§  ftnb  beren  genug  geirecfyfelt 
Save  your  words;    enough  of  them  have  already  been  spoken. 
<5ie,  tro§  etneS  languiffanten  3uge3,  ober  fctefleicfyt  auct;  unt  begfelben  iritten, 
etne  ©cfyontjett  er|len  Otangeg  (Fontane's  Ce'cile,  chap.  ix). 

Note.  The  partitive  gen.  of  personal  pronouns  representing  either  persons  or  things 
may  often  be  replaced  in  the  3rd  person  not  only  by  the  gen.  of  ber  or  berfelbe,  but  also 
by  the  dat.  of  the  personal  pronoun  after  the  pren.  son  in  case  of  persons  and  the 
adverbial  compound  of  the  prep,  with  the  demon,  ba  (see  5  below)  in  case  of  things : 
Stele  berfelben,  bcven  siele  many  of  them  (persons  or  things  according  to  the  context), 
fedjg  Son  ihlten  six  (persons)  of  them,  fed)g  bason  six  (things)  of  them.  The  dat.  after 
Son  may  also  replace  the  gen.  of  the  first  and  second  persons  :  fecKjS  Son  UH3.  Some- 
times the  prep,  untet  is  used  instead  of  son :  toeldjer  unter  end)  which  of  you,  who 
among  you. 

3.  The  gen.  of  a  pronoun  which  represents  a  thing  and  depends 
upon  a  noun  preceded  by  the  indefinite  article  or  a  pronominal 
adjective  is  usually  replaced  by  the  gen.  of  berfel&e,  not  by  the  gen. 
of  ber :    (53  fctieb  nicr;t3  nfcrig  at3  ben  3?art  afyufcfyneiben ;    babel  ging  ein 
fleiner  £eil  beSfelben  (of  it)  oerloren  (Marchen).     3rcifd?en  meiner  le^ten 
<§etmfel)r  ing  93aterJ)au§  unb  meinent  enbgultigen  33erlaffen  be§fel6en(Raabe). 
In  case  of  a  reference  to  an  amount  we  may  also  use  an  adverbial 
compound  here :  @r  tyatte  bie  son  $lnna  ifym  mttgegefcenen  SBrotf^nttte  au3 
feincr  3ai3ttafc^e  genontnien ;  a6er  er  ap  nitr  einen  fleinen  $etl  ba»on  (Storm's 
Schweigeri). 

4.  The  simple  dative  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns  are  not 
freely  used  with  reference  to  things,  but  nevertheless  occur  in 
limited  measure:  £>te  Unterne^muni\en  nteineS  SBufeng  ftnb  jit  grop,  nig 
bap  bu  i^nen  int  SSege  ftefjen  fottteil  (Goethe's  Gotz,  4,  4).     S3eibe  Iie6ten 
bag  Sintmer,  unb  gaben  i^in  auf  Jloften  after  anfcern  ben  543orjug  (Fontane's 
Schach  von  Wuthenow,  IV).     The  dat.  forms  ifytn,  i^r,  t^nen  are  so 
thoroughly  identified  with  persons  that  they  are  in  general  avoided 
in  reference  to  things.     It  seems  that  present  usage  prefers  here 
the  dat.  of  berfel&e :  ^erfucfye,  ben  93eretn  ju  fcerfolgen,  irerben  bemfelfcen  nur 
neueS  5Sadj8tum  t»erletl)en.    2)ur(^  «§o^e  ber  ©eMube  fuc^te  man  jit  erfefcen, 
rca§  benfelfcen  an  93reite  unb  Jtiefe  abgtng. 

The  dat.  bent  is  usually  used  with  reference  to  the  thought  of 
a  preceding  clause  or  sentence:  2>a3  frraulein  tat  einen  affeftierten 
(Secret  unb  nnct;  ^ururf.  3oact)im  f^enfte  bent  fetne  SSeac^tung,  fonbern  fagte 
6Io§,  &c.  (Harriot's  Der geistliche  Tod,  chap,  xviii). 

5.  A.  The  dat.  and  ace.  of  the  personal  pronouns  of  all  genders 
and  numbers,  when  they  represent  things,  are  not  usually  used  after 
prepositions,  but  are  replaced  by  an  adverbial  compound  formed 


141. 5-  A.  c.  PERSONAL   PRONOUNS  189 

by  appending  the  prep,  to  the  demon,  adverb  ba  (before  consonants 
except  in  case  of  barnacfy,  which  occurs  about  as  frequently  as  banacfy) 
or  bar  (before  a  vowel) :  «§ier  ift  etn  $tfcb  unb  b(a)rauf  (for  auf  ifem)  ifi  ein 
2?ud).  (£r  fain  »or  einc  £ur  unb  fiiejii  bage'cjen  (for  gegen  fie).  A :  (£r  tyatte 
mir  fcerfyroeben,  biefe  nncfytigen  23riefe  auf  bie  $oft  git  geben.  B :  SBentt 
Sfyneri  baran'  liegt,  unit  id)  bamit'  (with  them)  ijtna/foen.  (Seine 
rcaren  utalt,  after  er  lub  taglid)  jemanben  ein,  barauf  gu  ftfcen  (Goethe). 

In  colloquial  language  these  adverbial  compounds  may  in  a  few 
cases  be  used  with  reference  to  bag  2J?abcben,  and  hence  in  this  one 
instance  may  refer  to  persons  :  9lcimttd)  ber  junge  SWenfd)  ...  in  unferer 
©efdjidjt&rjaijlttng  frtegt  fetn  SKdbc&en  ebenfaflg,  unb  roivb  fo  glitrflid)  bantit 
alS  nioglid)  (Raabe's  Gutmanns  Reisen,  Intr.). 

The  one  preposition  in  is  changed  to  ein  in  these  compounds  to 
express  the  ace.  relation  (223. 1. 9) :  2Ber  onbern  eine  ©rufce  grdfct, 
faUt  felbjt  b(a)rein'  Who  digs  a  pitfall  for  others  may  fall  into  it  himself t 
but  3  ft  er  im  £aufe?  Stein,  er  ift  nicfyt  b(a)rin. 

Sometimes  another  adverb  can  be  used  instead  of  ba :  (Snbltd) 
fanbcn  icir  bag  3i»tnw  unb  gingen  ^inein. 

In  connection  with  the  rule  for  the  use  of  these  adverbial 
compounds  study  carefully  e  and  B,  below,  where  exceptions  to 
the  rule  are  given.  The  literary  language  of  our  time  is  not  in 
general  favorable  to  adverbial  compounds  as  substitutes  for  pro- 
nouns, and  the  rule  is  not  so  broad  and  not  so  uniformly  followed 
as  the  grammarians  represent.  See  also  153.  2.  A. 

a.  This  same  construction  is  used  when  the   reference  is  to  persons,  if 
they  are  taken  collectively :    93iele  J?na6en  tvaren  ba,  aber  SSit^etm  irar  nidjt 
banm'ter  Many  boys  were  there,  but  William  was  not  among  them,  or  in  the 
crowd. 

It  is  also  used  with  reference  to  words  representing  persons  where  the 
reference  is  more  to  the  abstract  idea  contained  in  the  word  than  to  an 
individual :  fatten  fie  fcinen  J?aifer  ?  Siebe  SKW  !  dr  tji  nuv  ber  ©fatten  bawn 
(Goethe's  Gotz,  4,  4)  He  is  only  the  shadow  of  one. 

b.  In  the  preceding  compounds  the  accent  rests  upon  the  vowel  of  the 
preposition,  and  hence  the  vowel  of  the  preceding  adverb  being  slighted  is 
often  entirely  suppressed.    By  shifting  the  accent  from  the  preposition  to  the 
adverb  ba  a  new  point  of  view  is  gained.     In  ba(r),  which  is  of  the  same 
origin  as  the  demonstrative  bcr,  the  demonstrative  force  becomes  strong  with 
the  aid  of  the  accent,  and  the  attention  is  called  to  the  place  or  all  the 
attendant  circumstances:  nicfyt  ba'tmrd),  (jtct'bimJ)  not  through  that  entrance, 
but  through  this.    55ar'an  erfenn(e)  id)  ifyn  By  that  very  thing  I  recognize  him. 
3Ba3  cr  eittmal  fagt,  ba'bei  bleibt  er.     Often  doubled,  especially  in  popular  lan- 
guage :  3>a'btin,  nidjt  fyiet'bttn. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  demonstrative  adverb  ba  was  here  not  so  closely 
united  with  the  preposition  as  now,  but  could  be  separated  from  it  by  several  words, 
and  so  occasionally  even  later  in  the  classical  period :  3)a  foil  e$  bet  bletbeit  (Luther). 
!Da  befyiite  mid)  ®ott  »cr  (Goethe).  In  popular  speech  this  usage  is  still  common: 
$5a  Utuj}  ein  80$  in  fetn  (Jensen's  Schatzsucher,  p.  266).  When  thus  separated  the  ba 
has  demonstrative  force,  and  hence  is  strongly  accented.  Where,  however,  the  demon- 
strative force  is  weak  the  ba  is  often  omitted  altogether  in  easy  colloquial  and  popular 
language :  Jpdngen  <Ste  ben  gangen  Jttampel  an  ben  SJtagel !  .komtnt  ja  bod)  ntd?t3  bet 
(=iabei)  'raiid!  (Halbe's  Die  Hcimatlosen,  p.  52). 

c.  £ter  +  preposition  has  often  pure  demonstrative  force,  being   equal  to 
btefcr  and  preposition,  and  hence  has  then  the  accent  and  cannot  be  con- 


190  PRONOUNS  141.  5.  A.  c. 

tracted:  £iet'in  fyaben  <£ie  redjt  In  this  respect  you  are  right.     The  accent, 
however,  is  placed  upon  the  preposition  if  the  demonstrative  force  is  weak. 

d.  Thus  we  see  in  b  and  c  that  the  demonstratives  bet  and"  biefet,  when 
they  refer  to  things,  are  replaced  after  prepositions  in  the  same  way  as  the 
personal  pronouns,  differing  from  the  latter  only  in  accent. 

e.  The  regular  pronominal  forms  are,   however,   often  preferred   to   the 
adverbial  compounds  in  all  grammatical  and  rhetorical  uses,  but  especially 
in  the  plural  (except  in  case  of  a  collective  idea)  and  where  a  thing  or  idea 
is  personified,  or  is  vividly  pictured  as  having  individual  force  or  life  :  (ft 
nafym  ciueu  S3ogen  ©djtetbpaptet,  bet  »ot  ibm  auf  bent  <pulte  lag,  unb  bcgaun  auf  ifym 
mit  bem  2Meiftift  allerfyanb  ©djnorfet  unb  Sltabegfen  ju  getdjnen  (Volkmann).    Un* 
mittelbat  fyintet  bem  $fattl)aufe,  fteigt  ber  Jtttcfyfyof  lefynan,  auf  ifjm  fo  giemlid)  in  fetnet 
3Jhtte  bie  ftiiljmittelalterltdje  gelbfteinfird^e  (Fontane's  Stechlin^  I.  p.  4).     Sfcben  bem 
3aun  abet,  in  gletdjet  Sinie  mit  tfi,m,  ftanb  eine  gtungeftticfyene  23anf  (ib.,  VII.  p.  105). 
£ieg  toarfete  itmwolbenbe  Sttmament,  bieg  majeflattfdje  SDadj,  mit  golbenem  geuet  au£; 
gelcgt  —  ttar  alleg  in  \\\  gutet  Drbnung,  alg  baft  toit  ung  audj  nur  ben  allergetingften 
*JHfi  butd)  eg  fatten  ttotfiellen  fonuen  (Raabe's  Alte  Nester,  I.  chap.  x).     9ldj, 
®ott,  Jta3  f>at  fte  »on  meinen  ©ebanfen  augfte^en  muJTen  !  unb  leas  bag  Sirgfte  ftar,  bag 
SIKerdrgfle  war  noc^  jurucf  unb  gtng  i^t  iibec  afleS  librige  ^tnaug,  bis  fie  fid)  auc^  in 
tg,  »ie  in  a((e  metnt  anberen  Unjlnnigleiten,  mit  gu  Siebe,  gefunben  ^atte  (ib.,  chap.  xiii). 
SSon  neuem  iwdtjte  eg  jtd)  son  af(en  (Seiten  ^et  gegen  bag  I)etjoglid)e  9ieitf)aug  ^eran 
unb  in  eg  fyinein  (id.,  Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  xv).     3n  bet  Qftttte  jlanb  cin 
gebedfter  £ifd)  unb  auf  tf)m  eine  Slnjafyl  ivbcner  Xe((et  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Ver- 
schollen).     3f>te  btauen  Slugen  iraren  stedetdjt  gu  ^e((,  abet  eg  lag  ©eele  in  ifjnen 
(G.  Ompteda).    3n  ©tta^burg  biibete  jtc^  jeneg  2eben  in  unb  mit  bet  SJiatitr,  jeneg 
©efii^t  bet  SSetfoanbtfdjaft,  beg  (Singfeing  mit  i^t  (personifying  nature)  bet  ©oetfje 
gn  bet  Jtraft  itnb  Xtefe  aug,  bie  itnt  in  fetnet  2)ic^tung  bet  nddjften  3at)te  alg  einen 
bebeutenben  ^ottfc^titt  gut  mobetnen  Stuffaffung  bet  9ktut  betcunbetn.    2)ie  35t<^tung 
tft  fetn  )jf)otogtap^tfc^et  9lppatat,  bet  Slutot  fommt  in  if>t  bo^  fietg  gum  a^otf^ein 
(Richard  Weissenfels). 

In  the  same  manner  we  often  find  the  adverbial  compound  fyter  +  preposi- 
tion replaced  by  a  preposition  followed  by  a  case  form  of  the  neuter  of  biefj  : 
S'iadf)  btefem  —  eg  roar  totebet  ein  @onnabenb  —  gtngen  Seunn  unb  Jpttfdjfelbt  in  bie  ^farte 
(Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturni,  IV.  chap,  xxvii).  The  adverbial  construction, 
however,  is  quite  uniformly  used  to  refer  to  a  verb,  or  to  the  thought  contained 
in  a  preceding  or  following  phrase  or  proposition,  also  to  refer  collectively 
to  things  already  mentioned  :  2Bitb  et  fommen  ?  3<fy  gtoeifle  batan.  3tbet  fage 
mit  bocfy,  ftagte  bie  SSetbe  ben  2)otnfttaud^,  loarum  bn  nadj  bm  ^leibern  bet  »cvbeis 
gefyenben  5Kenfd;en  fo  begtettg  btji.  SSBag  njidjl  bu  bamtt? 


B.  Not  all  prepositions  can,  as  in  A,  form  compounds  with  the 
demonstrative  ba,  but  this  construction  is  limited  to  an,  auf,  aitS, 
fcei,  burcfy,  fur,  gegen,  tytnter,  in,  mit,  nacfy,  nefon,  06,  o^ne  (only,  however,  in 
popular  language),  iibet,  unter,  urn,  »on,  &or,  iriber,  ju,  jjrctfcfyen.  In  case 
of  other  prepositions,  this  construction  is  replaced  by  others  : 

a.  The  preps,  fyatb  and  rcegen  are  appended  to  the  gen.  of  the 
demon,  pronoun  (see  129.  2.  A.  a)  :  behalf),  begroegen  on  account  of  it, 
therefore. 

b.  After  all  other  preps,  or  prep,  phrases  with  the  force  of  a  prep. 
the  personal  pronouns  are  usually  replaced  by  berfelbe  :   <S>te  icotlte 
ftd)  burd;  bag  ©elb  23orteile  »erfd)affen,  auf  bie  fte  cf)ne  bagfelbe  ntc^t  rec^nen 
ifonnte.     3n  meinem  britten  Sa^re  6eftel  mid?  eine  fd;irere  ^ranf^eit  unb  id) 
fclieb  in  jyolge  berfeI6en  an  atten  ©Itebern  gela^mt. 

Note.  We  often  find  betfetbe  even  after  prepositions  which  can  form  with  ba  the 
adverbial  compounds  described  in  A  :  SSnb  fcgnete  ben  ftebenben  £ag  »nb  I)ei(iget  jn  | 
tatumb  I  bag  et  an  bem  fetben  getugei  Ijatte  son  alien  feinen  SSerrfen  (Gen.  ii.  3). 


141.7-  PERSONAL   PRONOUNS  191 

SBcdjen  fpdter  Ijatte  er  bag  alte  £att3  im  geridjtlidjen  Slufgebct  gefauft  unb  fytelt  mit 
cincm  alten  ©efelten  unb  einer  nod)  dlteren  <Sd)tt>efter  feinen  Sinjug  in  basfelbe 
(Storm's  Botjer  BascK). 

The  use  of  berfelbe  is  especially  common  to  represent  a  noun  after  one  preposition 
in  instances  where  two  prepositions  which  take  different  cases  govern  one  noun  :  in 
bet  Jlivdje  unb  um  btefelbe  instead  of  the  incorrect  in  Itnb  lim  bie  Jlirdje.  In  case  of 
persons  the  personal  pronoun  should  be  used  instead  of  betfelbe :  mit  bem  33ater  unb 
efjne  tfjn.  Good  authors,  however,  often  disregard  these  rules  of  the  grammarians  and 
place  both  prepositions  before  the  noun,  which  is  then  governed  by  the  second  preposi- 
tion :  um  unb  neben  bcm  Jpodjaltare  (Goethe).  3fjre  £od)ter  unrb  meine  Sfwu  mit  ober 
gegen  3t)teit  SBtllen  (H.  Seidel's  Lang,  lang  tst's  her).  Sometimes  the  noun  is 
repeated  :  mtt  @ott  unb  bltrdj  ©ott  ( Andresen's  Sprachgebrauch,  p.  193).  Often  in  case 
of  a  pronominal  object :  2Ba$  in  iljttt  unb  um  tfyn  unb  fiber  tljm  ifl  (W.  Wackernagel). 

6.  Similar  to  the  distinction  between  fein,  Hjr  and  beffen,  beren 
(see  138. 2.  d]  is  the  difference  between  er,  ftc,  c§  and  berfelfce,  biefel&e, 
baSfelbe.  @r  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  preceding  sentence,  or  in 
a  complex  sentence  to  the  subject  of  the  main  clause,  while  berfel&e 
(or  biefer)  refers  to  some  oblique  case  in  the  preceding  sentence,  or 
in  a  complex  sentence  to  some  word  in  a  preceding  subordinate 
clause  or  infinitive  phrase,  be  it  a  nom.  or  an  oblique  case :  QJtein 
SBruber  ill  $u  fetnem  Sreunbe  gcgancjcn.  £)erfelfce  (or  bie(er)  will  c^tte  iljn 
ben  Jt auf  nictjt  abfdjlief  en  My  brother  has  gone  to  his  friend's.  The 
latter  will  not  close  the  bargain  without  him.  $agtaglicfy  ritt  er 
(®raf  9Beuft)  auS  auf  feinem  Befaunten  <Sd)immeI,  tt§  berfeI6e  (i.e.  tier 
©c^immel)  in  $artg  an  5llter8f(^trac^e  ftarB.  2)er  J^naBc  rcottte  nici^t  fagen, 
bap  ber  «§unb  i^n  ge&iffen  ^atte,  bamit  man  ben(eI6en  (i.  e.  ben  «§unb)  nic^t 
fcfylagen  modjte. 

The  personal  pronoun  should,  however,  always  be  used  in  all 
the  above  cases  instead  of  berfelbe  or  biefer,  if  no  ambiguity  would 
arise  therefrom :  2>te  2)iplomaten  forberten  bie  23olfer  auf,  bemiittg  ®ott 
311  preifen  unb  i^ni  So6  $u  ftngen  (Raabe). 

a.  The  oblique  cases  of  either  cr  or  berfefbe  may  refer  to  an  oblique  case  in 
the  preceding  sentence:   SJZetn  93ruber  ift  ju  feinem  greunbe  gegaugen.     ®c  ttiiU 
bann  mit  tf>m  (now  more  common  than  bcmfetben  or  biefem)  in  bie  (Stabt  gefjen. 
In  case,  however,  the  reference  is  to  a  thing,  berfelbe  is  quite  common :  SDurd) 
•£>or;e  bet  ©ebdube  fud)te  man  ju  erfe^en,  u>a<5  benfelben  an  Srette  unb  Xtefe  abging.    2)ie 
^ronomina  bemon^ratba  bejeid)nen  cinen  ©egenfiaub  baburd),  bap  jte  auf  benfelben 
fyintoeifen.    Always  so  in  case  of  a  gen.  which  points  back  to  some  definite 
thing  and  depends  upon  a  noun  modified  by  an  article  or  pronominal  adj. : 
!Die  fjeittigen  SKunbartcn  fyabcn  bie  ©cttuiuj  be^  $pvatetitum$  nod)  weiter  etngcfd)ranft : 
nmte  ©ebiete  ^aben  ben  3nbtfati»  benfelben  aud)  aid  gorm  bee  tinfadjen  ©rjdfjhtng 
ganj  ober  teilwetfe  eingebuf  t  (Behagel's  Die  deutsche  Spracke,  p.  324,  2nd  ed.). 

b.  If  there  are  two  substantives  in  a  sentence  besides  the  subject,  both  of 
which  are  referred  to  in  a  following  sentence  or  clause,  it  is  often  best  to 
represent  the  one  which  in  the  following  sentence  or  clause  must  be  in  the 
nom.  by  biefer  and  the  other  one  by  berfelbe :  35cr  4?err  nafym  bem  S3ebienten  bag 
©elb  hnebct  ab,  al<$  biefer  il)tn  batffelbe  gcflclilcn  Ijatte,  or  a($  u)m  biefe$  con  bemfelben 
geftol^len  itotben  h?ar.      It  is  best  to  avoid  such  clumsy  sentences  wherever 
ambiguity  would  not  arise,  and  use  the  simple  personal  pronoun  for  reference 
to  persons :  3d)  ucljme  metnen  Jtinbetn  alle  sMdjer  ab,  fobalb  jte  ftlbe  uidjt  me^r 
braudjcn  (Rosegger). 

7.  In  general  bcrfclfce  is  used  instead  of  a  personal  pronoun  for 
sake  of  euphony  or  harmony.  The  following  cases  of  this  use 
occur  not  infrequently. 


192  PRONOUNS  141. 7.  a. 

a.  To  prevent  two  fte's,  or  a  @ie  and  a  fte  from  coming  together : 
3ct)  titte  um  bie  Settling,  vcenn  <2ie  biefelbe  gelefen  tjafcen.     Many  good 
stylists,  however,  do  not  feel  the  repetition  of  fie  as  harsh :  ^nna 
GUfafcetty  .  .  .  fafjte  begrcegeu  Dnfel  ^arreg  9lnbeutungen  einerfeit3  ernflcr 
anf  alg  doa,  anberfettS  fceitrteilte  fte  fte  ireniger  flreng  al3  ber  ©ropoater 
(R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxi). 

b.  £)erfel6e  is  often  used  in  a  comprehensive  sense  to  refer  to 
some  preceding  word  with  all  its  modifiers,  as  it  is  felt  as  a  more 
appropriate  form  than  the  light  personal  pronouns  to  represent 
a  weighty  expression   or   a  heavy  combination  of  words :    jtmt 
tdgttcfyen  llmgang  icacferer  £eute  forcotyl  al3   jur  93rteftrecfy8umg  jroifdjen 
benfel&en.    2)a3  ©rfcfyeinen  ber  SSorterfcucfter  Don  J!Iuge  itnb  «§e!?ne  fonnte 
mid)  nidjt  Don  nieinem  33or^a6en  (intention  to  publish  a  dictionary) 
aftfrringen,  ba  biefel&en  (i.  e.  bie  SBortet&iicfyer  ttoit  JtiuAe  unb  §ei^ne)  in  ifyrer 
Qtnlage  ganj  oerfdjieben  Don  bem  meinigen  ftnb (Paul's  Worterbuch,  Preface). 

8.  In  early  N.  H.G.,  berfel&e,  aside  from  its  primary  meaning  the 
same,  was   often   employed    as  a  pure   demonstrative  or  deter- 
minative =  ber  or  berjenige.    See  132.  i.  B.  a.     The  word  gradually 
extended  its  boundaries  so  that  it  included  the  meanings  of  ber  and 
er  (fie,  eg).     The  older  use  as  a  pure  demonstrative  or  determinative 
has  in  large  measure  disappeared,  but  its  use  instead  of  the  per- 
sonal pronouns   has  increased  so  that  it  is  often  used  without 
reason  where  a  personal  pronoun  would  be  simpler  and  better : 
•ftleinigfelten,  bie  er  Don  2ftarianen  erfyalten  ober  berfelfcen  (=  ifyr)  geraiifct 
tyatte  (Goethe).    2)er  $rinj  Jtarl  ifl  Don  feinem  llmto^Ifein  fo  roeit  rcieber 
^ergefieflt,  bafj   berfel&e  (=  er)  nicfyt  me^r  ba§  93ctt  311  tyuten  genotigt  ifl 
(Ktilnische  Zeitung).      At   the    present    time    grammarians    quite 
generally  censure  this  free  use  of  berfelfce,  and  urge  that  the  simple 
forms  ber  and  er  be  used  where  it  is  possible.     The  best  usage  of 
our  time  has  been  given  in  the  preceding  articles. 

9.  Except  after  prepositions  the  uninflected  e3  has,  differing  from 
other  personal  pronouns,  a  wide  field  of  usefulness.     It  is  used  : 

a.  Like  bteS  (128.  A.  a)  to  express  identity :  d3  ijit  eine  fcfyone  93Iume. 
G§  (they)  ftnb  fdjone  95Iiimcn.    6inb  e§  (they)  Styre  ^tnber  ?    (S3  ifl  metn 
SBruber. 

b.  As  object  in  various   constructions,   especially  referring  to 
some  fact  or  thing  already  mentioned  or  more  or  less  understood, 
or  to  a  condition  of  things :  2ftarie  ifl  fyter.     3ct;  rcetfj  e3.     3cfy  fann  eS 
litest  Idnger  mit  cinfe^en.     3d?  ^ielt  e8  enblirf)  ntdjt  Idnger  auS.     @r  fcringt 
e3  rceit  He  is  getting  along  in  the  world,     aftacfycn  @ie  ftdj'3  tequem 
Make  yourself  comfortable.     <5r  inac^t  e§  ju  arg  He  carries  things 
too  far.     @r  Idfjt  e8  ge^en,  roie'S  ©ott  gefdllt  He  lets  things  go  as  it 
pleases  God. 

c.  As  a  predicate,  representing  an  idea  already  expressed ;  see 
129.  2.  C.  (4). 

d.  As  a  grammatical  and  anticipative  subject ;  see  251. 1.  2.  A 
and  B,  and  I  I.E. 

e.  As  an  anticipative  object ;  see  185.  A.  I.  3  and  272.  C.  a. 

f.  As  indefinite  subject  in  the  various  impersonal  constructions 
described  in  219. 


142.  2.  c.  REFLEXIVE   PRONOUNS  193 

REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS. 
(Compare  with  218.) 

142.  i.  A  personal  pronoun  can  also  show  that  the  action  which 
goes  forth  from  the  subject  bends  back  upon  that  subject,  and  is  then 
called  a  reflexive  pronoun  :  3d?  loOe  tnicjj  I  praise  myself.  Special 
pronominal  forms  to  show  this  reflexive  action  are  wanting  except 
in  the  third  person,  where  fid?  himself,  herself,  itself,  themselves  is 
used  for  all  genders  and  both  numbers  and  for  both  dat.  and  ace.  : 
cr  lofrt  ftcfy  ;  fte  lofct  flcfy  ;  fte  lofcen  ftcfy  they  praise  themselves  ;  cr  fyricfyt 
hunter  mtr  t»ou  ftd;  ;  fte  fprtcfyt  winter  nur  »on  fid;,  &c.  For  the  gen.  of  the 
third  person  and  the  gen.,  dat.,  and  ace.  of  the  first  and  second 
persons,  the  reflexives  are  identical  in  form  with  the  personal 
pronouns  :  bu  lofcft  bid)  ;  n?ir  lofcett  tm§  ;  ifyr  Io6t  eudj,  &c.  The 
reflexive  by  its  very  nature  has  no  nom.,  as  it  is  always  an  object, 
either  of  a  verb  or  a  prep.,  or  dependent  upon  some  adjective. 
Reflexive  verbs  in  German  usually  take  an  ace.  object,  but  certain 
verbs,  contrary  to  the  English  idiom,  take  an  object  in  the  dat.  or 
gen.  :  £)u  lobft  bid;,  but  bu  fyottefl  beiner,  bu  fd)iueid)elft  bir.  To  the  gen. 
of  the  third  person  the  indeclinable  felbft  is  usually  added,  or  other- 
wise it  is  ambiguous  :  @r  fpottet  fetuer  felfcft.  Without  felbfi  it  would 
mean,  He  is  ridiculing  him  (some  one  else),  but  with  fetbft  himself. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  there  was  no  dative  of  the  reflexive,  its  place  being 
supplied  by  the  dative  of  the  personal  pronoun,  which  usage  occasionally 
occurs  as  late  as  the  classical  period,  and  in  popular  language  is  still  found  : 
SBer  fid)  JtnaK  unb  §a((,  ifym  (=  ficfy)  felbft  ju  Icbeu,  nicfyt  entfcfylicjjeu  faun,  ber  lebet 
aubvcr  ©flaw  auf  ittrmet  (Lessing's  Nathan,  2,  9). 

b.  In  dialect  ftd)  is  often  used  also  with  reference  to  a  pronoun  in  the  first 
or  second  person  :  SBcil  tmr  un3  fcfycuen,  ba3  jRcb'  gu  I)abcn,  ixxiS  »ir  uu<5  ci^cntlt^ 
git  [a^cn  fatten  unb  tooritbcr  itir  fidj  au^reben  foUten  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck, 
chap,  xviii). 

2.  A.  The  reflexive  usually  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  propo- 
sition in  which  it  stands.  The  Germans  also  use  a  reflexive  of  the 
third  person  after  prepositions  if  the  reference  is  to  the  subject, 
while  in  English  a  personal  pronoun  is  used  :  @r  (fte)  fyat  ®elb  tei  jtcty 
He  -(she)  has  money  with  him  (her). 

a.  In  prepositional  phrases  modifying  a  noun  a  personal  pronoun  of  the 
third  person  must  be  used  according  to  C  if  the  phrase  is  equivalent  to  a 
subordinate  clause  and  the  reference  is  to  the  subject  of  the  principal 
proposition  :  IDietfyelm  traf  bie  SSriibcr  mitt  fit  im  (Sefprad)  iibcr  tt)tt 
(Auerbach)  [=  a(3  jte  ubcr  itjn  fprad)cn],  but  3U(e  UngHfrtcbenfwt  fceS  SftcnfdKit  tjt 
fctncd  a»i&erfv«itf)«  mit  ftc^>  fclbft  (Thummel)  [=  grudjt  bed 
^  beit  «r  mit  ficfy  fclbj^  finbet]. 


B.  If  there  is  a  reference  in  the  subordinate  clause  to  the  subject 
of  the  principal  proposition,  a  personal  pronoun  should  be  used  : 
(?r  fcelobte  bie  <£olbatcu,  btc  fid?  gefyorfam  gc^jeu   ifyu  (referring  to  the 
subject  of  the  principal  proposition)  fcennefen  fatten. 

C.  In  participial,  adjective,  prepositional,  and  infinitive  construe* 
tions  which  have  the  force  of  a  subordinate  clause,  the  reflexive 


194  PRONOUNS  142. 2.0. 

refers  to  the  subject  of  the  contracted  clause  :  9Sir  erWitften  einen 
2tfann,  ber  fid?  fd?netl  entfernte.  SBir  erfclicften  einen  fid?  fd?hefl  entfernenben 
SKann.  SBir  Baten  U)n,  fid?  jit  entfernen.  <£oU  id;  bicfe  an  fid)  »cr= 
ftatt&Udje  9tc0el  (=  biefe  Olegel,  bie  an  fid?  tterfldnblid?  if})  uneberi)olen  ? 
If  there  is  a  reference  in  the  contracted  clause  to  the  subject  of  the 
principal  proposition,  a  personal  pronoun  must  of  course  be  used  : 
<£r  bat  unS,  if;n  jit  fcefud?en.  <Sie  trug  ein  U)r  fcotlfmnmen  df;nlid?e3  Jt  inb  auf 
bem  Qlrme. 

a.  If  there  is  no  jit  before  the  dependent  infinitive,  usage  makes 
distinctions : 

(1)  If  the  infinitive  has  no  subject,  or  has  passive  force,   the 
reflexive  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  :  @r  fjorte 
iifcer  fid?  fd?mdf;en  He  heard  some  one  talking  abusively  about  him. 
(£r  fyorte  fid?  t>on  feinem  greunbe  rufcn  He  heard  his  friend  call  him,  lit. 
He  heard  himself  called  by  his  friend. 

(2)  If  the  infinitive  has  a  subject  and  is  active,  it  usually  takes 
a  personal  pronoun  as  a  reflexive  object  referring  to  the  subject  of 
the  principal  proposition :  (£3  fiu)lt  ber  SRenfd?  mit  bleid?em  SBeben  ben 
£ob  ifjm  ft£en  im  ©enid:  (Lenau).    After  laffen  we  more  commonly 
find  a  reflexive  here:   laffen  @ie  ftdj  biefe  Sropfen  SBIutS  nidjt  reuen 
(Goethe). 

This  construction,  however,  is  in  general  not  common  and  often 
not  used  at  all,  so  that  the  English-speaking  student  should  be  on 
his  guard.  Thus  we  cannot  say  (Sr  fyorte  fetnen  greunb  fid)  rufen. 
Nor  can  we  say  Gr  ^)5rte  feinen  ^reunb  t^n  rufen.  We  must  avoid 
the  construction,  or  express  this  idea  by  the  construction  in  (i). 
A  reflexive  referring  to  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  can, 
however,  be  freely  used  if  it  depends  upon  a  preposition :  @r  \ni) 
einen  ftremben  neBeit  ftd?  ftefyen,  but  not  Gr  fafy  einen  Brentben  fid?  naijet 
treten.  In  the  latter  case  we  could  say :  (Sir  faf)  einen  ftremben,  ber  i^nt 
nci^er  trat.  A  reflexive  verb,  however,  can  be  used  as  an  infinitive 
where  the  reflexive  refers  to  the  subject  of  the  infinitive :  £)ie  @tabt 
faf)  ben  hunger  nefcft  feinent  ganjen  ©efolge  mit  fd)re<fftd)en  (Sd^ritten  fid? 
ndt;ern  (Goethe).  @r  faf;  ben  ^itf;ecu§  fid?  u6er  i|n  (with  reference  to 
the  subject  of  the  sentence)  fceugen  (Raabe's  Der  Lar,  p.  220). 

143.  The  indeclinable  words  fel&fl  and  fetter  self  are  much  used 
to  emphasize  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns  and  also  nouns: 
id?  felfcjl  or  fel&er,  wir  fel&fl  or  felber.  Sr  ifl  bie  g^rUdjfeit  felbfr  @r 
loBt  fid?  ffI6ji  or  felber,  but  not  without  the  reflexive,  as  in  er  Io6t 
felfcfi.  @eI6fl  may,  however,  be  used  alone  after  the  prep,  oon  and 
in  a  few  other  idiomatic  expressions  :  S)ie  2Jh"if)Ie  gefjt  nidjt  t»on  felbfl- 
©elfcjt  effen  mad?t  fatt  If  you  want  to  get  satiated  you  must  do  your 
own  eating.  @eI6fl  ifl  ber  fDtonn  If  you  want  to  have  a  thing  done 
well,  do  it  yourself,  ©elfcfi  eingebrodt,  felGfl  auggegeffen  As  you  have 
brewed,  so  you  must  drink.  (Sel&ftge&acfeneS  2&rot  home-made  bread. 
Also  in  paying  back  an  insult :  (Sr  fd?alt  ityn  einen  SSetriiger.  „  ©elOfl 
SSetriiger ! "  gab  ber  2?efd?oltene  jurud5. 

©elbfl  and  felber  are  in  fact  not  reflexives  but  determinatives.  As 
they,  however,  are  almost  always  used  in  connection  with  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  especially  a  reflexive  pronoun,  they  have  been  treated  here. 


145.  £.  THE   RECIPROCAL   PRONOUN  195 

Note.  As  an  adverb  fetbft  (not  fel&er)  may  stand  before  or  after  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
usually  with  the  meaning  even,  taking  a  weak  accent  when  it  precedes  the  noun  or 
pronoun  and  a  strong  one  when  it  follows  it :  £ie  (Srmaljnung  felbjl  teg  SSa'tetg  (or 
be<J  23ater$  fe'lbji)  frudjtete  m'djt*. 

THE  RECIPROCAL  PRONOUN, 

144.  When  the  pronoun  shows  that  the  action  of  the  verb  is 
mutual  between  two  or  more  persons,  it  is  called  a  reciprocal 
pronoun.     The  following  reciprocal  forms  are  used : 

a.  The  reciprocal  pronoun  for  the  dat,  and  ace.  of  all  genders 
and  persons  is  einan'bcr  each  other,  one  another:  2Bir  loben  etnanber; 
fie  loben  einanber ;  fte  fpredpen  J?on  etnanber. 

b.  For  the  gen.  etner  (cine) ...  beg  anbern  (cer  anbern)  are  used : 
<§>ie   cjebenfen  einer  beg   anbern  They  (lady  and  gentleman,   or  two 
gentlemen)  are  thinking  of  each  other.     8ie  gebenfen  eine  ber  anbern 
They  (two  ladies)  are  thinking  of  each  other. 

c.  For  the  dat.  and  ace.  the  reflexive  pronouns  are  often  used 
for  the  reciprocal  when  no  ambiguity  can  arise :   3ljr  fet)t  eud)  oft 
You  see  one  another  often.    £>te  (Sfyeleute  ftnb  fid)  (dat.  =  einanber)  treit 
unb  lieben  fid;  (ace.  =  einan'ber)  innig.     @te  Iteben  fid)  is  ambiguous,  as 
fid)  may  mean  each  other  or  themselves,  but  by  the  addition  of  felbjt 
or  felber  the  reflexive  idea  is  brought  out,  and  fid;  may  be  changed 
to  einanber,  or  einanber  may  be  added  to  fid),  to  make  the  reciprocal 
idea  clear :   @ie  lieben  fid)  felbft  They  love  themselves,  but  (Sic  lieben 
einanber,  or  sometimes  fid)  einanber  They  love  one  another, 

Only  when  the  reciprocal  depends  immediately  upon  a  verb  or 
an  adjective,  as  in  the  first  sentence,  can  it  be  replaced  by  a  reflexive, 
hence  after  prepositions  the  reciprocal  form  is  as  a  rule  einanber : 
<8ie  fafen  neben  einanber,  not  neben  fid).  After  the  prepositions  unter 
and  fiber,  however,  either  einanber  or  a  reflexive  can  be  used :  9Btr 
njotten  bag  unter  einanber  (or  unter  un§)  abmad)en.  <Ste  mad) ten  baS  untcc 
einanber  (or  unter  fid))  at>.  <Sie  fielen  fiber  einanber  (or  fiber  ftdj)  l)er. 

Note.  In  dialect  ft^  is  often  used  reciprocally  instead  of  un$  or  einanber :  9la,  tttk 
[»«J  Icnnen  fi(^  net  fjetraten  (Anzengruber's  Jungferngift,  4,  7). 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 

145.  The  indefinites  have  been  treated   under  adjectives,  as 
most  of  them  can  be  used  as  an  ordinary  adj.,  or  used  alone 
substantively.      The  following  are   more  like   real   independent 
pronouns : 

a.  Kbrrmatm  everybody  has  only  the  gen,  sing,  in  6,  the  dat.  and 
ace.  being  like  the  nom. 

b.  jrinanb  somebody,  declined  :  N.  jentanb,  G.  jentanb(e)8,  D.  jemanb,  or 
jemanbem  (new  str.  form,  but  common),  or  jemanben  (see  106.  Note  3 ; 
now  rare),  A.  jemanb  or  jemanben  (new  but  common) ;  very  common 
in  combination  with  anberS :  jemanb  anberS  or  anberer  somebody  else, 
dat.  jcmanb(etn)  anberS,  or  jemanb(ent)  anberem,  ace.  jemanb(en)  anberS  or 
jemanb(en)  anberen.     In  early  N.H.G.  the  indeclinable  form  jemanbS  is 
also  found ;  see  Numbers  xvi.  40;  Leviticus  xxi.  17. 

O  2 


196  PRONOUNS  145.  £. 

Note  i.  In  these  cases  anberfl  is  a  dependent  gen.  and  should  as  such  remain  un- 
changed, but  according  to  common  interpretation  it  is  often  construed  as  a  neut.  adjective- 
substantive  in  apposition  with  jemanb.  As  there  lies  in  the  neuter  gender  a  vague  or 
general  conception,  it  is  often  as  here  employed  in  German  as  the  masc.  is  in  PJnglish, 
to  make  a  general  reference,  applying  to  either  males  or  females.  Semanb  Cinberg  is 
sometimes,  perhaps,  now  more  commonly,  replaced  by  jemanb  anb(e)rcr,  as  the  masc. 
is  also  as  well  as  the  neut.  used  to  represent  both  genders.  When  any  other  adj. 
follows  jemattb  it  may,  like  anberg,  be  treated  as  an  adjective-substantive  having 
a  double  construction  :  jemanb  i8ilbfretnfce3  or  now  more  commonly  SBUbfrember 
somebody,  an  entire  stranger.  3Benit  jle  mit  jemanb  (£r»ad)fenem  farad)  (Rosegger). 

Note  2.  The  str.  and  wk.  forms  of  jemanb  (from  je  +  2J?ann)  show  the  influence  of 
the  adj.  declension. 

Note  3.  The  adverb  trgenb  is  often  used  in  connection  with  jemanb  to  increase  the 
indefiniteness :  2Bir  iuerben  twofil  trgenb  jemanben  antreffen,  ber  line  93efd?eib  gibt. 

c.  iticmattb  nobody,  inflected  exactly  like  jemanb. 

Note  i.  It  has  the  same  fluctuating  construction  of  the  following  adjective-substantive : 
9ltemanb  anberg  or  niemanb  anberer  no  one  else,  ©ad  toirb  ntemanb  9ted)tfd)affener 
(or  now  less  commonly  9recfotfd)affeneg)  tun.  Sliemanb  Unberufener  (Rosegger).  @o 
tang  man  niemanb  £euren  hat  jlerben  fefjen,  glanbt  man  ntd)t  redjt  an  ben  Sob 

(Marriot). 
Note  2.  In  dialect  various  forms  occur :  neamb,  ntemer,  niemerb.    Compare  d,  Note  2. 

d.  man  or  ciner  one  (as  in  one  says  =  they  say).     The  oblique 
cases  of  man  are  replaced  by  those  of  einer :    N.  man,  G.  etiieg, 
D.  etnem,  A.  einen  :    @o  u>a§  erinnert  eineu  an  ettr>a§,  iroran  man  nidjt 
erinnert  fein  roitt;   etneS  «§au3  unb  4?of  one's  house  and  land.     £>a§ 
toirb  etnent  fauer.     SBenn  man  (or  einer)  Ofetfen  gema^t  tyat,  fo  faun  man 
(or  er  if  the  antecedent  is  einer)  eticag  er^a^ren.    The  personal  pronoun 
referring  to  man,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  preceding  example  and  in 
the  first,  is  man,  but  er  if  it  refers  to  einer,  and  the  corresponding 
possessive  of  both  man  and  einer  is  fein:    2Ran  or  einer  fann  fetnen 
etgenen  JEopf  nicfyt  effen. 

Note  i.  In  popular  language  einer  is  often  used  with  the  force  of  jemanb.  It  also 
frequently  indicates  that  the  person  referred  to  excels  in  something,  often  in  something 
bad :  ©ag  fo((  einmat  einer  nacfymac&en  Let  somebody  imitate  that  if  he  can.  (Sr  litgt 
icie  einer  He  lies  equal  to  anybody,  lies  like  a  trooper.  2)a$  ift  ei'ner!  He's  z.  fine 
fellow !  (ironical). 

Note  2.  In  dialect  man  often  assumes  the  masc.  form  mer  :  ($6  fann  ja  etn'  2ftenfd)en 
tedjt  fein,  bag  mer  ibm  merfen  Ia§t,  mer  iueip,  n»a^  er  fiir  a  9Kenf(^  ig  (Anzengruber's 
Das  vierte  Gebot,  i, -12). 

e.  tt>er  (for  declension  see  147.  i),  which  is  used  for  an  interrogative 
and  also  relative  pronoun,  is  moreover  not  infrequently  in  colloquial 
language  used  as  an  indefinite = jemanb  or  einer  :  3cfy  glaute,  wenn  metn 
SBrubcr  ^Kfreb  fttrfct,  ober  yiefteicfyt  and)  njer,  ber  btr  nod)  na'fyer  jte^t,  &c. 
(Fontane's  Unwiederbringlich,  chap.  vi).     3d)  fcafce  and)  feine  ©e^eint* 
niffe  —  rcle  rcer  anberer  (Schnitzler's  Liebelei,  p.  68).     2)iid)ael  fitmmerte 
fid)  inenig  um  mid)  —  bent  mufjteft  bn  erft  flar  mad)en  fommen,  ba^  id)  and) 
icer  tin  (Sudermann's  Es  lebe  das  Leben,  p.  37). 

Note  i.  A  following  adjective-substantive  has  the  same  double  construction  as  after 
jemanb  and  niemanb  (b,  t,  above) :  ©c^mibtg  ^aben  93efud^ ;  'a  ifi  »er  grembeg  ba.  2)a« 
2)tng  tetrb  iuer  anberer  gemadjt  Ijaben  (Rosegger). 

Note  2.  From  the  indef.  luer  have  come  the  interrogative  and  relative  tt»er,  in  both 
of  which  the  former  indefinite  force  is  still  felt. 

f.  cttoaS  (often  contracted  to  ira§)  something,  some,  somewhat, 
what,  uninfiected :    @r  fyat  etiraS  getan.      @ott  td)  3^nen  etrca3   »oit 
biefem  «§ammeI6raten  juf ommen  laffen  ?     @r  ifl  etn?aS  (somewhat)  i?oit 


147.1.  INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS  197 

einem  ©eleven.  3d)  irifl  bir  icag  fagen  I'll  tell  you  what.  Note 
that  the  negative  not  anything  is  rendered,  not  by  ntdjt  etrcag,  but 
by  nidjtS:  «£afren  @ie  nicfytS  »on  Serein  Sreunbe  gefyort? 

Note.  When  a  neut.  adjective-substantive  depends  upon  «rroa3,  it  was  formerly  in 
the  partitive  gen.,  but  this  usage  has  now  given  place  to  the  appositional  construction, 
the  adjective-substantive  agreeing  with  etlWS':  etrea<3  ©iitetf  something  good,  son 
ftwag  ©utettt.  (5<3  ift  etwaS  2Bahve$  (once  felt  as  a  gen.,  but  now  felt  as  a  neut.  nom. 
in  apposition  with  ftroad)  baran.  3d)  fann  »cc  ettcaa  @d)6rtem  ftunbenfang  ftefjen. 
S)ie  @d)am  brennt  SRafc^a  auf  ben  SBangen,  nad)  rcdjts  unb  Unfa  blidt  fte  fdjeu  unb 
dngftlid),  ctlpaS  ©djmflidjeit  (old  weak  gen.  to  avoid  the  strong  form  in  -M,  which  is 
not  distinguished  from  the  nom.  and  ace.  in  f(S)  getodrtig  (Schubin's  Boris  Lensky,  xi). 
3d)  imtjj  bid)  nod)  toegen  etftas  anbeven  (weak  gen.)  or  attberetn  (as  the  prep,  also 
governs  the  dat.)  fragett.  Only  rarely  is  the  partitive  gen,  of  the  adjective-substantive 
now  found  here,  but  the  following  example  from  Hauptmann's  Vor  Sonnenaufgang, 
p.  90,  proves  that  it  is  not  entirely  extinct  :  <£)u  fdjtpafceft  Doit  alter  5«unbfdjaft  imb  fo 
tta$  @ut<3  (106.  Mote  2). 


g.  itirbtd  nothing,  uninflected  ;  ©ott  $at  t>te  SBelt  auS  nirf;t§  erfrt)affen. 
It  is  avoided  in  the  gen,  . 

Note  i.  If  a  neut.  adjective-substantive  depends  upon  it,  the  same  appositional  con- 
struction is  found  as  after  etwag  (see  f.  Note):  SBtfjen.  ©ie  nidjtg  9ieue3?  Do  you 
know  nothing  new  ?  Jlannft  bit  bid)  ntit  nid)t^  S3efTerem  befdjdftigen  ? 

.AW*  2.  It  was  once  inflected  as  a  few  set  expressions  still  show.  The  old  nom. 
and  ace.  form  md)t  (contracted  from  ni  lvid)t  =  nid?t  etU  2Btd)t,  not  a  thing,  not 
a  wight}  is  used  in  a  number  of  set  expressions,  followed  by  the  partitive  gen.  :  ^>iet 
ift  ttteineg  Sleibmg  nid)t  (nom.)  It's  too  warm  (fig.}  for  me  here,  or  /  '  carft  stay  here. 
2Bentt  id)  mit  2Kenfd)en;  unb  mit  ©ngel^ungen  rebete  unb  hdtte  ber  £icbe  nid)t  (ace.) 
Though  I  speak  with  the  tongues  of  men  and  of  angels  and  have  not  charity.  The 
real  gen.  still  survives  in  md)tSttmrbtg  contemptible,  lit.  worthy  of  nothing.  In  the 
expression  ju  nidjte  madjen  to  destroy,  it  is  dat.  with  the  usual  dat.  case  ending.  The 
dat.  form  in  mit  ttid)teit  not  at  all  has  arisen  from  a  contraction  of  the  old  doubled 
form,  used  for  emphasis  :  mit  md)te  It(tdjt).  The  gen.  nidjtg  was  formerly  much  used 
as  a  partitive  gen.  depending  upon  nid)t  (nom.  or  ace.),  md)te3  nicfyt  nothing  at  all,  lit. 
nothing  of  nothing.  Later  when  nidjt  was  felt  as  an  adverb  the  gen.  nidjtg  remained  as 
the  regular  nom.  or  ace.  of  the  pronoun.  This  change  of  construction  was  facilitated 
by  the  fact  that  nidjtg  remained  as  an  old  gen.  in  a  number  of  set  expressions  where  it 
was  construed  as  a  nom.  or  ace.  :  Ultdjtg  (old  gen.  felt  as  a  nom.)  gebridjt  (formerly 
impers.  verb  with  gen.)  utl3  Nothing  is  lacking  to  us.  (£t  vergipt  (formerly  with  gen., 
ROW  usually  with  ace.)  ntd)tg  (an  old  gen.  felt  as  an  ace.).  The  old  ace.  ntd&t  has  now 
become  the  regular  form  for  the  adverbial  negative  not.  This  adverbial  negative  is 
in  fact  the  adverbial  ace.  of  degree  (amount),  and  was  in  an  earlier  period  only  added 
to  strengthen  the  negative  en  or  ne:  (M.H.G.)  er  *«ist  niht  guot  He  is  not  good,  lit. 
He  is  not  good,  not  in  any  respect  or  thing.  Later  the  en  dropped  out  and  left  to  nidjt 
the  office  of  negative. 

INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

146.  The   interrogative   pronouns  are  :    iver  who  ;   reag  what  ; 
redder,  rcelcfte,  tveldjeS  which,  what  ;  «jaS  fur  enter,  tt>a3  fiir.  eine,  ivaS  fitr 
ein(e)3  what  kind. 

147.  i.   SBet  is  declined  : 

Masc.  and  Fern.  Neuter. 

N.  iver  who  irag  what 

G.  ireffen,  weS  (poet.)  whose  ireffeu,  iveS  of  what 

D.  item  (masc.  and  fern.),  reer  iro(r)  +  prep.  (see  C.  b);  rca3 

(fern.  ;   see  B.  b]  to  whom  (see  C.  a) 

A.  rcen  whom  irafj  what 


198  PRONOUNS  147.  i.  A. 

A.  The  neut.  gen.  toeS,  still  common  in  early  N.H.G.,  is  now  little  used 
except  in  the  adverbial  compounds  toeSfyalb  for  what  reason,  toeStoegen  on  what 
account,  why,  also  in  attributive  use,  as  explained  in  E,  below. 

The  corrupted  form  toeffent,  instead  of  the  more  correct  toeffen,  is  still  quite 
common  in  composition  with  the  prepositions  toegen  and  urn  —  toilien,  where  the 
reference  is  to  a  person :  toeffenttoegen,  urn  tocjfenttottten.  Ex. :  Urn  ireffenttoiKen 
qudten  toit  intS  benn  itberfyaitpt  tnit  fotd)en  ©ad)en?  (Fontane's  Stechtin,  XI.  p.  145). 
As  toeffen  is  so  often  used  with  reference  to  a  person,  it  is  avoided  with 
reference  to  a  thing.  The  colloquial  language  employs  here  the  ace.  toa$ 
instead  of  the  more  correct  but  ambiguous  toejfen :  SBegen  h>a3  fyajl  bit  bid)  fo 
aitfgeregt  ?  See  also  C.  a,  below. 

a.  In  inquiring  after  an  individual  in  a  group  of  two  or  more  we  may  use 
toeld);  or  toev :  toeld)e$  (according  to  148.  a),  or  toeldjer,  or  toer  son  betben  tjl  «§ert 
@d)mib?     SQ3eld)et  von  Sfynen?,  but  also  the  gen.  if  the  definite  article  or 
a  pronominal  is  used :  2Md)er  bet  beiben  93ritber  ?     SSer  in  connection  with  con 
is  also  used  where  we  employ  attributive  what'.   @ie  ivar  gefommen,  itm  ben 
@d)toeftetn  bie  toid)tige  9tad)rid)t  ju  itberbringen,  toet  am  tnorgigen  DteujafyrStage  von 
jungen  2)?dbd)en  (what  young  ladies)  nun  tnit  after  93ej}itmntl)ett  bei  £cfe  »ovgcfiet(t 
toerben  toiirbe  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XXXVII).     Although  the  gen. 
of  toetd)s  was  common  here  in  early  N.H.G.,  it  is  now  replaced  by  the  gen.  of 
toer:  Nit  in  ber  Slufferfiefyung  |  toenn  jte  aufferflefyen  |  toeld)$  (in  revised  editions  toejfen) 
toeib  toirb  fte  fein  ttntet  jnen?  (Markxii.  23). 

B.  a.  The  masc.  dat.  toem  usually  refers  Only  to  living  beings,  but  Lessing 
in  his  Nathan  (5,  6)  employs  it  also  as  a  neutral  form,  expressing  uncer- 
tainty as  to  whether  the  reference  is  to  a  person  or  a  thing :   (Recha)  §U(ein 
—  allein  —  bag  gefyt  jit  Jueit !    Sent  fann  id)  md)ts  entgegenfe|en,  ntd)t  ©ebulb,  nid)t 
liberlegitng^  nid;tg !  (Sittah)  SBaS  [ge^t  jit  h>eit]  ?   3Bent  [fannjl  bit  nid)t3  entgegenfc^en]? 
This  usage  is  common  also  in  colloquial  language.     In  the  same  way  the  gen. 
loefjen  can  be  used  as  a  neutral  form. 

b.  The  fern.  dat.  rcer,  though  not  usually  given  by  grammarians,  is  occa- 
sionally found  in  good  authors:  SSon  £elio3  gejeugt?  uon  tt»er  geboren ?  (Goethe) 
Begotten  of  Helios  ?    Born  by  what  mother?    $5a  bit  fo  eine  Slrt  SBruber  »on  if)r 
btjl  —  9>on  t^r  ?     Son  U?er  ?  (Wilbrandt's  Die  Maler,  3,  3)  Since  you  are  a 
kind  of  brother  to  her  —  To  her  ?     To  whom  ?    Also  other  ways  of  making 
the  gender  clear  occur1 :    (Carl)   (§r  gibt   ©ingfltmbe  ?     SSetn?   (Isolde)   2)er. 
(Carl)  Sent  ber  ?  (Ernst  Rosmer's  Dammerung,  Act  3).     Seftgeregtut  i         2gent 
unb  iretdjer  fteigt  nid^t  bet  btcfem  2Borte  eine  gefyenjMfd)e  Grinnerung  in  ber  ©eete  auf  ? 
(Raabe's  Keltische  Knocheri). 

C.  The  dat.  of  the  neut.  does  not  usually  occur  except  in  connection  with 
a  preposition,  in  which  case  the  form  is  either : 

a.  That  of  the  ace.,  not  infrequently  in  the  classical  authors  and  with  ever 
increasing  frequency  in  the  language  of  our  time,  which  is  in  general  becoming 
averse  to  adverbial  compounds  (see  b) :  3it  rtxt3  bie  5pofie?  (Goethe).    23efte(lt, 
gndbiger  Jtaifer?  jit  t»a3  ?  (Wildenbruch's  Kaiser  Heinrich,  2,  18).     3«  hxtf  frft 
ber  eine  tt>a3  coraiig  I;aben?  (Halbe's  Hans  Rosenhagen,  I.  p.  43).     Brigitta  :  <2ie 
ttegt,  it>eint,  fd)J»6rt :  fte  muffe  if>n  ertofen.     Gottfried  :  Son  t»a3  ?  (Hauptmann's 
Der  arme  Heinrich,  I.  p.  33).     In  colloquial  language  and  dialect  tcatf  is 
often  employed  after  prepositions  and  verbs  without  respect  to  the  cases 
which  they  usually  govern,  in  order  to  make  the  thought  clear  :  iregen  tt>a3  (as 
twgen  toeffen   might   mean   on  account  of  whom ;    not   tt>e3»egen,  as  it   has 
adverbial  force =why).    2Ba3  toofynte  (elsewhere  with  dat.)  et  bet?     See  also  A, 
above. 

b.  Or  especially  in  choice  language  the  adverbial  compound  too  (or  toot 
before  a  vowel)  +  a  preposition  :  toomit'  with  what,  too»on'  of  what,  toorin'  in 
what,  &c.     The  prepositions  governing  the  ace.  also  form  compounds  with 
too(r)  in  the  same  way  :  tocrit'ber  about  what,  toofur'  for  what,  tooretn'  (the  one 
prep,  in   changes    its  form   in   these  adverbial  compounds  to  express  the 
ace.  relation,  becoming  ein)  into  what,  tooritm'  (more  commonly  in  this  case 


147.;i.  E.         INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS  199 

urn  Wag)  concerning  what,  &c.  These  compounds  cannot  be  freely  formed, 
but  occur  only  in  case  of  the  prepositions  enumerated  in  141.  5.  B.  But  also 
here  there  is  a  growing  aversion  to  the  adverbial  forms  :  ,,9Zebe,  |  bamit  wir  un3 
Serjldnbigen."  „  Uber  wag?  "  (Wildenbruch's  Konig  Laurin,  3,  l). 

D.  The  German  like  the  English  has  no  special  form  for  the  plural,  but 
differs  from  the  English  in  that  the  verb  also  remains  sing.,  except  in  case  of 
Wet  and  wag  as  predicate  in  connection  with  the  verb  to  be :  3Bcr  ftnb  bte  Santen 
ba?    3d)  weifj  nicfyt,  wer  jte  itnb.    2Bag  jtnb  bte  Singe  ba  ?     2>a3  finb  33lumen.    But 
as  subject :  SBer  war  ba  ?   Who  was  or  were  there  f    A  general  indef.  pi.  idea 
can  be  brought  out  by  placing  directly  after  tt>er  (or  wag),  or  several  words 
removed,  the  adverbial  alleg  :  2ikr  fontmt  benn  af(eg  ?    Who  all  are  coming  ?  3d) 
Weip  nid)t,  wen  adeg  cr  eingelaben  fiat,  or  went  affeg  er  eine  Sintabung  gefd)icft  tyat. 
SBag  man  bod)  nid)t  atteg fyert !  Well,  I  declare,  what  strange  things  one  hears  ! 
In  inquiries  after  definite  persons  or  things,  the  sing,  verb  with  Wcr  or  wag 
alone  is  used,  as  usually  the  connection  will  show  whether  one  is  speaking  of 
one  person  or  thing,  or  of  more  than  one.     Some  form  of  Welder,  e,  eg  should 
be  used  if  some  noun  or  pronoun  can  be  understood  :  2Ber  fyat  bag  gebradjt?  — 
3wei  <Sd)uter.  — 2Beld)e  (@d)uter)?      SDer  Ijat  bag  gebrad)t  ?  —  (Sin   <Sd)iiler.— 
2Beld)er  (@d)iiler)  ?     Thus  in  German  wer  usually  introduces  an  inquiry  of  a 
more  general  and  wetdier  of  a  more  individual  nature. 

E.  2Ba3  was  formerly  often  followed  by  a  dependent  noun  in  the  partitive 
gen. :  toa3  £>ancf3  fyabt  jr  bauon  (bavon)  ?  (Luke  vi.  34).    This  construction  is 
still  occasionally  found  :  SUxtttxu?  Ijaft  bu  nun  33orteit3  bason,  Steber?  (Lienhard's 
Till  Eulenspiegel,  3).     It  is  still  the  regular  construction  in  case  of  adjective- 
substantives  :  £Ba3  ifl  ©itteg  baici  ?  What  good  is  there  in  it  ?  In  case  of  these 
adjective-substantives  all  feeling  for  the  genitive  is  lost,  and  the  form  is 
regarded  as  a  nom.  or  ace.  neut.  in  apposition  with  teas,  as  in  similar  cases 
after  etivafl  (see  145./.  Note). 

Except  in  case  of  adjective-substantives  simple  apposition  is  now  little 
used,  although  more  common  earlier  in  the  period,  and  is  usually  replaced 
by  the  appositional  construction  introduced  by  fur  or  by  the  construction  with 
fteld) :  2Ba$  gibt  etf  S3orjiiglidjeg  im  fyeutigm  Jton^ert  ?,  but  rarely  SDlit  iua3  liebs 
licfcem  ffie^eigen  |  gab  fie  fid)  ntit  gan^  gu  etgenl  (Canitz),  now  SWit  n>a<5  fur  etncm 
Ueblid?en,  or  ftic(d)  Uebtidjcm,  &c.  5ld),  tra^  iji'd  ein  2Kann!  (Goethe's  Egmont,  i), 
now  2Ba3  tft'3  fur  ein  Sftann !  (So  »rei§  id;  bod)  nun  aud>,  auf  wag  [now  wag  fur 
eine,  or  weldje]  9lrt  ftd)  bte  2!eufc(  banfen  (Schiller).  SSag  ^aft  bu  fyicr  [now 
usually  +  fur]  ©efd)dfte  [in  apposition  with  Wag  or  possibly  a  pi.  partitive 
gen.]  ?  (Storm's  £¥>*  7->j/  auf  Haderslevhuus,  p.  258).  In  certain  set  expres- 
sions, however,  the  simple  appositional  construction  has  become  established  : 
2Ba3  SBunbet  1  (the  gen.  here  is  also  used :  SDag  SBunberg,  ba§  unfer  35td)tcr  fiir 
biefe  in  fafl  tagltcfycm  45erfe^r  cor  t()m  etttfatteten  SBoquge  nicfyt  uncmv>finbUd)  blieb  — 
Johannes  Scherr's  Schiller,  II.  chap,  iii)  what  wonder!  2Ba3  Xeufet !  iBa<5 
berSeufet!  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Verscholleri).  3Pa3  J&eufer!  SBeg  ©eiflcg  Jlinb 
ift  er?  Of  what  mettle  is  he?  2Be$  Dlamen?,  (Stanbcg,  SQotjnortd  feib  i^r?  (H.  v. 
Kleist).  In  some  of  these  examples  Wag  or  weg  is  used  almost  or  quite  as  an 
attributive  adjective,  and  earlier  in  the  period  even  assumed  in  the  dat.  of 
the  fem.  the  form  of  a  strong  adjective  :  I'lug  Wafer  (in  revised  editions  Wag 
fur)  ntacfrt  ttjufhi  bag?  (Matt.  xxi.  23).  In  English,  what  has,  indeed,  become 
an  attributive  adjective  in  many  cases,  and  can  be  used  freely  as  such, 
while  in  German  the  appositional  construction  has  in  general  been  retained, 
and  is  usually,  aside  from  certain  groups  described  above,  clearly  marked  as 
such  by  the  fiir  preceding  the  appositive.  The  construction  with/<?r  is  also 
found  in  older  English  :  What  is  he  for  a  fool  that  betroths  himself  to 
unquietness?  (Shakespeare's  Much  Ado,  I,  3).  In  dialect  and  colloquial 
language  the  development  of  usage  here  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  English, 
in  that  wag  is  often  used  attributively :  Die,  wag'n  3ur,  wag'n  3ur !  (Adalbert 
Meinhardt's  Allerleirauh,  p.  71)  for  the  literary  Wag  fiir  eitt  3ur !  or  Weld;  ein 
For  other  examples  see  134.  2.  d. 


200  PRONOUNS  147.  I.'E. 

2Ber  was  in  M.H.G.,  like  foa£,  followed  by  a  dependent  partitive  gen.,  as  in 
wer  herren,  which  is  now  replaced  by  a  prep,  construction,  luet  untet  ben 
Jpetten,  as  described  in  A.  a,  above.  Another  stage  of  development,  the  ap- 
positional  or  attributive  construction,  as  in  case  of  toaS,  is  found  in  early 
N.H.G.  :  SScr  .ftunftlet  (originally  gen.  pi.)  tned?t'3  erbenfcn?  (Spec's  Trutz- 
nachtigal,  91,  196).  This  old  attributive  use  of  toer  what  survives,  in  case 
the  following  word  is  a  pronoun:  ,,@t  ifl  nid)t  ba?"  ,,58et  er?"  (Suttner's 
Daniela  Dormes,  III).  (Carl)  (It  gtbt  ©ingftunbe?  2Bem?  (Isolde)  25  er. 
(Carl)  2Bcm  ber?  (Ernst  Rosmer's  Ddmmerung,  Act  3).  Compare  (£3  ifl 
fetn  @r  ;  e$  tfl  cine  @te  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome,  XI). 

2.  SSer  and  rcag  are  used  in  questions  direct  and  indirect  :  3Ben 
nteinen  €>te?  3d?  rceifj  nid?t,  n;en  <&ie  meinen. 

a.  Set  can  be  limited  by  a  relative  clause  :  Set,  ber  e$  nidjt  ntit  Slugen 
gefefyen  Ijar,  »ermag  ftdj  bteS  gcljeimm$»eHe  ©ebict  aud)  nut  sorjufhtten  ?  (H.  Hoff- 
mann's Rittmeister,  III.  p.  133)  What  person  who,  &c. 

&  £Sa^  is  much  used  colloquially  after  the  statement  of  an  opinion  or 
idea  to  ask  for  a  confirmation  of  the  same  from  the  person  addressed  : 
•§iibfd)e  ©trajje,  iraS?  It's  a  fine  street,  isn't  it?  3d)  liebe  fcfjneUe  (Sntfc^lujfe  — 
©ie  aitd)  —  h?ag  ? 

c.  Sometimes  toaS  is  used  adverbially  in  the  meaning  why  :  28a3  Iad)fl  bu  ? 
Why  do  you  laugh  ?  It  is  also  used  sometimes  like  iwe  how  :  2Ba3  jinb  @ie 
gliicflidj  !  How  happy  you  are  ! 


148.  2BeId)er,  ireldje,  icetc^eg  which,  what,  used  adjectively  or  sub- 
stantively  ;  for  inflection  see  134.  i.    Ex.  :  2BeId;e§  23ud)  ifl  bag  3t)rtge 
unb  ireld)e0  iji  bag  feinige  ? 

a.  Setd)e^  used  with  identifying  force  is  treated  like  bies  (see  128.  A.  a)  : 
2Se(d)e3  tfl  Idnget,  bet  SMeiftift  obet  bie  gebet?  aBeld)e$  ifl  bet  jungfle  Softn  ?  3Beld?eS 
ftnb  3^te  Stiiber?  2Beldje3  finb  bie  (Stgebniffe  btefeg  ©ommetfentefletg  ?  (Wilbrandt's 
Franz,  II).  Also  in  indirect  questions:  3Belcfye3  bie  inbi»ibue((en  Utfad)en  son 
0?aabe«  SBenbung  jum  ^ef[tmtgmug  gen>efen,  laft  fid)  eutfltceUen  ntd)t  fe^ftrnm  (A. 
B  artels,  Deutsche  Dichtung,  p.  56). 

149.  SBa§  fur  einer,  etne,  ein(e)S  what  kind-,  for  inflection  see  134.  -2. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

150.  There  are  no  independent  forms  for  the  relative  pronouns, 
but  as  such  are  used :  the  demonstratives  ter,  bte,  bag  (151)  who, 
which,  or  the  interrogatives  rcelcfyer,  recldje,  iveldjeS  (152)  who,  which ; 
the  interrogatives  icer  who,  whoever  (155  and  156),  ivag  which,  what, 
whatsoever  (153.  r  ;  157) ;  the  adverbial  compounds  ttjortn,  icoruiiter, 
&c.  (153.  2.  A),  or  barin,  barunter,  &c.  (153.  2.  B) ;  the  adverbs  wo, 
roofer,  wo^tn  (153.  3.  A),  me  (153.  3.  B  and  D.  (i)),  alg,  irenn,  ujann,  ba 
(153.  3.  C),  fo  »tel  (153. 4) ;  fo  (153.  5) ;  also  bap  (153. 3.  C.  e),  berajeidjert 
(153.  3.  D.  (3)),  berfelbe  (153.  6),  rcag  fur  ein  (153.  7),  reo  (153.  8),  alg 
(153.  8). 

They  have  in  course  of  time  developed  a  different  word -order 
from  the  original  demonstratives  and  interrogatives  and  now  require 
the  verb  to  stand  at  the  end  of  the  clause :  biejemgen  eyiirjlen  ftnb  bie 
Beflen,  rcelcfye  mit  Qtufopferung  i^rer  felfcfl  beg  SSolfeg  So^I  teforbertu 


151.1.*.  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  201 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  and  still  later  in  the  classical  period  al<3  often  preceded 
bet,  tt>eld;er,  or  a  relative  adverb  to  make  it  more  prominent :  (Sv  irodte  uon  ben 
Jjofyen,  l)c(;lo,efd;Uffenen  <£d;vittfd)uf;en  nidjttf  ttnffen,  fonbcrn  empfafyl  bte  mebvia,en,  fladja,cs 
fd;ltffencn,  frieelanbifcfyen,  a(S  n?eld;e  gum  (2d;nel((anfen  bte  bienlidjilen  feien  (Goethe). 
So  befyalten  bte  ^rufcr  2J?ufjc,  fid)  in  ein^clne  JUeiniafeiten  bnrd;  unb  burd)  einjulaffen, 
ats  ttiovan  utir  t;auptfad)lid)  getecjen  \\t  (Burger).  This  at3  still  occurs  occasionally  : 

[@r]  fagte  laut  unb  fctcrlidj-'grimmta, :    ,,<§3  tebe  SUcriuS  bet  SDreijefjnte " a(<3 

iccrauf  fid;  ehfaS  fefjt  JturiofeS  creicjncte  (Raabe's  Eulenpfingsten,  chap.  xvi). 

151.  i.  2)er,  bte,  bag  are  inflected  as  the  substantive  forms  of  the 
demon,  ter,  He,  bag  (129.  i)  except  in  the  gen.,  where  the  forms  beffen 
(masc.  and  neut.  sing.),  beren  (fern.  sing,  and  pi.  for  all  genders)  are  used. 

a.  The  forms  of  beware  unaccented,  thus  differing  from  those  of 
the  demon,  ber ;  but  the  vowels  except  before  ff  are  long  and  cannot 
be  contracted,  thus  differing  from  those  of  the  def.  art.  and  resem- 
bling those  of  the  demonstr. 

b.  In  composition  with  the  prepositions  iwegen  on  account  of,  um  — 
iriflen/by  the  sake  of,  l;alb(en)  on  account  of,  are  the  following  corrupted 
gen.  forms :  beffent,  gen.  masc.  and  neut. ;   berent  or  beret,  gen.  fern, 
sing,  and  gen.  pi.  for  all  genders :   ber  3Kann,  urn  beffentiviUeit ;   bic 
graii,  um  berentnnUen,  &c.    There  is  a  pronounced  tendency  to  restore 
the  correct  form  :  3eneg  33orrec&t,  um  beffeuiritlen  fid;  einft  33ai;ent  unter* 
ivorfeu  l;atte  (Giesebrecht) ;  bag  SScifr,  um  beffenanflen  irt;  Sa^re  lang  aUeg 
getau  unb  ge(prod;eu  unb  ijeopfert  ^abe  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  II. 
p.  172).     Q(uf  jeneni  fdjonen  ^urnt  t;abe  id;  ber  baS  SGBieberfommen  t»er* 
fprod;en,  um  berennnUen  id;  je^t  biefe  iceite  Oleife  mad;e  (Storm's  St.  Jurgeri). 
3)a8  alfo  war  bte,  fitr  bte  fte  brange^eBen,  um  beremmllett  fte  um  i^r  ^ebeit  6e= 
trogen  unb  IJeflo^Ien  irorben  rear  (Wildenbruch's  Vice-Mama}. 

The  preceding  forms  refer  to  definite  antecedents.  When  the 
reference  is  to  the  thought  contained  in  a  sentence,  the  short  gen. 
forms  ice3,  or  now  less  commonly  beg,  are  used  in  composition  with 
itegeu  and  fyalfc(en) :  23oflf ommenfyeit  ift  ein  nie  311  erreicfyenbeg  %\d,  iteS^al& 
(or  now  less  commonly  begfyalfr)  fo  ivenige  banad)  flreben. 

If  jvegeu  precedes  the  relative,  the  regular  uncorrupted  long  gen. 
forms  are  used :  @ie  paffeu  jit  bem  breibeinigen  -^aniinfen,  wcgen  beffeu 
nnrt)ter  uerfammctt  finb!  (Lienhard's  Till  Eulenspiegel,  i). 

c.  The  forms  befien  and  bevcn  are  sometimes  inflected  by  the  authors  of  our 
time  like  strong  adjectives,  when  they  stand  before  a  masc.  or  a  neut.  noun 
in  the  dat.  sing.,  although  they  are  in  fact  the  gen.  forms  of  the  relative 
pronoun  :  @te  fctyen  twcber  barautf,  bafi  manftd;  won  einer  SJMU,  an  bercm  2BoljUrcjcf;en 
man  Sutcvcfie  nimmt,  fctne  ad)t  !lage  entfernen  barf  (Boy-Ed).     See  129.2.  A.c. 

d.  Instead  of  the  gen.  forms  beffen  and  beren  the  older  forms  bf3  (formerly 
and  sometimes  still  written  befj)  and  ber  still  occasionally  occur,  especially  in 
poetry  :  Ji>o  btft  bit,  gauft,  be<J  Sttmme  mir  erflamj  (Goethe's  Faust,  erster  Teil, 
Nacht).     2)te  Jtrone,  ber  mein  %ur\i  mid;  unubic\  ad;tete  (id.,  Tasso,  2,  3).    !Die 
£udnia,fcit,   ber  er   fid)  freute   (Ludwig's  Zwischen   Himmel  nnd  Erde,  III). 
Earlier  in  the  period  the  form  for  the  fern.  gen.  sing,  and  gen.  pi.  was  either 
bevcn  or  bercr.     Later  bcrer  became  restricted  to  demonstrative  use,  but  sur- 
vivals of  the  older  usage  occur  occasionally :    2>a3  bauerte  \voljl  etne  9Jhnute, 
H)dl;renb  bercr  id)  mid)  nid)t  jn  vc^cn,  faunt  ju  atmen,  »»agtc  (Spielhagen's  Was  will 
das  iverdcn,  I.  chap.  xi).     (Sintcjc  bdiu^lid)c  SDItnuten,  ivdl)renb  beret  gran  6uvtts3 
bte  Slu^en  gefdilcjTcn  Ine(t  (id.,  Ein  neuer  P/iarao,  p.  13). 

e.  The  early  N.H.G.  occasional  long  form  bcrcn  (fern.  dat.  sing.)  has  entirely 
given  way  to  the  short  form  ber,  as  there  seemed  a  desire,  as  in  case  of  the 


202  PRONOUNS  151.  i.e. 

demonstrative  bet,  to  distinguish,  contrary  to  usage  elsewhere  in  the  inflection 
of  fern,  adjective  forms,  between  the  gen.  and  dat.  sing. :  D  ^urftin,  bcrcn  (now 
bcv)  ]td)  ein  folder  gurfl  »erbunben  (Weckherlin),  The  older  short  form  ben  (dat. 
pi.)  is  now  entirely  replaced  by  benen. 

2.  2)er  is  not  used  : 

a.  Adj actively,  in  which  function   it  is  replaced  by  forms  of 
tveldjer :  @r  fagte  „  guten  Sag/'  irelcfyen  ©rufj  fte  freunbltcfy  errciberte. 

b.  The  relatives  bag  and  tt>elc(?e§  were  earlier  in  the  period  em- 
ployed like  the  identifying  bag  (129.  2.  C.  (i))  as  the  subject  of  the 
clause,  remaining  unchanged  for  all  genders  and  numbers :  llnter 
cmbern  feat  er  eine  @iinbfiut  gemalt,  bag  etirag  (Sinjigeg  ifi  (Goethe).    2)ie 
Sttftfandle  anjutmngen,  treld)e8  fleine  9R6f)ren  »on  gefcrannter  @rbe  icaren  (id.). 
£>ie3  93uc6  nannte  man  ben  (Styaffpeare,  tt>elcfye§  ber  93erfaffer  beSfel&en  war 
(G.  Keller).     These  relatives  are  now  usually  inflected  and  agree 
with  the  antecedent.     The  older  usage  is  still  sometimes  found 
when  the  relative  is  used  in  a  collective  sense  :  3cfy  fenne  ben  SSritber 
unb  bte  ©cfytrefter,  tcelcfyeS  fceibeg  (or  more  commonly  icelcfye  fceibe)  fefir 
acfytnnggirerte  ^erfonen  ftnb  (D.  Sanders).     Different  is  the  case  where 
the  relative  is  the  predicate  ;  see  153.  i.  (3),  towards  end  of  art. 

3.  On  the  other  hand,   in  the  substantive  relation  ber  is  more 
frequent  than  icetcfyer  both  in  the  literary  language  and  in  common 
conversation.     The  leading  points  as  to  use  are  as  follows : 

A.  £>er,  not  rcelcber,  is  used  in  the  gen.  sing,  and  pi.  if  the  gen. 
stands  before  the  noun  upon  which  it  depends :   3)ag  <§au§  in  ber 
•ftatferfirafje,  beffen  9Beft£er  rcir  fennen,  ifl  fell,  but  £>ie  alte  Waiter,  inner^alb 
beren  or  rcelcfter  je£t  nur  ein  Sell  ber  <Stabt  Itegt,  inirb  fcalb  aBgefcroc^en  reerben. 

It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  beffen  and  beren,  differing  from 
the  English  of  which,  of  whom,  must  always  precede  the  noun  upon 
which  they  depend,  and  that  the  definite  article  before  the  governing 
noun  is  then  dropped :  bag  ©eMube,  beffen  5'enfier  gefcfytoffen  ftnb  the 
buildings  the  windows  of  which  are  shut. 

a.  In  adjective  use  Uield)er  must  be  used  even  if  the  gen.  precedes  the  noun 
upon  which  it  depends  :  2)enf  an  ©oetlje,  uieldjeg  £>td)terS  2Berfe  bit  eft  empfefjien 
tour ben. 

b.  Earlier  in  the  period  also  the  gen.  of  toetdj;  could   stand  before  the 
governing  noun  :  Sieber  |  »erberbe  ben  nidjt  mit  betnet  ©petfe  |  vmb  u>e(dx3  nn((cn 
(l^rtftug  cjeftorben  ijl  (Rom.  xiv.  15).     2)eim  ein  9Beib  I^atte  »on  jm  gel)6rt  |  »eld)et 
Xccf>tei-ttti  einen  wnfaubeni  ©etfl  fjatte  (Mark  viu  25).    (Sine  fo  eble  Xat . .  .  ivie  bte 
ifl,  urn  toetcfyet  tci((en  id)  gefangen  fifce  (Goethe's  GiJtz,  4,  2). 

B.  £>er  is  also  usually  employed  when  the  relative   refers  to 
an  interrogative  or  personal  pronoun,  or  a  noun  in  the  vocative : 
2Ber,  ber  eg  nicfyt  nut   5lugen  gefefcen  fjat,  tterntaa,  ftct;  bieg  ge^eimntgootte 
©ettet  auc^  nur  »or$ujMen?  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  III.  p.  133). 
($:r,  ber  nur  |  gerco^nt  ift  jit  fcefe^fen  unb  gu  tun,  |  fennt  nic^t  bte  Jlttnfi,  yon 
weitem  ein  ®e|>rdd?  |  nad;  feiner  Qlfcftdjt  langfam  fetn  ;;u  lenfen  (Goethe's 
I  phi  genie t  i,  2).   «§a,  «§err  ©raf,  ber  <Sie  nt^t  nacfy  2)?affa  irotlten  (Lessing's 
Emilia,  3,  2). 

a.  If  a  personal  pronoun  referring  to  a  vocative  or  repeating 
a  personal  pronoun  of  the  first  or  second  person  already  mentioned 
stands  after  the  relative,  which  is  very  commonly  the  case  when 
the  relative  is  the  subject  of  the  verb,  ber  is  usually  employed,  and 


ISI.S.B.C.  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  203 

the  verb  must  agree  with  the  antecedent  in  person:  unfer  SSater, 
ber  bu  bi\t  im  «§iminet ;  bu,  bie  bit  alle  SSunbeu  fyeilefl  thou  (friendship) 
who  dost  heal  all  wounds.  The  pronoun  of  the  first  or  second  • 
person  to  which  reference  is  made  may  be  contained  in  a  possessive  : 
Unb  trofte  bid;  an  meinem  gropem  3antmer,  |  bie  id;  getan,  wo  bu  nur  unter* 
laffen  (Grillparzer's  Medea,  5), 

Note.  When  such  sentences  are  transferred  to  indirect  discourse,  the  personal 
pronoun  may  be  allowed  to  remain  standing  after  the  relative,  although  it  as  well  as 
its  antecedent  has  become  a  third  person  in  the  indirect  statement :  SBie  fattnft  bit,  bie 
bu  eg  felbft  gefehen  haft,  bag  be^uwfeln  ?  becomes  (Sr  ttmnberte  ftdj,  nne  fte,  bie  fte  e3 
fetbft  gefcfien  rjabe,  bag  bejtoeifeln  ferine.  The  personal  pronoun  of  the  first  or  second 
person  to  which  reference  is  made  may  be  contained  in  a  possessive :  (^independent 
form  of  indirect  discourse;  see  172.  A.  a)  <Sie  Ijatte  etiintat  gelefen :  ,,  9Hdjt3  tft  ofyne 
Sroedf."  Slbet  »a3  u?at  ifyr  3»ecf  ?  3fjr  Btoecf,  bie  fte  bod)  feme  Suite  trieb.  @ie  u?ar 
bed)  eine  tcte  Snidjt,  fte  irar  Xante  (G.  Ompteda's  Cacilie  von  Sarryn,  chap.  xii). 

b.  Sometimes  the  personal  pronoun  after  the  relative  is  dropped 
in  the  cases  described  in  a,  the  verb,  however,  agreeing  in  the 
same  manner  with  the  antecedent  in  person :  Unfettge,  bie  [bu]  mtr 
cut§  beinen  ^ofyen,  |  ein  5Weteor,  verberbUd;  meberftretfit  (Goethe).     Some- 
times the  personal  pronoun  is  dropped  and  the  verb  goes  over 
into  the  third  person  :  28a3  farm  id?  tun,  ber  felfcer  f)tlf(o§  ifl  ?  (Schiller). 

The  verb  cannot  of  course  be  controlled  by  the  relative  if  some 
other  word  is  subject :  D  bu,  ben  id?  fucfyte  Don  nteiner  Jttnbtjeit  an. 

The  verb  is  in  the  third  person  if  the  pronoun  to  which  the 
subject  refers  is  in  the  third  person :  (£r,  ber  e^  iret§. 

The  relative  iueld)er  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  ber,  if  the  per- 
sonal pronoun  is  not  repeated  after  the  relative :  id?,  wld?en  ©ott 
erfor  |  gum  fyodjften  «§errn  (Fulda's  Talisman,  i,  6). 

Note.  If  the  reference  is  to  the  polite  form  @ie  referring  to  one  individual,  the 
relative  and,  provided  the  third  person  is  employed,  also  its  verb  are  in  the  sing., 
although  (£ie  is  grammatically  in  the  3rd  person  pi. :  Sag  toetfi  ebett  niemanb  beffer,  ju 
beurtetlen,  altf  eben  <2ie,  ber  nteine  Sautter  fo  gut  fennt. 

c.  The  construction  a  seems  in  general  more  common  than  b 
with  reference  to  a  pronoun  in  the  first  and  second  person,  and 
must  be  used  in  one  case,  where  ambiguity  might  otherwise  arise. 
If  there  are  two  pronouns  in  the  principal  clause,  one  in  the  first 
or  second  person,  the  other  the  uninflected  e3,  the  construction 
which  repeats  the  personal  pronoun  after  the  relative  should  be 
chosen,  if  the  eg  is  predicate  and  the  relative  refers  to  the  pronoun 
of  the  first  or  second  person,  which  is  itself  the  subject  of  the 
principal  clause ;   but  the  construction  which  drops  the  personal 
pronoun  and  puts  the  dependent  verb  in  the  third  person  is  of 
course  used  if  the  eS  is  the  grammatical  subject  and  the  following 
relative  clause  the  real  subject  of  the  main  verb :  QJBer  ifl  ungtttrflid?  ? 
3d)  (subject)  bin  eg  (predicate),  ber  id}  meine  ©Item  ttertoren  fyafce  Who  is 
unhappy  ?  I  am,  /  who  have  lost  my  parents,  but  3d)  (predicate)  bin 
eg  (subject;  see  251.  II.  B.  a.  aa),  ber  feine  ©Item  Derloren  l)at  //  is  / 
who  has  lost  his  parents.     In  the  second  sentence  the  verb  of  the 
main  clause  is  attracted  into  the  person  of  the  predicate  id),  which 
stands  before  it,  and  hence  it  does  not  agree  with  its  real  subject. 
The  relative  here  is  usually  ber  according  to  C. 


204  PRONOUNS  151.3.8.^ 

d.  2BeIcr;er  is  working  its  way  into  this  position  as  it  did  in  C  (see 
this,  and  also  a  thereunder).  It  is  most  common  after  a  personal 
pronoun  of  the  third  person :  <2te,  icelctye  »or  eincr  tyalbeu  (gtunbe  bag 
Dpernfyaug  vom  SBetfaUSruf  ber  entjiicften  SMenge  erjittern  ntacfyte  (Raabe's 
Friihling,  chap.  v). 

C.  In  subject  and  object  clauses  where  the  relative  is  equal  to 
bev(i«tige)  trelcfyer,  we  usually  find  ber :  ©elig  ftnb,  bie  ®otte§  8Sort  fyoren 
itnb  ftereafyren.    £efyre,  bie  btr  folgen  ttoflen,  beine  QBege.     Also  when  the 
provisional  subject  eg  precedes,  the  relative  of  subject  clauses  is 
usually  ber:   SSar  tcb'g,  ber  U)m  fein  @lucE  jerjtorte?      See  also  B.C. 
Where  the  predicate  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  precedes  the  subject, 
as  in  the  last  sentence,  icelcfyer  is  also  often  used :  (£r  fe(6fi  war  eg 
gercefen,  iretdjer  bent  greunbe  bie  Ie|teu  £iefee§btenfte  ernriefen  tyatte  (Marriot's 
Der  geistliche  Tod,  chap.  xvii).    3Beld)=  is  much  rarer  in  object  clauses : 
Unb  ftcfyerft  betnen  Jtinfent  gropeg  ®ut :  |  fte  burfen  nennen,  rceicbe  fte  gebar 
(Grillparzer's  Medea,  4).     Earlier  in  the  period   tt>eld?=  was   used 
freely  in  subject  and  object  clauses,  but  with  a  different  shade ;  see 
a,  below. 

2fier  is  also  employed  in  subject  and  object  clauses,  but  with 
a  different  meaning,  namely,  with  generalizing  or  indefinite  force ; 
see  156. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  lv>etd)et  was  used  in  subject  clauses  with  general  or 
indefinite  force  just  as  tt>er  (see  156)  is  now  employed  :  3Be(djet  tjfet  j  bev  iffet 
bent  §(Sn:n  (Rom.  xiv.  6).  See  also  Rom.  xiv.  z,  3.  2)cr  was  also  much 
used  in  subject  clauses,  but  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning,  namely,  with 
individualizing  force.  Later  u>cr  replaced  iwld^et  here,  and  nxldjer  assumed  the 
force  of  ber  and  became  interchangeable  with  it.  2Belcf)et  is  not,  however, 
used  here  so  much  as  ber,  and  cannot  be  used  so  freely,  as  it  is  limited  to  the 
cases  where  the  predicate  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  precedes  the  subject. 
Early  N.H.G.  usage,  however,  is  still  occasionally  found. 

D.  ©er  is  usually  employed  if  the  clause  is  a  predicate  clause 
(see  270.  i) :  2)u  fcifi  nicfyt,  ber  bit  fcfyetnjl  (Fulda's  Talisman,  i,  4).    28et 
is  used  if  the  relative  has  a  general  or  indefinite  meaning:  3ld) 
SScitercbeit,  nnr  bleiben,  icer  roir  ftnb  (ib.,  i,  10). 

152.  i.  SBelcfyer  (,  icelcfye,  rcelcfyeS)  who,  which  is  inflected  as  a  strong 
adjective  except  in  the  gen.  masc.  and  neut.  sing.,  where  the  strong 
ending  =e§  is  used  instead  of  the  weak  =en.  For  those  places  where 
rcelcfyer  is  not  usually  found  see  151.  3.  A  and  B.  In  the  constructions 
mentioned  in  151.  2  icelcbet  is  either  exclusively  used  or  is  occasion- 
ally found. 

2,.  SBelcfycr  is  much  used  in  some  parts  of  Germany,  where  it  is 
preferred  to  ber,  and  is,  in  general,  very  useful  where  a  number  of 
relatives  occur  in  the  sentence  in  relieving  ber,  thus  varying  the 
construction,  especially  where  one  relative  depends  upon  a  word  in 
another  relative  clause.  Or,  on  the  other  hand,  ber  may  relieve 
roeld)er ;  and  indeed  it  is  more  common  in  case  there  are  two  relatives 
to  use  first  rcelcber  and  then  ber :  @S  ijl  eine  Sfteifje  »on  Safyren  tyer,  al3  jit 
bent  Qlrttflerieregtment,  icelcfyeg  f)ter  in  ©arnifon  ftefyt,  ein  <£ait!ptmann  »erfe|t 
vcttrbe,  ber  au3  bent  SSeften  S)etttfd)Ianb3  fant(Wildenbruch).  Grammarians 
usually  state  that  either  ber  or  reelct/er  can  be  used  in  parallel  clauses 


153.  i.  (i).  RELATIVE    PRONOUNS  205 

depending  upon  the  same  word,  but  that  they  should  not  relieve 
each  other  :  JlBorte,  berett  <2inn  man  einmat  gefafjt,  bie  man  fid;  einmal  ing 
©ebddjtniS  eingeprd'gt  l)at.  Even  good  authors  do  not  always  follow 
this  rule,  but  sometimes  prefer  to  change  relatives  for  the  sake  of 
variety  of  expression,  or  as  in  the  following  sentence  to  heighten 
a  contrast:  Xscfy  fceginne  nteine  @efd;id;te  mit  unfcegrenjtem  SBofyliroflen 
foirofjl  gegen  SWitirelt  unb  9lad;irett,  alg  and)  gcgen  mid;  felber  itnb  atle  mir 
int  Sauf  ber  (Srjafylung  sorubergleitenben  (£d;atteitbilber  beg  grofjen  Gnttfefyeng, 
<§eing  unb95ergef)eng  —  beg  unenb(id;en  SSerbcng,  iceld;eg  man  5l>eltentivicfelung 
nennt,  njelcfyeS  freilid;  ein  irenig  intereffanter  unb  reidjer  alg  biefeg  Sud;  ift, 
bag  aber  and;  nid;t,  trie  biefeg  SBurt),  in  brei  Seilen  $u  einem  befriebigenben 
5lbfd?lufj  fommen  mufj  (Raabe's  Hungerpastor,  chap.  i). 

a.  Some  grammarians  claim  that  toeld^,  not  ber,  should  be  used  if  the  relative 
is  preceded  by  the  demonstrative  ber  and  followed  by  the  article  ber,  to  avoid 
an  unpleasant  repetition  ;  but  the  colloquial  language  does  not  seem  to  be 
averse  to  this  combination,  as  the  words  are  so  differently  accented  that 
they  receive  quite  a  different  pronunciation  :  2ld),  bag  [i.  e.  bie  @d)neiber  the 
daddy-long-legs}  ftnb  bie,  bie  bie  langcn  Seine  fyabeu  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  XXX). 
H.  Seidel  in  his  story  Die  iveifsen  Ratten  facetiously  calls  attention  to  a 
warning  notice  in  a  public  park  which  shows  a  too  liberal  use  of  this  repe- 
tition :  2)ie,  bie  bie,  bie  bie  9ln(ao,en  befcfyabtgen,  jur  Slnjetge  brtngen,  erfyalten  fiiuf  Saler 


153.  Both  ber  and  reeld)er  are  replaced  by  other  words  in  the 
following  cases  :  — 

i.  In  the  nom.  and  ace.  relation  traS  is  usually  employed  under 
the  following  circumstances  : 

(i)  If  the  antecedent  is  a  word  of  general  or  indefinite  meaning, 
or  expresses  a  collective  idea,  such  as  ba§,  etntgeg,  etn3,  etiuaS  (or  wag), 
folrt)e3,  ein  anbereS,  nid?t§,  atleg,  meferereS,  manrt;e§,  *>iele3,  aflerfyanb,  atterlei, 
baS  tnfjdien,  irenig,  &c.,  a  neuter  abstract  noun  or  adjective-substantive 
(tui8  €;rt)cme  the  beautiful,  &.C.,  especially  a  superlative,  ba§  siBefie  that 
which  is  best],  also  a  neut.  noun  denoting  a  material  or  a  collective 
idea,  provided  the  reference  is  to  an  indefinite  mass  or  amount: 
(JinS  aber  imp  id),  traS  ifit  nid)t  mefcr  iript  :  ira3  Oted^t  unb  Itnredjt,  @ut 
unb  336fe  tfl  (Hauptmann's  Versunkene  Glocke,  p.  106).  @ie  fprad)  irie 
Oon  etiraS,  ira§  fte  gar  nid?t3  anging  (H.  Bohlau's  Rangierbahnhof,  p.  43). 
@ie  fa^)  aber  nidjtg,  n:aS  urn  fie  forging.  (SS  gifct  tin  iJeben  fo  mand?e8, 
n?a3  nnS  rdtfcll;aft  erfcfteint.  @r  oer^reifelt  fiber^au^t  an  attem  «§ei(,  tvaS  ber 
2>ienfdil)eit  burd)  bie  ®efet(fd)aft  ^n  teil  irerben  fann  (Albert  Geiger  in 
Die  Nation,  loth  March,  1900).  SWan  fann  bag  ja  nid^t  im  (Sntfernteften 
augfriirfen:  bag  a)i^fteriiun,  ruag  fid)  bamalS  OoU^og  (Hauptmann's  Michael 
Kramer,  Act  3).  $ltte3  2Qefy,  iraS  er  mir  bereitet  fyat  (Fontane's  Schach 
von  Wuthcnow,  chap.  xxi).  £>aS  <§df;Iid?e;  iva8  in  feincm  @efid)te  lag, 
iwurbe  burd;  fein  gefattigeS  9?ene^nien  ^uritd5gebrdngt.  @r  ^reifet  bag  «§od)fle, 
bag  3?ejte,  wag  bag  «§eq  fid;  rcunfcfyt  (Schiller),  lint  i^n  ^er  irar  aHeg  ©etier 
lefcenbig,  irag  auf  ber  -^eite  bie  Sunifd^irule  aug^iifcriiten  Vflegt  (Storm's  Ein 
grttnes  Blatf).  Sag  ivenige  ©ett>,  ivag  id;  Oefaf?,  >rar  in  ben  nddjflen  2agen 
oertan  (Raabe's  /?/i?  Leute  aus  dem  IValde,  chap.  x).  QBenn  bamalg 
ein  Sdemann  gefommen  n:dre,  ein  finger,  wa^r^aft  finger,  ^ergengfluger,  unb 
bie  <Saat  geflreut  ^atte,  auS  ber  <&eil  fur  bie  SWenfcfyen  anfge^t,  einjtg  unt>  atlein, 


206  PRONOUNS  153.  i.(i). 

33ergebung,  23ergeBung,  SSergefcung,  ftott  beg  taufcen,  toten  Seugg,  n?ag  fo 
fcfyone  @d?ulmetflernanten  I)at,  3»d?t  unb  Drbnung,  tyeilfame  (Strenge,  unb  rcie 
eg  fyeifjt  ufnx  (Wildenbruch's  Neid,  p.  127). 

QBag  often  points  to  a  definite  person  or  thing,  the  speaker  at 
first  intentionally  making  the  reference  indefinite  by  the  use  of  icag, 
reserving  the  definite  information  for  the  last  part  of  the  statement : 
£>ag  erfte,  reag  ifynen  fn'er  fcegegnete,  tear  bte  Jtritgergfrau(  Fontane's  Vor  dem 
Sturme,  IV.  3). 

SBag  is  also  used  here  contemptuously  of  a  person :  2Bag  ift  bag 
fitr  eiu  ungefcacfeneg  25rotcfeen  (referring  to  Emil),  irag  ba  fjtnten  ft|t  unb 
mitfjmcfyt  (H.  Behlau's  Rangterbahnhof,  p.  208). 

The  use  of  rcog  as  described  above  seems  to  be  the  outcome  of 
a  long  process  of  differentiation.  Earlier  in  the  period  bag  and 
rceldjeg  were  also  used  here.  This  older  usage  is  still,  especially  in 
elevated  diction,  not  infrequently  found,  as  the  process  of  differen- 
tiation is  not  yet  completed  :  QSieleg,  bag  btefem  QSolfe  gut  fnejj  (Nietzsche's 
Zarathuslra,  p.  80).  It  is  possible  that  there  is  often  here  an 
intentional  use  of  bag  or  irelcfyeg  by  way  of  differentiation,  to  refer 
to  something  definite,  definite  at  least  to  the  speaker:  3n  beni 
@d?Iaf£tmmer  .  .  .  ba  ware  an  einer  SBanb,  fo  |te§  eg,  em  33orfyang  unb 
unter  bent  SSorfyang  etvtag,  bag  niemanb  fannte,  niemanb  gefetjen  ^atte,  jreit 
feine  «§anb  ben  33orf;ang  luften  burfte  (Wildenbruch's  Neid,  p.  14).  5(n 
biefer  <5tefle  fotlte  icf;  nun  etrcag  erlefcen,  Jtetc^eg  ntirf)  ^eute  nod?  in  ber 
(Sttnnerung  init  ©eifterfpanb  in  tiefjler  @eele  krit^rt  (Raabe's  Die  Leute 
aus  dem  Walde,  chap.  x).  We  cannot  here,  however,  in  any  case 
absolutely  determine  whether  the  bag  or  rceld?eg  is  used  merely  as 
a  survival  of  older  usage  to  indicate  a  collective  idea  or  something 
indefinite  or  general,  or  is  employed  intentionally  in  accordance  with 
modern  usage  elsewhere,  to  refer  to  something  definite.  Thus  bag 
and  irelcfyeg  are  now  as  formerly  still  used  with  both  of  these  two 
groups  of  meanings,  with  a  tendency,  however,  toward  the  second 
group,  while  ivag,  which  also  once  fluctuated  between  both  of  them, 
is  now  established  in  the  first  group,  as  described  above. 

(a)  In  the  genitive  relation,  tteffen  is  used  under  the  same  circum- 
stances which  require  rcag  in  the  nom.  or  ace.  relation :  @g  fyanbelt 
ftd?,  £elmutlp,  nicfyt  urn  bag,  vceffen  2)u  fccbarfji,  fonbern  eg  fyanbelt  fid?  unt  bag, 
tteffen  bte  Jltnber  fcebitrfen  (Fontane's  Unwiederbringlich,  chap.  vi).  3n- 
beffen  fceunrufyigte  ityn  bag,  njag  id?  ifym  \?on  bent  SBetragen  feineg  ^Baterg  in 
biefer  Qlngelegentyeit  fagte,  unb  atleg,  rceffen  er  o^nef?tn  t»on  i^m  gerrartig  fetn 
ju  muffen  gtaubte  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxvi).  Also  here 
the  older  form  beffen  is  still  used :  bag  ®Ieid?e,  beffen  fte  tfyre  ©egner 
anflagten  (Keller's  Seldwyla,  I.  p.  194) ;  bag  unaugfpredjltd?  Snnige  atter 
SKujtf,  termoge  beffen  fte  alg  ein  gan^  tfertrauteg  5?arabifg  an  ung  t>oru6erjie{;t 
(Schopenhauer's  Die  Welt  als  Wille  und  Vorstellung,  p.  347). 

(2)  With  reference  to  a  thing,  irag  is  now  usually  used  in  sub- 
stantive clauses.  The  student  should  remember  this  especially  in 
case  of  clauses  which  are  in  apposition  with  eg :  0lid?t  8wd?t  trar 
eg,  rcag  feine  uerfleUte  ^artnacfigfeit  enbltd?  beftegte  (Schiller).  @te^t  auf ! 
jtnb'g  biefe  nidjt  unb  biefer  Drt,  |  »rag  eud?  jit  2Boben  gtetyt  (Grillparzer's 
Libussa,  i).  (5g  n?ar  etne  grope  0leigung,  Jvag  fte  jufammenfu^rte  (Fontane's 


153.2.  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  207 

Stechlin, XIII. p.  164).  SOBat eg  fin £taum,wag  fte erlebten? (Wildenbruch's 
Neid,  p.  61). 

Throughout  the  entire  present  period  bag  is  more  or  less  fre- 
quently found  in  substantive  clauses  instead  of  wag  as  a  survival 
of  older  usage :  SBag  ifl'g,  bag  ben  SBefe^I  beg  Jtcnigg  f)inbert  (Goethe's 
Iphigenie,  4,  2).  SBag  war  eg  nur  gewefen,  bag  afle  SWenfdjen  $u  itym  tyin* 
509?  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap,  xxxvii). 

When  the  predicate  of  the  sentence  precedes  the  relative  clause, 
as  in  the  preceding  examples,  the  relative  (either  ber  or  weld?er)  is 
often  attracted  to  the  gender  and  number  of  the  predicate :  2)er 
Sweifel  ift'g,  ber  ©uteg  bofe  ntad?t  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  5,  3).  2)enu  eben 
biefe  faiferlicfce  2)iilb'  nnb  @nabe  ift'g,  bie  fte  bigfyer  fo  imgefyeiter  ntip"6raud?ten 
(Goethe's  Gotz,  3,  i).  2>iefe  Sragen  unb  anbere  ntefyr  waren  eg,  weldje  bie 
itntern  SRdume  beg  4>aufe8  bewegten  (Raabe's  Friihling,  chap.  xiii). 

(3)  If  the  reference  is  to  the  idea  contained  in  a  whole  sentence  : 
<£ie  fiircfytete  mo^t  —  wag  auc^  nnrflid)  gef^at)  —  ba^  ic^  U)r  auf  aUe  mogltcfce 
SSeife  bie  ^erfcinbung  wiberraten  wurbe.    In  the  classics  of  the  eighteenth 
century  we  still  find  iretcfyeg  used  here  as  well  as  wag,  and  it  even 
occurs  sometimes  in  the  language  of  to-day.      For  the  sake  of 
emphasis  or  a  contrast  both  wag  and  welcfyeg  may  be  used  here  in 
the  same  sentence :  S)afcon  fagte  er  ju  niemanbem  etwag,  wag  freilicfy  ein 
93ergei)en  war,  aOer  welc^eg  ifjm  borjuicerfen  mir,  (cinent  <8o{;ne,  nicfyt  jiemt 
(R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xvi). 

8Beld?eg  should  not  be  employed  if  ambiguity  might  arise  from  its 
use  :  (Sr  tyat  ben  SSerfauf  afcgei'c^Ioffcn,  wag  (or  sometimes  weldjcg)  id?  u)m 
wtberraten  ^atte,  but  2)iein  Sreunb  ^at  ein  neueg  «§aug  gefauft,  wag  (referring 
to  the  fact  of  the  purchase,  but  welcfyeg  or  bag  if  the  reference  is  to 
the  house  itself)  mir  gefaflt. 

Both  wag  and  (perhaps  less  commonly)  wetcfyeg  are  used  when  the 
relative  refers  collectively  to  two  or  more  things  or  ideas  4in 
the  preceding  proposition :  (Setn  $ct$  Ijdngt  an  ber  9Banb  gwtfcfycn  eincr 
5lu8wa!^l  jlarf  angeraurf;ter  ^feifcn,  ^wifd^en  3Ba|16imbeln,  •§irfd;geweii)en, 
Seinwanbfdrfdjen  mit  (Sdmereien,  wag  atteg  im  fcet)agltd?en  2)urd;einanber  fid) 
barfiettt  (H.  Bohlau's  Rangierbahnhof,  p.  5).  @o  erfannte  er,  bap  ieneg 
Sender  nidjt  nad)  bent  Stuffe  ^inaugging,  otelmetyr  ftd;  jwei  5u0  ^od)  iilber  ber 
ftdjern  @rbe  tefanb,  welcfyeg  fceibeg  er  bet  etlidjer  aSefonnenfyett  oi^ne  grope 
©eifteganfirengung  genau  ^dtte  wiffen  fijnnen  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister, 
III.  p.  41). 

In  another  case  weldjeg  is  still  not  infrequent — when  the  relative 
is  used  as  a  predicate  and  the  reference  is  not  to  individuals 
but  to  the  idea  contained  in  some  adjective  or  noun :  5Diein  SBruber 
iji  reid;  or  ein  2Witliond'r,  weld?eg  (or  perhaps  more  commonly  wag)  id) 
nid)t  bin. 

(4)  SSag  is  now  avoided  in  choice  language  if  the  reference  is  to 
one  object.     See  157.     Earlier  in  the  period,  however,  this  usage 
was  not  infrequent  even  in  the  best  authors,  and  still  survives  in 
loose  colloquial  speech  :  Dttilie  erinnerte  ftd)  jcbeg  Sffiorteg,  wag  gefprod^en 
warb  (Goethe).     3l?r  woflt  bag  ©ut  oerfaufen,  wag  fiber  gweityunbert  Sa^re 
in  ber  Samitie  ifl?  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  I.  p.  52). 

2.  When  the  relative  pronoun  refers  to  a  thing,  it  is  very  often 


208  PRONOUNS  153.2. 

replaced  after  prepositions  by  a  compound  adverb  consisting  of  rco 
or  ivor  (before  a  vowel)  and  the  desired  preposition  :  bie  &el>er,  iromit' 
id;  biefeS  fcfyreibe,  ifl  fefyr  fcfytecfyt.  These  compound  adverbs  cannot  be 
freely  formed,  but  occur  only  in  case  of  the  preps,  enumerated  in 
141.  5.  B.  This  adverbial  construction  can  even  be  used  of  per- 
sons if  taken  collectively:  @r  fcefant  30  gcfangen,  rcotton'  auf  ber  <8tefle 
20  aufgefedngt  nntrben.  These  compounds  are  separable  in  popular 
speech  :  G§  war  ctn  Socb,  n?o  ber  SSirtD  burd)  pftff.  See  also  B,  below. 

A.  Besides   these   relative   adverbs   the   appropriate   forms   of  bet    and 
ttetcftet,  as  mtt  bent,  mtt  n?eld)em,  &c.,  are  also  employed  here.    Although  the 
relative  adverbs  are  very  common  in  popular  and  colloquial  speech,  the 
literary   language   seems  to  prefer  the   declined   pronominal  forms.      The 
adverbial  forms  are,  however,  always  used  in  the  following  cases  :  (i)  When 
the  antecedent  is  a  whole  sentence :  £>et  SSatet  fyatte  nad)  bem  Seljne  gefcfytcf t, 
Woven  btefcr  ftei(id)  nidjtg  etfafyten  fyatte.     In  the  cases  given  in  2,  above,  where 
the  adverbial  forms  are  not  used,  ber  or  weldjet  must  be  employed.     With  the 
prepositions  tttegen  and  fyalb  the  short  gen.  form  of  tt»ag,  i.  e.  tt>eg,  is  usually  used. 
See  151.  i.  b.     (2)  When  the  antecedent  is  an  expression  of  general  or  in- 
definite meaning,  such  as  afleg,  nidjtg,  &c. :   @r  loufjte  a((eg,  toovon  id?  nttt  Sfynen 
gefyrodjen  fyatte  He  knew  everything  of  which  I  had  spoken  to  you.     (3)  After 
names  of  places  we  find  \vo,  compounded  with  f)tn  or  Ijer  according  to  the 
meaning :  ©umbmnen,  njofyin  id)  in  ©arnifon  fam  Gumbinnen,  to  which  place 
I  came  to  join  the  garrison. 

a.  The  relative  pronoun  must  be  used  if  any  ambiguity  might  arise  from 
the  use  of  the  relative  adverb :  ($t  fyat  ifjm  viele  S3cmn"trfe  gemadjt,  von  benen 
(with  reference  to  93or»urfc ;  _h>ovon  would  refer  to  the  statement  of  the  main 
proposition)  abet  ntcfyte  in  bie  Dffcntlicfyfett  gefomnten  tft. 

The  relative  pronoun  is  also  usually  (not,  however,  always)  used  when  the 
antecedent  is  a  strongly  accented  determinative,  as  bet',  bet'jeiuge,  fotcfyer,  or  as 
cm  in  the  meaning  of  ein  frlcfyet :  (S3  teat  eine  Stadjt,  in  toelcfyer  (rather  than 
ivotin)  man  nicfyt  getn  etnen  ^>unb  fytnausiagt.  2te3  ntd)t  fold)e  Siid)et,  aitS  bencn  bu 
uicf>tg  letnen  fannfi.  Even  here,  however,  the  relative  adverb  is  used  if  the 
antecedent  is  a  neut.  pronoun  of  general  or  indef.  meaning :  35et  Hebe  ©ott 
gebe  U)ter  Seele  bag,  tt>o$u  et  fte  gefdjajfen,  Stcitbe. 

B.  Instead  of  the  relative  adverb  we  still  find  sometimes  the  demonstrative 
adverb,  a  construction  which  was  very  common  earlier  in  the  period :  9lu 
btefet  @te((e,  einet  SBalbltcfytuno.,  tag  bag  £ait3,  bvin  (now  more  commonly  in  bent 
or  ttotin)  ?ifoi)g  unb  fetn  Stitbet  @tevl)an  ivo^nten  (Fontane).    These  adverbial 
compounds  are  now  little  used  with  reference  to  the  thought  in  a  preceding 
sentence,  but  this  usage  was  common  earlier  in  the  period :  2)te  ©efeflfdwft 
lacfyte,  nnb  ct  IjetjUd)  nttt,  big  et  in  cinen  ^uften  »etfte(,  bcr  unfetn  St^furg  eine  3eit 
lang  untetbrad&,  batauf  benn  ber  junge  SWenfd)  i»teber  bas  SBort  natjm  (Goethe's 
Werther>2itt\  I.  Julius). 

Earlier  in  the  period  such  adverbs  also  referred  to  persons,  and  were  often 
separable :  ein  SBeib,  ba  ber  SDfann  feine  greube  an  Ijat  (Luther),  ben  Serg,  ba  bu 
auf  ftofjnetf  (Luther). 

C.  This  adverbial  construction,  except  in  the  case  mentioned  in  2,  above, 
must  not  be  used  of  persons,  as  is  often  heard  in  the  language  of  the  common 
people :  2>cr  ftreunb,  rait  bent  or  tueldjera  (not  tttomit)  id)  geretft  bin.    Earlier  in  the 
period,  however,  these  adverbs  were  also  used  with  reference  to  persons  even 
in  the  literary  language  :  ber,  ftomit  man  fprtd)t  (Hagedorn) ;  bag  2Rabd)en,  tt»ovon 
bu  geftern  bag  £ieb  fangft  (Goethe).    3d)  bad;te  ber  lieben  SBriiber,  ber  aBeftfatett,  toomtt 
id)  fo  oft  in  ©ottingen  getrunfen  (Heine). 

3.  Other  adverbs  and  conjunctions  can  also  take  the  place  of  the 
relatives  after  prepositions  and  sometimes  elsewhere. 


153.3-  MI)-          RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  209 

A.  9&o,  rocker,  rootyin,  or  in  choice  prose  and  poetry  ba,  bafjer,  bafjin, 
for  place  :  £)er  $ta£,  rco  (=  an  rceld;em)  er  jknb;  bie  <Stabt,  roofer  (=  Son 
n?eld;er)  cr  fam ;  bie  €>tabt,  itofyin  (nad;  rceld;er)  er  gefyt. 

B.  2Bie  for  manner:  £>ie  Qlrt  unb  SEeife,  nrie  (=  in  reeldjer)  er  aitf* 
trat. 

C.  For  time : 

a.  WU  when,  if  actual  occurrences  or  conditions  are  recorded : 
tm  3al)re  1890,  alS  id;  in  SBerltn  flubierte. 

b.  SCBenn  or  rcann  (now  rather  infrequent,  occurring  only  as  a 
survival  of  earlier  usage)  when,  if  not  a  definite  actual  occurrence 
is  before  the  mind,  but  something  that  is  or  was  wont  to  happen,  or 
a  point  in  future  time  :  5tn  fcfyonen  9(6enben,  rcenn  irtr  »or  ber  Stir  ft£en. 
2ftand;mai  in  tiefer  9lacfyt,  rcenn  afleg  rings  umtyer  nu)te,  fang  fte  mir. 
D  fcfyoner  Sag,  tvenn  enbtid;  ber  ©otbat  |    ing  £efcen  fjeimfetyrt,  in  bie 
2)?enf^lic^fett  (Schiller's  Piccolommi,  i,  4). 

c.  9Bo  when,  the  most  common  of  the  temporal  particles  used 
either  of  actual  occurrences  or  conditions  in  the  past  or  present,  or 
of  some  point  in  the  future,  largely  replacing  al§  in  case  of  present 
and  often  wenn  in  case  of  future  time  :  llnb  mit  ber  5)dmmerung  fam  ein 
^ugenBlicf,  rco  jebe  @ttmme  Derfiummte  (Raabe).     3cft  tin  in  einein  QUter, 
ivo  mir  bte  fc^onen  2Borte  nicfytS  me^r  ^elfen  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  p.  75). 
3d)  rear  in  ben  glCirflicfyen  3afyren,  «io  im3  atteS  gefatlt.     Ginft  fommt  fcet 
SKorgcn,  njo  i(^  .  . .  bte  9Burg  fc^on  frit!^'  Uertaffe  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen, 
II.  i,  2).    5)er  Qtfcenb  barf  nie  fommen,  tuo  id?  fyier  fo  jiiinbe  (H.  von 
Hofmannsthal's  Die  Hochzeit  der  Sobeide,  p.  63). 

d.  2) a  is  often  used  instead  of  ivo,  quite  commonly  earlier  in  the 
period  and  not  infrequently  still  in  choice  prose  :  @te  mitffen  Oerfucfyen, 
ftcfy  in  bte  %t\t  5uritcfjuoerfe|en,  ba  (or  more  commonly  ico  or  ate)  and? 
<£ie  iung  rcaren.     SSon  bent  3*ityunft  an,  ba  (Curtius) ;  bis  ben  Qtugenfclicf, 
ba  mid;  3f)r  SBiHet  aitS  bent  ©rfjlafe  trerft  (Goethe). 

e.  Also  the  conjunction  ba^  is  used  for  iro,  alS,  or  wtnn :  SBafjrenb 
ber  3c't,  ba^  id;  2)on  Jlartog  auSarfceitete,  ^)at  ftd;  in  mir  SjieleS  tierdnbert 
(Schiller).     8'reunbe,  btefeS  ifl  ivo^I  bag  Ie|te  2)iat,  bap  id;  ben  Jtrug  end; 
fit^re  jum  2Eunbe  (Goethe).     SSdl;rettb  ber  23iertelftunbe,  ba^  id;  biefe  fletne 
rcei^e  <£>anb  in  ber  meintgen  get)alten  fyabe,  l)at  bag  i&erj  beg  jungen  Dtngeg 
fafl  grceitaufenb  (£d;Idge  getan  (Raabe's  Friihling,  chap.  xiii).     2)te  brei 
3Konate  —  bie  fttrje  3<:>t/  bap  id;  ^ier  6ei  eud;  futteve  (colloq.  cat,  board), 
Bin  id;  ^caiijtg  ^funb  fd;>t'erer  getcorben  (M.  Dreyer's  Drei,  i).      It  is 
often   more   common   now  to   use   an   adverb  (u?o,  &c.)  here.     In 
certain  set  expressions,  however,  baf}  is  still  frequent :  (£3  finb  jtcolf 
3at)re,  bafj  id;  fyter  u-o^ne.     See  also  271.  II. 

D.  The  English  such  as  is  translated  in  various  ways : 

(i)  By  njte  (earlier  in  the  period  ale)  followed  usually  by  a  pronoun 
of  the  third  person  referring  to  the  antecedent  (see  251.  II.  A. if): 
2)ag  war  ein  Jlampf,  nne  itjn  feiner  nod;  gcfefyen  tjat.  @r  jeigte  eine  iRit^rung, 
line  j.ener  fleine  2)tenfl  fte  gar  nid;t  rccrt  icar.  A  fold;,  berarttg,  berlei,  fo 
may  precede  the  line  (ale!) :  (2old;e  (berartige,  berlet,  fo  grof e)  <£d;iffe,  itie 
(fte)  (;icr  gekut  wrbett,  ftc^t  man  anbencdrtg  felten.  €>o  ein  arnteS 
alg  (now  usually  une)  id;  Inn  (Goethe). 

p 


210  PRONOUNS  153.3.  MI)- 

Instead  of  the  personal  pronoun  we  also  find  ein=  in  the  sing,  and 
ntlfy  in  the  pi. :  2luf  ber  @tirn  fyat  eg  ein  £orn,  after  mcJjt  etn  fo  frummeS 
jrie  bag  Stagljorn  einS  tyat.  .  .  .  93on  feinen  ttter  <§ufen  tft  ber  etne  ton  ©oil*, 
.  .  .  ber  uierte  n?ic  einer  »on  ben  fctauen  ©tetnen,  nne  2ftama  tt>rlrf)c  um  ben 
£al3  tragt  (Wildenbruch's  ./V«tf,  p.  100). 

(2)  After  fold?*  also  by  the  usual  relatives:  fold)e  9Bud)er,  bie  baju 
fceitragen,  ba§  £erj  $u  fcerufyigen. 

(3)  By  bergletcfyen  (uninflected) :  (£3  iiterftel  U)n  ein  Unfce^agen,  bergleid)en 
er  in  feinent  Seben  nod)  nicfyt  em:pfunben  fjatte.     See  also  161.  2. 

4.  <So  »iel  is  used  relatively:   5)ie  Sremben,  fo  inele  ibrer  amrefenb 
rcaren,  untertyielten  ftd?  gut. 

5.  In  the  nom.  and  ace.  of  all  genders  and  numbers  the  uninflected  form  fo 
was  much  used  for  ber  or  wetter  in  early  N.H.G.,  and  is  still  occasionally 
found  in  poetry  and  in  colloquial  language  in  some  sections :  93ittet  fur  bie  | 
fo  eud)  betcibigen  (Matt.  v.  44).    ©ag  ^aupt,  fo  er  ifym  abgctjauen  (Uhland).    Jtovf 
Ijodj !   So^nt  fic^  ja  nid^t,  ba^  man  ft^  uber  ben  ganjen  Otumrael  aufregt,  fo  man  Seben 
nennt  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjdhrige  Reich,  p.  45). 

6.  Earlier  in  the  period  berfetbe  was  used  occasionally  as  a  relative,  but  this 
usage  is  now  quite  rare  :  @o  fyteften  fte  nticfy  ac^t  £age  im  ©efanguig,  nac^  93cr(aitf  ber; 
fetbcn  (now  nat^  beven  Sertauf)  fie  mic^  jum  93er()6r  ^oten  Hefjen  (Goethe).    3)te  Jtretfe 
jit  itbetfdjauen,  innerfjatb  berfetben  (nowberen)  ft^  jene  tyofyen  ©etflcr  be»egten  (Heine). 

7.  In  concessive  clauses  tt>a3  fiir  ein  is  used  relatively  :  2Bo3  er  fur  £anbetg* 
gefdfjdfte  beginnt,  er  gewinnt  bet  alien. 

8.  The  relatives  ber  and  toelcfyer  are  not  popular  with  the  common  people, 
and  are  often  here  replaced  by  the  demonstrative  ber,  the  relative  adverbs  too 
and  als,  the  adverbial  compounds  toomit  (see  2.  C,  above),  &c.,  and  the  un- 
inflected  h>aS :    9ld)   SSater,  fagte   «$anfe(,  id)  fe^e  nac^>  metnem  toei^en  ^d^d?en, 
ba^  ft^t  oben  auf  bent  S)ad)  (Grimm's  Mdrchen).    iDas  fc^Ied)te  SKeffer,  tto  (=  bag) 
er  f>at  (Hebel).    3fl  bo<^  a((  ntand^e  ju  0?ang  unb  @tanb  gefontmen,  too  (=  ber,  fern, 
dat.  sing.)  ntan'g  nidjt  an  ber  SBtege  gefungen  fyat,  baft  bie  ntat  toirb  gnabige  5rau 
^ei^en  unb  »ierlang  fafyren  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjdhrige  Reich,  p.  43).    SBer  ftnb 
bie,  too  (=  toetc^e)  eben  gefomnten  ftnb  (ib.,  p.  63).    2)ag  DuecffUber  in  ber  9Jct)re  ifl 
bemjenigen,  ats  in  bent  ^olblein  ftefyt,  gteidj  (Hebel).    5)er  ^ned;t,  toaS  mit'm  SBagen 
toar,  ^at  fo  toa3  bergteid^en  g'rebt  (Anzengniber). 

154.  Neither  ber  nor  rrelcber  can  be  omitted  as  in  English :  £a§  93udj, 
ba§  (or  rceldjeg)  id)  geflern  gelefen  fyabe,  ifi  intereffant  The  book  I  read,  &c. 

155.  i.    QSer  who,  whoever,  somebody  who  and  tra§  what,  which, 
whatever  are  inflected  exactly  as  the  interrogative  iver  and  ica3. 
See  147.  i. 

a.  The  old  gen.  toes  is  sometimes  still  used  instead  of  toefien  in  poetry  and 
biblical  language  :  2Be3  bag  Herfc  »o(  ijl  |  beg  gefjet  ber  Munb  fber  (Matt.  xii.  34). 
The  neut.  gen.  toeg  is  still  common  also  in  prose  in  the  compounds  nvgfyaib, 
toeStoegen ;  see  151.  i.  b.  The  masc.  and  neut.  gen.  toeg  is  also  still  occasionally 
found  in  concessive  clauses,  where  it  is  used  seemingly  as  an  adjective 
modifying  a  following  gen. :  (Sincnt  SKdbcfjen,  »eS  <£tanbe0  (of  whatever  rank) 
eg  fei,  ifl  bie  grage  uber  i^re  2Bo^tgeilatt  ein  toid^tigeg  problem.  This  attributive  use 
of  toag  has  taken  the  place  of  an  older  partitive  gen.  construction,  as  explained 
in  147.  I.  E.  The  original  partitive  gen.  is  now  only  rarely  found :  S)em 
©ifdjof  gontten  totr  toittig,  »a$  Sfjren  er  and)  ^at  (Freiligrath,  2,  174).  It  is  still 
quite  common  in  case  of  adjective-substantives,  but  is  felt  rather  as  a  nom.  or 
ace.  in  apposition  with  the  toag :  (§g  fcfyten,  atg  tocKte  jeber  fid)  »on  allent  entbtc^en, 
toaS  cr  nur  93etoegtid}eg  befa^  (Goethe's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  I,  3).  It  is 
elsewhere  usually  replaced  by  the  prepositional  construction  with  »cn  or  now 
more  commonly  with  an:  <So  fiiirjte  id;  alleg,  toag  id;  »on  [or  an]  ©cfdjirr 


157.6.  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  211 

erfd)tep£en  fottnte,  in  gteid)e«  SSerberfcen  (ib.,  I,  i).  The  prep,  phrase  often  precedes 

the  \m& :  3Kartnja  Jjatte,  urn  ftd)  ntcglidjft  rafd)  an  £ed)uif  anjuetgnen,  t»a3  iljt  nad) 

biefer    {Rid)tung  fefjlte,  in  ifjvcm  itberetfcr  bie  recite  ^anb   iibermajjig   angeflrcngt 
(Schubin's  Refugium  peccatorum,  VIII). 

2.  Both  reer  and  wag  can  be  used  in  a  general  sense  without  an 
antecedent,  but  wag  has  a  wider  range  of  usefulness,  as  it  can  also 
have  an  antecedent ;  see  157. 

156.  9Ber  is  always  used  in  an  indefinite  sense  and  may  thus 
refer  to  one  or  more,  but  never  to  a  definite  person,  in  which  case 
ber  or  ber  welder  must  be  used :  9lur  wer  bie  €>efynfud)t  fennt,  weip,  wag 
id)  leibc  Only  those  (I  know  not  just  who  they  are)  who  know  what 
yearning  is  know  what  I  suffer,  but  2)er  mid;  liefrt  unb  fennt,  tjl  in  ber 
3Bette  He  who  (a  definite  person)  loves  me  and  knows  me  is  far 
away.     5)te  id)  inetne,  fyeift  fyrait  ^tnbelt'lee  (Hauptmann's  Versunkene 
Glocke,  Act  2,  1.  1047).     £>ie  (=  bie  weld)e,  here  definite  persons)  fo 
rebeten,  wufjten  fef)r  wof)!,  bap  fte  6ig  ju  einem  gewtffen  ©rabe  bie  offentlidje 
SKeinting  ifyreg  SSoIfeg  unb  £eereg  Winter  ftd)  fatten.     28er  bag  gefagt  fyat,  ifl 
ein  \Jugner  Whoever  (somebody,  but  I  don't  know  who)  said  that  is 
a  liar.     2Ber  nfcer  tyereinfam,  ba8  war  ber  SSil^elm  Who  do  you  suppose 
came  in?     But  of  course  you  don't  know.     Just  think,    it  was 
William.      Quite  different  is  ber,  ireldjer  Ijeretnfam,  icar  9J5iIf)etm  It 
was  William  who  came  in.    @3  tut  bod)  tco^I,  rcen  (somebody  whom) 
man  Iteb  l;at,  einmat  itncber  mit  5(ugen  jit  fe^en.     In  these  sentences  the 
relative  nxr  still  contains  something  of  its  original  indef.  nature ;  see 
145.  e.  Note  2. 

a.  The  double  construction  is  employed  after  toet  as  found  after  jentanb 
described  in  145.  b.  Note  i :  ©vujkn  @ie  Sasatmt  .  .  .  unb  tocm  Ste  enm  ©ute3 
(or  ©utem)  bcgegncn  (Goethe  an  Karl  August,  I,  38). 

157.  2BaS  can  be  used  in  the  same  indef.  sense  as  rcer :  2Ga3  er 
fagt,  ifl  gut.     3Sa3  can  have  an  antecedent,  if  that  antecedent  be 
a  word   expressing  an   indef.    general    idea,    such   as   an    indef. 
pronoun,  a  neut.  adjective  used  substantively,  or  a  thought  con- 
tained in   a  whole   sentence,    but   it   should   never   have   for   an 
antecedent  the  name  of  a  def.  object,  though  some  good  authors  do 
thus  use  it  instead  of  the  more  correct  ujeld)er  or  ber  (see  153.  i.  (4)) : 
QlUeS,  u;a3  cr  fagt,  ifi  gut.  2)a3  icar  bag  ©djltinmfie,  n?aS  id;  befitrd)tete.    SKein 
9Bruber  ifl  retd),  waS  (here  also  n:e(d;eg  but  not  now  bag;   for  fuller 
explanation  see  153.  i.  (3))  id)  nid)t  Inn.     S)ag  ®ut,  wag  (instead  of 
bag  or  iceldjeg)  ber  abater  ^intorlaffen  ^iat  (Freytag).    For  fuller  treatment 
of  the  use  of  wag  with  an  antecedent  see  153.  i  and  the  various 
articles  thereunder. 

«.  In  early  N.H.G.  bag  could  also  be  used  in  plain  substantive  clauses, 
where  it  is  now  usually  replaced  by  nxitf  :  35 nb  lucr  md)t  tyat  |  pen  bent  Untb  man 
ncmen  |  and)  bas  cr  l)at  (Mark  iv.  25).  £>a3  is  most  common  in  such  substan- 
tive clauses  as  are  in  apposition  with  an  eg,  but  even  there  only  in  poetry  or 
choice  prose  ;  see  153.  i.  (2). 

b.  2Ba3  is  also  used  of  persons  in  a  collective  sense  :  2Ba3  »cn  Dffijieren  im 
Sagcr  ttav,  Una-fee  jufantmengctvcmntelt  (Ompteda's  Sylvester -von  Ceyer,  XLIX). 
Sometimes  with  the  force  of  hxr  in  a  general  indefinite  sense :  gtufj  ufrt  fid», 
tt)ag  ein  3Jtcifier  toerben  ttiU  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  i).    2Ba3  in  this  meaning  is  now 

p  -z 


212  PRONOUNS  157.  b. 

more  commonly  employed  contemptuously :  2Ba3  fo  ^erumbuntmelt,  bringt  te  ju 
nidjts. 

158.  i.  The  adverbs  immer,  aud),  or  combined  aud)  tmmer,  also 
and)  nur,  nur  immer  standing  after  rcer  and  ica§,  or  several  words 
removed,  give  generalizing  force  to  the  relative,  and  are  much  like 
our  ever,  soever  in  whoever,  whatever,  &c. :  2Ber  immer  e3  gefagt  ^at, 
er  f)at  gelogen.  SSon  irent  er  e3  aucfy  immer  gefjort  fjafcen  mag,  e3  ifl  gelogen. 

2.  The  demon,  adverb  ba,  which  often,  especially  in  popular  lan- 
guage, follows  the  relative,  has  in  general  the  force  of  a  strengthening 
word,  which  often,  however,  can  scarcely  be  translated  (see  Note 
below) :  Jtomnte,  rcag  ba  nritt  Let  come  what  will.    2Ber  ba  unfl  Whoever 
will.    £>er  -§(!m:  |  ber  ba  ifl  |  ttnb  ber  ba  roar  |  £>nb  ber  ba  fompt(Rev.  i.  8). 
See  also  Mark  xi.  10,  Rom.  xii.  2.     This  use  of  ba,  though  in  early 
N.H.G.  more  common,  is  still  frequently  found  :  <®ie  tyarrten  ber  Singe, 
bie  ba  fommeu  foflten  (Keller).     @ie  fcfyritteu  »or  bem  SSater  unb  ber  Gutter 
Ijer,  nut  einer  gennffen  freterlicfyfett,  tcie  SWenfc^ett  bie  ba  rciffen,  bap  i^neti  eiue 
gro§e  unb  fcebeutfame  5lufgabe  ju  teil  gereorben  ifi  (Wildenbruch). 

Note.  The  ba  strengthens  the  already  general  meaning  of  fret  and  h>ag,  and  hence 
here  has  generalizing  force.  After  ber  and  Jcetdjer  (here  not  so  frequently  used  as  bet), 
ba  has  particularizing  force,  calling  especial  attention  to  the  particular  persons  or 
things,  or  the  particular  class  of  persons  or  things  in  question.  2)a  following  an  inter- 
rogative in  indirect  questions  has  particularizing  force  as  after  ber  and  lueldjer :  3Me 
©itten  ftehen  ernft  unb  |W(,  unb  Barren,  wag  ba  werben  ftnfl. 

3.  The  demonstrative  adv.  fo  is  placed  after  trag  to  denote  the 
general  idea  of  quality,  so  that  both  words  together  convey  the  idea 
of  such  things  as :   2Ba3  mag  njoljl  bartn  fein  ?    5ltter^anb 

•Kfetber,  ©c^ii^en,  Sanbev,  ^littertanb,  njag  fo  ^rauenjimmer  fcraucfyen. 


CONDITIONAL  RELATIVE. 

159.  9Ber  for  anybody  who,  if  any  one  has  the  same  declension 
as  the  relative  and  interrogative  rcer.     It  has  the  force  of  irenn  man, 
njenn  einer,  and  the  clause  in  which  it  is  found  is  treated  as  if  it  were 
a  conditional  clause,  the  verb  standing  at  the  end  of  the  clause : 
gretfjett?  (£in  fcfyijneg  SBort,  rcer'g  recfyt  oerflaube  (Goethe's  Egmont,  Act  4). 
gragm  ifl  feine  ©c^anbe,  rcer  ein  S)ing  ntc^t  reetp  (Grimm).     5)ag  (®eI6fi- 
Be^errfc^ung)  ifl  etne  fc^one  ©rrungenfc^aft,  wer  etn:a6  baoon  ^at  (Bismarck 
to  his  betrothed,  Feb.  23,  1847).     In  early  N.H.G.  and  as  late  as 
Goethe's  day,  ber  was  also  used  in  the  same  way. 

CORRELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

160.  i.  A.   Referring  to  a  def.  person  or  object : 

He  (,  she,  that  one  [of  a  thing]),  who  (which),  are  represented  in 
German  by  the  following  correlatives  : 

a.  Ser7  (tie,  bag)  jentge,  rcetcfyer  (rcelcfje,  iretdjeS)  or  ber  (bie,  ba3). 

b.  £er  (bie,  bae),  rceldjer  (tcelcfye,  itelc^eS). 

c.  2>er  (bie,  bag),  ber,  &c. 

d.  @r.  (jte),  ber  (bie) ;  see  2.  a,  below. 


161.  CORRELATIVE  PRONOUNS  213 

e.  Without  antecedent  (see  156) :  2)er  (not  ireldjer)  mid)  liefct,  ift  in 
ber  SSeite;  or  ber,  er  (see  2.  c,  below). 

f.  ©oldjer,  ber  (n?eld;er)  one  which,  of  such  a  nature  that,  such  as : 
foldje,  bte  rcurbig  ftnb  such  as  are  worthy.     We  often  find  trie  or  at3 
instead  of  ber  or  welder,  and  berarttg,  berlet,  [o,  ein  instead  of  fold} ; 
see  153.  3.  D. 

g.  SDetfelfo,  ber  the  same  one  who :  ©r  ift  eben  berfelfce,  ben  irir  geftern 
fafyen. 

h.  2)er,  fo  (early  N.H.G. ;  see  153.  5)  =  ber,  rceld>er. 

/'.  The  first  member  in  all  the  above  cases  can  also,  except  in  d 
and  e,  be  used  adjectively. 

B.  Referring  indefinitely  or  in  a  general  way  to  persons  or  to 
some  thing : 

a.  SSer,  ber :  SBer  bag  fagt,  ber  lugt.    See  156,  and  2,  b,  below. 

b.  £>a3  (or  baS'jenige,  ein§,  ettraS,  nid)tS,  adeS,  mancfyeS,  bieleS,  ba3  9?ejie, 
or  any  adjective-substantive),  wag  (not  now  usually  baS  or  rceldjeS,  as 
in  earlier  part  of  the  period) :  2Da8(ientge),  vcag  er  fagt,  ifl  ira^r.      (53 
gifct  im  £eteu  (o  mandjeS,  iraS  un3  rdtfel|aft  erfd)etnt.    See  also  153.  i.  (i). 

•2.  a.  The  form  er,  ber  (i.  A.  d,  above)  is  different  from  the  others. 
The  determinative  is  of  itself  indef.,  and  its  meaning  is  only 
determined  by  the  clause  that  always  follows  it.  Hence  the  forms 
a,  b,  c  are  used  when  it  is  a  question  of  the  who?  When  the 
subject  is  a  person  already  mentioned  and  thus  known  and  some 
particular  statement  with  regard  to  him  follows  in  the  relative 
clause,  er,  ber  are  used  :  @r  (Arneth,  the  Austrian  historian,  who  is 
the  subject  of  the  sketch  from  which  this  sentence  is  taken),  ber 
im  cjcmjen  etneg  ber  glitdlid^fien  SKenfdjenleben  t;tnter  fid?  fyat,  genojj  and)  bag 
grofje  ©litcf,  etne  SDhttter  ju  f)afcen,  bie  311  ben  Ijerrlicfyfien  beutfdjeu  frraueiv 
gerecfynet  icerben  mu§. 

Note.  Occasionally  er  is  used  determinatively  with  the  force  of  bcr(icnige)  :  5m* 
nti^  ftet)t  fie  (i.e.  bte  3)Ziifif)  auf  ber  unterflen  ©tufe :  gut  fiir  Jlinbev  uiib  itvaumcr,  abev 
itic^t  fur  fie,  bie  fid)  ju  fyanbelnbeu  ^enfc^cn  au^ge»ad)fett  I}a&en  (Spielhagen's 

Freigeboren,  p.  176). 

b.  The  ber  in  i.  B.  a  is  not  an  antecedent  of  rcer,  but  only  the 
repetition  of  the  subject  rcer,  and   not   being  necessary  can   be 
dropped.    However,  if  icer  and  its  seeming  antecedent  do  not  stand 
in  the  same  case,  it  is  not  usually  omitted:  2Ber  ein  2)ixal  litgt,  bent 
glanbt  man  ntd)t  unb  reenn  er  and;  bie  iffiafjrfyeit  fyridfyt. 

c.  The  definite  subject  ber  can  be  repeated  by  a  following  er  in 
the  same  manner  as  indefinite  iver  is  repeated  by  ber,  as  described 
in  b :  £er  meinen  alten  ©Itebern  2)hit  uertie^,  |  in  eurc  ^iifyle  mid;  ^inauf  jn 
wagen,  |  er  fle[;t  nttr  fcet,  id)  fuel's  (Hauptmann's  Versunkene  Glocke, 
Act  3,  11.  1382-4). 


STEREOTYPED  PRONOMINAL  FORMS. 

161.  There  are  a  number  of  compound  pronominal  forms  which 
are  now  treated  as  indeclinables  and  are  written  with  a  small  letter, 
although  some  of  them  are  in  fact  substantives. 


214  PRONOUNS  161.  i. 

i.  ntei'neS  (bet'neS,  fei'neg,  ifi'reg,  un'fereS,  &c.)  gtetdjen  one  of  my  (your, 
his,  her,  our)  stamp,  one  who  is  my  (your,  his,  her,  our)  equal, 
fossilized  genitives  (see  a)  used  substantively  without  change  of 
form  for  any  case  sing,  or  pi.  :  @etneggtetd)en  (nom.  sing.)  la'fjt  ftcfy 
faum  nrieber  ftnben.  <£etne8gleid)en  (nom.  pi.)  laffen  fid?  faum  n;ieber  ftnben. 
(Jr  erfannte  ifcn  fur  fetne3gleid?en  (ace.  sing.).  3d?  fyafce  me  tfejeSgleidjen 
(ace.  sing,  or  pi.)  gefeljen  I  have  never  seen  the  like  of  her  (them). 
SJeute  u)re8gletd?en  (gen.  pi.)  finben  ftd;  felten.  (£r  gef)t  mit  ifmen  rcie  mit 
feineggleid?en  (dat.  pi.)  urn. 

a.  Such  forms  as  tneineggleicfjen,  though  used  with  unchanged  forms  for  all 
cases,  are  in  fact  fossilized  genitives  of  the  vvk.  masc.  adjective-substantive 
©tetdje  equal,  one  -who  is  like.  This  gen.  was  once  a  real  partitive  genitive. 
It  became  fossilized  in  negative  sentences  :  (St  finbet  nidjt  feine3g[etd)m  (partitive 
gen.  depending  upon  nidjt  ;  see  145.  g".  Note  2),  literally,  He  will  find  nothing 
of  one  equal  to  himself.  Later  this  original  construction  was  forgotten  and 
the  gen.  was  used  for  any  case,  sing,  or  pi.,  masc.  or  fern.  The  fossilized 
ace.  sing.  masc.  is  also  used  in  cf)tieg(eid)en,  fonbergleid)en  without  a  parallel: 
@ie  crlaufccn  ftd)  .Ruljmjeitm  cfynegUicfyen  (in  form  a  masc.  ace.  sing.,  but  refers 
here  to  an  abstract  fern,  noun  in  the  pi.).  The  fossilized  ace.  form  is  also 
still  found  in  bejfm  ©leidjen  and  beven  ©leicfyen  ;  see  2. 

In  Luther's  time  /^Jetd)  was  still  felt  as  a  wk.  masc.  noun  :  SDenn  er  tfl  m'd)t 
tnein  ©leidje  (Job  ix".  32).     Compare  3d)  bin's,  bin  gauft,  bin 
(Goethe's  Faust,  Nacht). 


2.  ^eggteKcfyen  (for  the  sing.)  and  much  more  commonly  bergtei'cf)en 
(for  sing,  or  pi.,  masc.,  fern.,  or  neut.)  of  such  a  nature,  such,  the 
like,  of  the  (that)  kind,  such  as,  used  adjectively  and  substantively, 
demonstratively  or  relatively.  Demonstratively  :  SSnb  bis  gteicfyen 
3teuchn:erg  folt  jr.  end)  nicfct  mac^en  (Ex.  xxx.  37).  <Ste  fd;etnen  ^d)  auf 
bergletcfyen  <§anbel  ju  ijerpefcen  They  seem  to  understand  trade  of  such 
a  nature.  (Sine  betgtetcfyen  (now  berartige,  as  bergleidjen  does  not  now 
usually  tolerate  an  article  before  it)  So&rebe  (Lessing),  bergleicfyen 
^djerje,  bergteid;en  Seute.  SBei  berglctd^en  ijl  aber  ba§  2Bei6  beni  3Kann  itfeer 
(Rosegger)  In  such  things  a  woman  is  ahead  of  a  man.  3a,  ganj 
inmrfyofft  ;  t»or  adjt  Sageu  tya&en  mir  un§  ntd)tg  bergleid)en  traumeit  laffen. 
5luf  eittem  $ifd)e  ^jatte  er  bie  ©eroinne  auggelegt:  lauter  ^leintgfeiten, 
SBonfconS,  Silbc^en,  SBIcifitfte  unb  bergletctjen.  2)er  neugebarfene  ©eitaner 
ftanb  trie  etn  armer  (Siinber  ba  unb  encattete  etnen  tiid?tigen  0tuffel;  bod; 
ntdjtg  bergleidjen  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XIII)  but  nothing 
of  the  kind  happened. 

Relatively:  rail  nwnber  tfjun  |  ber  gletcfym  ntd)t  gefdjafen  ftnb  (Ex. 
xxxiv.  10).  Unb  l^at  fold?e  groffe  firaffe  »ber  »n3  geben  laffen  |  5)eS  glet^eit 
smter  allent  «§imel  nid)t  gefc^eBen  ifl  (Baruch  ii.  2).  @inen  ufcetlegenben 
©djitrfen,  bergleid^en  Sranj  ijl  (Schiller).  @r  ging  tin  @onnenfd;etn  auf 
ber  Siefe,  TOO  atterlei  merfrcitrbtge  unb  unbefannte  Slumen  blufeten,  umflogen 
»on  (Sd^metterltngen,  bergleidjen  er  nie  gefefien  ^atte  (H.  Seidel's  Der 
Schatz,  III). 

The  above  forms  are  fossilized  genitives  (see  i.  a),  but  also  the 
ace.  is  similarly  used  in  connection  with  a  gen.  of  a  relative  :  beffen 
©teidjen  with  reference  to  a  masc.  or  neut.  sing,  and  beren  ©letd^en 
with  reference  to  a  fern.  sing,  or  any  noun  in  the  pi.  Exs.  :  £>en 
merfnjurbtgfien  $Iafc,  beffen  ®letd)en  in  ber  SBelt  ttiettetd?t  nid;t  rcieber  §u  fe^en 


163.  3-  a.  STEREOTYPED  PRONOMINAL  FORMS        215 


ifl  (Goethe).  3mmer  rcar  ityr  5lntltfc  son  Ieud)tenber  <§eiterfeit  unb  afl  il)r 
©ebaren  son  etner  teicfyten  5(nntut  itfcergoffen,  beren  ®Ieid?en  er  nod)  md)t 
gefefyen  Ijatte  (H.  Hoffmann's  Die  Totenhochzeit,  p.  159). 

a.  £)ergteidjen  is  also  used  adverbially:  3Me  ^ofrdtin  ttntfjte,  too  bag  fyinauS 
itJoHte,  tat  after  nidjt  bergleicfjeit  (Berlepsch's  Fortunats  Roman,  p.  16)  but  she 
didn't  let  on,  i.  e.  pretended  not  to  know.  Also  nid)t$  instead  of  nid)t  :  Unb  bie 
SBetoegung,  bie  furje,  fiotje,  nttt  bet  fie  bie  SMinne  gum  Senfler  fytnatt&tarf,  toeil  ©bitty 
fie  toelf  gefunben  —  unb  id)  nid)t3  beratet^en  getan  ^atte  (Schubin's  Refugium 
•peccatorum,  II,  6)  because  I  had  pretended  not  to  notice  (that  she  wore 
the  flower  to  show  her  love  for  me).  Sometimes  be^gteidjen  :  (S3  fdjien  unmoglid), 
bafj  grau  Uetgen  ntd}t3  bemevft  ^aben  foftte,  toenn  biefe  audj  feinefiwegs  beSgteid&en  tat 
(Spielhagen's  Das  Skelett  im  Hause,  II). 

3.  5)erlct  (=  bergleic^'en)  of  such  a  nature,  used  as  a  demonstrative, 
both  adjectively  and  substantively  :    au3  atten  bertei   SBetrad)tuncjen. 
SDerlet  icaren  bamalS  bie  3beate  junger  Scute  Such  things  were  at  that 
time  the  ideals  of  young  people.   Thus  also  a  number  of  compounds 
with  lei  :  allerlei  all  kinds  of,  betberlei  both,  both  kinds  of,  einertet  of 
one  kind,  all  the  same  (-Dag  ifl  mir  einerlei),  mandjerlei  many  kinds  of, 
folcfyerlei  such  kinds  of,  &c.     See  126.  i.  a. 

4.  Qttterfyanb  (=  after  let)  all  kinds  of,  used  adjectively  and  substan- 
tively :  atterfyanb  SBIumen  all  kinds  of  flowers.     (£3  ijl  bie  9ftebe  gereefen 
boil  oder^anb  The  conversation  was  about  all  sorts  of  things.   Qlflerf)anb 
©itte3  all  sorts  of  good  things.     See  139.  i.  a.  Note. 

5.  ItnferetnS  (  =  unferetner  one  of  our  stamp],  though  usually  inflected 
like  a  strong  neuter  adjective  with  contraction  to  *eing  in  the  nom. 
and  ace.,  is  sometimes  invariable  throughout  :  2ftit  imfetetnS  (instead 
of  unferetnem)  ntac^en  fte  nidjt  tiiel  Umfldnbe.     These  loose  compounds 
are  formed  by  writing  together  two  distinct  words  unfer  (gen.  pi.  of 
the  personal  pronoun)  and  eiuer  or  eing,  substantive  forms  of  the 
numeral  etn.     For  the  double  gender  here  see  263.  1.  6.  b.    See  also 
263.  1  1.  4.7. 

Unferetner  is  now  also  often  used  with  the  force  of  id)  :  Unferetner 
nid;t  fo  gut. 


THE  VERB. 

162.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  predicates  action  or  being. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

163.  Verbs  are  divided  into  two  classes  :  transitive  and  intransitive. 

1.  A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  requires  a  complement  in  the 
ace.  case  :  3d?  liefce  ben  SSater. 

2.  An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  either  requires  no  complement, 
as  id?  fnice,  or  takes  a  complement  in  the  gen.,  or  dat.,  or  in  some 
case  governed  by  a  preposition :  3d?  bebarf  beS  XrofieS.     3d)  begegne 
einem  Steunbe.    <£r  trad?tet  nad)  bent  ®elbe. 

3.  Under  the  above  classes  are  distinguished  : 

a.  Reflexive  verbs  which  take  an  object  designating  the  same 


216  THE  VERB  163. 3.  a. 

person  or  thing  as  their  subject:   (Sr  lofct  jfd)  (ace.).     (£r  fd)abet 
W  (dat,). 

b.  Impersonal  verbs  used  only  in  the  3rd  person  sing,  with  the 
indef.  subject  e§,  expressed  or  understood :  @g  fcfyneit.  2Wir  grout 
fcauor,  or  &  graitt  rmr  bailor. 

GRAMMATICAL  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB. 

164.  The  verb  distinguishes  by  its  forms  person,  number,  tense, 
mood,  and  voice.     These  forms  are  used  as  in  English,  and  only 
two,  tense  and  mood,  need  special  treatment. 

TENSE  (for  formation  see  177. 1,  II,  III  and  190). 

165.  There  are  three  absolute  tenses  (present,  pres.  perfect,  and 
future),  which  express  time  from  the  standpoint  of  the  moment  in 
which  the  speaker  is  speaking  without  reference  to  some  other  act ; 
and  three  relative  tenses  (past,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect), 
which  express  time  relatively  to  the  preceding  absolute  tenses.    The 
following  articles  on  tense  apply  principally  to  the  tenses  of  the 
indicative.     The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  treated  under  the 
head  of  the  subjunctive  mood. 

i.  The  present  tense  represents  an  action  or  event  as  taking 
place  in  present  time  :  2)er  33aum  Hitfyt. 
It  is  also  used : 

a.  To  express  a  general  truth  :  S^mial  jrcei  ift  fcier. 

b.  In  narration,  to  make  more  vivid  past  events  and  bring  them 
nearer  the  hearer.     This  usage  of  the  present,  common  also  in 
English,  is  called  the  historical  present.     In  German  it  frequently 
in  narration  relieves  the  past  tense  and  thus  furnishes  a  means  to 
vary  the  style.     Some  authors  are  very  fond  of  it,  while  others  use 
it  little  or  not  at  all.     In  Goethe's  Hermann  und  Dorothea  it  is 
conspicuously  absent,  and  is  in  general  uncommon  in  epic  poetry. 

Note.  An  unusually  frequent  use  is  made  of  the  historical  present  in  the  language 
of  the  common  people  and  familiar  language  generally,  alternating  quite  generally 
with  the  present  perfect ;  see  2.  b, 

c.  As  the  English  present  perfect  in  the  progressive  form,  to 
express  that  the  action  or  state  has  been  continuing  and  is  still 
continuing  at  the  present  time,  usually  accompanied  by  the  adverbs 
BcrettS,  fcfyon  already,  erfl  only,  lange  long,  or  the  prep,  feit  since :  SStc 
Icmge  lernen  <Ste  fcfyon  beittfd)  ?  3d)  lerne  e3  erfl  feit  fedji  SKonaten  How  long 
have  you  been  studying  German?     I   have  been  studying  it  for 
only  six  months.     3&ir  rcarten  fcereitg  feit  enter  <8tunbe  ouf  ifyn.     SBie 
lange  finb  €>te  l)ter?  How  long  have  you  been  here? 

Note.  Thus  also  the  perfect  infinitive  after  modal  auxiliaries  must  be  rendered  into 
German  by  the  present  infinitive,  to  show  that  something  might  have  taken  place  and 
might  now  be  continuing  in  existence :  SBenn  bu  sernunftig  gewefen  lodrcfi,  bu  fcnrtietr, 
fa  Jung  bit  fcift,  Idngft  §uttenttietfier  fein  If  you  had  been  reasonable,  yon  might,  as 
young  as  you  are,  have  been  serving  now  for  a  long  while  as  superintendent  of  the 
foundry. 

d.  Very  often   instead   of  the   future,    especially   in   sentences 
expressing  decision,  or  a  result  confidently  expected,  or  an  inquiry 


165.3- A.  TENSE  217 

after  the  probable  outcome  of  something,  and  also  in  sentences 
in  which  the  verb  is  modified  by  some  adverb  or  conjunction  of 
time  which  contains  the  idea  of  futurity :  SWorgen  fomm'  id?  instead  of 
3d?  iverbe  morgen  fommen.  Jtommt  cr?  @r  fommt  Will  he  come?  He 
certainly  will.  2Bir  ftnb  balb  ba  We  shall  soon  be  there.  SBarte,  bi§ 
id?  fomnte. 

e.  Instead  of  the  imperative  (see  177. 1.  B.  b}. 

2,.  The  present  perfect  is  used  to  represent  that  something  is 
finished  at  the  time  of  speaking,  or  that  the  results  of  a  past  act 
still  continue  in  the  present  (see  also  3.  A.  a,  below) :  3d?  fjabe  bcu 
SBrtef  fd?on  gefd?rieben.  3d?  bin  eben  Son  ber  ©tabt  gefommen.  (SoIumbuS 
t)at  2lmerifa  entbecft.  2)ie  ,ftird?e  ifi  im  i4te:t  Safjrtyunbert  erbaut  rcorben. 

The  present  perfect  is  also  used  : 

a.  Instead  of  the  future  perfect :  2£>enn  bit  angefommen  bift,  trerbe  id? 
bid?  bcfud?en  (instead  of  SBenu  bu  angefommen  fetu  irtrfl,  &c.). 

b.  Often  in  dialect  and  colloquial  speech  instead  of  the  past  tense 
in  narrative  :  „  QBir  fyaben  gcgittert  ant  ganjen  Seib,"  ful)r  ber  trait ne  <2d?mieb 
fort,  „  n?ir  fyaben  etn  SSaterunfer  bcten  rcotten,  aber  bie  3un9e  ift  *vic  gelatyntt 
geirefen  fcor  Scared5 "  (Rosegger).     3a,  nne  trtr  nu  in  fetnem  3?lt  gefommen 
fmb,  ba  tfl  er  frfl  cine  jan^e  iBeile  fo  tif  itnb  abjegangen  unb  l;at  nifd?t  ntd? 
gerebt  (Finke  in  Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows,  i,  8).     5>arauf  ^at  Santc 
3ba  mid?  angefe^en  unb  gefragt, ,  na  alfo  —  icer  irar'6?'     SSeit  id?  aber  bod? 
geirufjt  fyabe,  ba§  bu'g  nid?t  ^aben  irodtefi,  ^)abe  id?  nid?t8  gefagt.    2) a  ftat  Jante 
3ta  rote  $lerfe  anf  ben  93arfen  befommen  unb  gemeint,  &c.  (Young  Georg 
von  Drebkau  in  Wildenbruch's  Vice-Mama).  This  usage  is  also  found 
in  earlier  authors  of  the  period.    The  use  of  the  present  perfect  here 
seems  to  result  from  the  desire  of  the  speaker  to  bring  events  of 
the  past  into  relations  to  the  present.     In  S.G.  dialect  the  use  of 
the  present  perfect  is  further  favored  by  the  fact  that  the  past  tense 
indicative  (not  the  subjunctive,  however)  has  in  large  measure  dis- 
appeared, as  certain  of  its  forms  have  by  phonetic  development 
become  identical  with  those  of  the  present.     Thus  Swabian  authors 
as  Schiller  sometimes  allow  themselves  to  be  influenced  by  dialect 
here  even  in  their  serious  productions :  3d?  felbjt,  al3  mid?  in  [pater 
Sdmmrung  einfl  |  ber  5Beg  an  biefent   9Baunt  ttorubcrfufyrte,  |  tyab'  ein  ge= 
fyenftifd?    SBeib    tyier    ftfcen    fetyen    (Schiller's   Jungfrau,    Prolog    2, 
11.  102-4). 

3.  A.  The  past  tense  usually  represents  a  past  act  or  condition 
not  in  its  completeness,  but  as  being  performed  or  continuing  at 
the  same  time  as  some  other  act  or  condition,  or  it  represents  the 
act  as  completed  in  past  time  in  connection  with  some  other  event. 
Hence  the  past  tense  has  for  its  leading  idea  that  of  the  simultaneity 
of  two  or  more  related  past  acts  or  conditions.  It  accordingly 
represents  single  acts  or  facts  as  links  in  a  chain  of  facts,  and  for 
this  reason  it  is  the  usual  tense  for  the  description  and  narration 
of  all  related  events  and  conditions  in  the  past,  and  is  therefore  the 
prevailing  tense  of  narrative,  history,  and  the  novel.  The  past 
tense,  however,  is  not  confined  to  lengthy  description,  but  is  used 
even  in  a  single  sentence  if  it  describes  something  as  it  once  was 
without  relation  to  the  present :  £>U  beutfd?en  Jtaifer  rcurbe it  in 


218  THE  VERB  165. 3.  A. 

furt  gefront.  Thus  the  past  tense  cuts  us  off  from  the  present 
entirely,  and  leads  us  into  the  midst  of  past  events  and  conditions 
which  are  developing  at  the  same  time  with  close  relations  to  each 
other,  but  with  no  relations  whatever  to  the  present,  and  thus  this 
tense  differs  rather  sharply  from  the  present  perfect,  where  the 
relation  to  the  present  is  never  entirely  broken  off.  The  past 
tense  does  not,  however,  imply  necessarily  time  very  remote,  but 
is  used  for  time  past,  whether  it  refers  to  remote  acts  or  to  those  of 
a  few  moments  ago,  if  it  turns  the  mind  from  the  present  to  two 
past  acts  or  events,  or  to  a  series  of  past  events  in  their  relations 
to  each  other :  2113  bte  93dume  in  flofljler  SBIiite  ftanben,  trat  tyeftiger  jyrofl 
ein.  3d?  fang,  inbem  er  Plainer  fpielte.  3d)  fang  Mm  5lnfletten.  Gd'far 
fiarfc  44  ».  dfyr. 

a.  The  past  tense  is  often  confounded  with  the  present  perf.    The  latter 
is  used  when  the  results  of  a  past  act  still  exist  in  the  present,  or  to  represent 
a  past  event  as  an  independent  fact,  not  as  a  link  in  a  chain  of  related 
events,  and  emphasizes  the  bearing  of  this   past  event   upon  the  present. 
Thus  the  present  perfect  looks  at  the  past  from  the  standpoint  of  the  present 
or  of  stern  fact,  while  the  past  tense  takes  us  into  the  past  and  enlists  our 
interest  in  the  events  then  taking  place.     Hence  in  the  midst  of  a  narrative 
where  the  past  tense  or  past  perfect  has  been  uniformly  used,  the  speaker 
changes  to  the  pres.  perf.  at  once,  when  he  desires  (i)  to  represent  a  past 
act  not  as  a  link  in  the  chain  of  events,  but  according  to  his  judgment  as  an 
important  independent  fact,  or  (2)  to  represent  that  the  result  of  a  past  act 
still  exists  at  the  time  of  the  narrative:  (i)  SJutfter  tat  gu  SBcrmS  einen  @ang, 
bergteid)en  manner  JltiegSofterft  in  bet  fcfyteevften  @d)lad?t  nidjt  getan  fyat.    (2)  3n  bent 
feiner  23of)nung  gegenubet  Uecjenben  J&aufe,  too  fetn  greunb  SBilfyehn  tooljnte,  tt>at  bag 
<£d}artad?ftebet  au3gecrod)en  unb,  ba  Qrifc  aftm  SBarnungen  gutmber  bod)  nod)  gu  feinem 
bort  toofynenben  greunbe  ging,  Jo  ijl  er  ebenfatts  erfranft  unb  Uegt  nun  fitter  banieber. 

b.  Thus  also  an  eye-witness  of  events  naturally  uses  the  past  tense  in 
narrating  these  events  as  he  has  seen  them  take  place  in  their  relations  to 
each  other,  and  may  use  this  tense  even  in  giving  a  single  sentence,  as  there 
is  in  his  mind  a  complete  picture  of  the  whole  occurrence :  ©ejlern  ertranf  ein 
jfrnb.     <£ie  ftaten  geftcrn  in  ber  Oper.    On  the  other  hand,  when  these  things 
are  communicated  to  a  third  party  by  the  one  who  has  only  heard  them,  he 
uses  the  pres.  perf.,  because  they  are  to  the  speaker  only  independent  facts  : 
©efiern  tft  ein  Jlinb  ertrunfen.    <2>te  ftnb  gejlern  in  berDper  getoefen. 

c.  The  lively  tone  that  is  associated  with  the  past  tense  and  its  short 
convenient  form  are  tending  to  extend  its  use  at  the  expense  of  the  pres. 
perf.     This  is  especially  marked  in  newspaper  language  and  also  in  common 
conversation :    2)ucttn,  24  £>e$.     (Sin  {Rcttunggbct,  t>a$  ait^gelaufen  war,  urn  bte 
Bebrangte  95emannung  etned  <£d)iffe3  in  ber  33ucfyt  »on  Jftngdtottm  gu  retten,  fd)lng  urn. 
@edjjig  ^evfonen  crtranfeu  (Kolnische  Zeitung).    @ie  braudjen  loo^I  nicfyt  vetftdjert 
gu  ftcrbett,  baf  man  iiberafl  bte  gtojjte  Sreube  iiber  3f)re  £at  emyfanb  (G.  Keller  an 
Baechtold,  2,  453).    Fedor:  2Ba<3  ntad)t  bein  SMlb ?    Robert:  @$  gefjt.    3d?  ein 
in  ©timmung.    50fein  £ebtag  tear  id)  nid)t  fo  fletfiig  (Schnitzler's  Das  Marchen, 
p.  58).     Hans  (ruft) :  9Sav  jemanb  ba  ?  (Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  p.  112). 

B.  The  past  is  also  used  as  the  past  perfect  of  the  progressive 
form  in   English  (just  as  the  present  in  German  is  used  for  the 
present  perf.  in  English,  as  described  in  i.c,  above)  to  describe 
an  action  as  begun  at  some  previous  time,  but  as  still  continuing  up 
to  the  time  spoken  of  in  the  past :  3d?  rcartete  fd?on  jtret  <2tunbeu  auf 
itjn,  al3  et  fam  I  had  been  waiting  two  hours  for  him  when  he  came. 

C.  The  past  is  often  used  for  the  past  perfect ;  see  4.  a,  below. 


165. 6.  a.  TENSE  219 

D.  The  past  is  also  used  for  the  future  perfect ;  see  6,  below. 

4.  The  past  perfect  tense  represents  a  past  action  or  event  as 
completed  at  or  before  a  certain  past  time :  Wld  er  bag  gef)urt  fyatte, 
erfd;raf  er  When  he  had  heard  that,  he  became  frightened. 

a.  The  past  perf.  is  often  replaced  by  the  past :  Qllg  er  bag  fjorte, 
erfcfyraf  er. 

5.  The  future  tense  represents  an  action  or  event  as  yet  to  take 
place  :  SKein  -£>erj  nnvb  fid;  freuen,  irenn  id;  bid;  tmeberfefyen  irerbe. 

The  future  is  also  used  of  an  action  or  event  in  past  time  that 
was  yet  to  take  place :  2>ie  2)irne  fling  mit  fclojjem  Jtopfe,  fte  nnrb  alfo 
beu  4?ol$fd;nt6er  "ur  eine  <8trccfe  unb  nid;t  att^iireett  begleiten  (Anzengruber's 
Sternstcinhof,  p.  69). 

The  present  tense  often  takes  the  place  of  the  future;  see  i.d, 
above. 

a.  The  future  is  also  used  instead  of  the  imperative  (177. 1.  B.  c). 

b.  It  is  often  used  to  express  a  probability  or  supposition,  often 
accompanied  by  iroljl :  Jtarl  nn'rb  roofyl  franf  fetn  Karl  is  probably  sick. 
S)er  <£>unb  nn'tb  fed;g  3af)re  alt  fetn  The  dog  is  probably  about  six 
years  old. 

c.  In  North  German  popular  language  the  future  in  lively  narration  is  often 
used  instead  of  the  past,  the  speaker  thus  in  a  vivid  way  taking  again  the 
standpoint  he  had  before  he  acted  and  relating  the  intentions  and  plans  he 
then  entertained  instead  of  the  completed  deeds :  Hub  tote  er  fo  ungebufyrlid; 
gcgcn  mid;  aiuifadt  (see  I.  b  of  this  article),  ba  toerb'  id)  if)n  tn3  anbeve  Simmer 
nefyntcn  unb  toerb'  tf;n  fragcn,  trover  er  bag  toeitj  (instead  of  ba  nafynt  id)  ifytt  ins 
attbere  Bimmer  unb  ftagte  i^n)  (Engelien's  Grammatik  der  neuhochdeutschen 
Sprache,  p.  478). 

6.  The  future  perfect  tense  represents  that  an  action  or  event 
will  be  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  time  yet  future.     This 
clumsy  form  is  usually  avoided  and  replaced  in  common  usage  by 
the  perfect :  SSenu  er  biefe  SBebtnflitncj  mcfyt  ttor  2)torgen  crfiittt  tyaben  ivtrb 
(or  erfiiUt  f)at),  fo  i|l  ber  9.5ertracj  nicfytig.    When  the  idea  of  completion  is 
not  prominent,  it  can  be  replaced  by  the  present  or  future  :  (So&alb  bit 
eticaS  erftityrft  or  crfal;ren  nnrfr,  telegrav|iere.   We  also  find  the  past  tense 
instead  of  the  future  perfect :  GS  if*  ntcfyt  bag  lefcte  9)?al,  ba^  id?  mid;  ^)ier 
tefanb  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome,  chap.  vii).     2)a8  Srubd^en  ivar  ba  ganj 
gut  aufge{;o6en,  6i3  ictr  e8  afcljolcu  (id.,  Mcister  Autor,  chap.  vii).     Q3iel 
gibt  e8  ntd^t ;   bod;  nimm  bamit  uorlieb ;  |  unr  fatten  etn,  big  nid;t8  me^r 
iibrtg  tlietj  (Fulda's   Talisman,  i,  5).     SCBcnu  ber  Dtcbel  ijcqog  unb  bie 
Corner  ber  @ad;fen  juut  ^am^f  laben,  fo  ruft  mid;  (Lienhard's  Kdnig 
Arthur,  5). 

a.  Though  not  so  common  in  the  sense  of  a  future  perfect,  it  is 
often,  on  the  other  hand,  used  to  express  probability  or  supposition, 
to  represent  an  action  as  probably  finished,  or  to  state  a  supposition 
concerning  some  past  act,  often  accompanied  by  icofyt :  (£r  unrb  jefct 
ivofyl  gefcfyviebeu  fyafcen  He  has  probably  written  by  this  time.  (Sr  ictrb 
wotyl  ber  £dter  geicefen  fetn  He  was  probably  the  perpetrator.  In  the 
interrogative  form  it  expresses  wonder :  £Bo  nnrb  er  bie  3Rad;t  ju= 
gebradjt  ^aben?  (Lessing's  Minna,  i,  i)  I  wonder  where  he  has  passed 
the  night. 


220  THE  VERB  166. 

MOOD. 

166.  Mood  is  a  grammatical  form  denoting  the  style  or  manner 
of  predication.     There  are  three  moods  in  German,  the  indicative, 
subjunctive,  and  imperative.     These  moods  are  used  much  as  they 
are  in  English,  except  that  the  subjunctive  has  a  much  wider  field 
of  usefulness.      Only  the  subjunctive  needs   especial   treatment. 
The  so-called  conditional  (mood)  is  only  a  periphrastic  form  of  the 
subjunctive,  whose  place  it  may  take  in  conditional  sentences,  and 
hence  it  is  treated  along  with  the  subjunctive. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

167.  The  subjunctive  is  used  when  the  speaker  or  writer  wishes 
to   represent   something   not   as   a  fact   but  as  only   planned   or 
desirable,  supposable,  probable,  possible,  conditional,  contrary  to 
fact,  or  as  resting  on  the  statement  of  another,  or  mere  hearsay. 
All  these  different  uses  of  the  subjunctive  may  be  classified  under 
two  general  heads — the  optative  subjunctive,  which  represents  the 
statement  as  desired,  and  the  potential  subjunctive,  which  represents 
the  statement  as  possible.      Out  of  the  potential  subjunctive  has 
developed  more  or  less  clearly  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  statement, 
which  is  employed  not  to  represent  the  statement  as  possible,  but 
merely  to  indicate  indirectness  of  statement.     See  168.  II.  A,  second 
paragraph.     In  the  following  discussion  this  subjunctive  is  treated 
under  the  head  of  the  potential  with  which  it  is  closely  connected. 
This  subjunctive  of  indirect  statement  should  not  be  confounded 
with  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse  treated  in  17O  and  171, 
which  is  a  broader  category  including  also  the  optative  and  po- 
tential ideas. 

The  tense  employed  is  often  a  point  of  vital  importance  to  the 
meaning,  and  hence  instead  of  grouping  the  different  uses  of  the 
subjunctive  under  these  two  leading  heads  the  different  heads  are 
treated  under  the  different  tenses.  The  two  following  groups  stand 
out  in  general  quite  distinctly  from  each  other :  i.  The  Subjunctive 
of  Principal  Tenses  (present,  present  perfect,  future,  future  perfect). 
2.  The  Subjunctive  of  Historical  Tenses  (historical  present,  past, 
past  perfect,  the  conditionals). 

The  student  should  bear  in  mind  in  reading  the  following  articles 
that  the  subjunctive  has  been  largely  replaced  in  the  language  of 
the  North  by  the  indicative  in  colloquial  speech,  while  in  serious 
prose  it  still  has  a  conspicuous  place.  This  will  often  account  for 
the  use  of  the  subjunctive  and  indicative  in  the  same  category. 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PRINCIPAL  TENSES. 

168.  In  principal  tenses  the  subjunctive  represents  the  statement 
not  as  an  actual  fact,  but  yet  as  a  desire  so  reasonable  that  it  is 
entertained  with  hopes  of  realization,  or  it  represents  something 
that  is  with  considerable  assurance  regarded  as  possible  or  suppos- 
able.    The  special  cases  under  these  general  heads  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 


168. 1.  2.  A.  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PRINCIPAL  TENSES  221 

I.  Optative  Subjunctive.     A  principal  tense  of  the  subjunctive  is 
used  in  the  following  expressions  of  will : 

1.  In  principal  clauses  : 

A.  Hortatory  Subjunctive.     A  present  subjunctive  is  often  used 
to  complete  the  wanting  forms  of  the  imperative  ;  see  177. 1.  A. 

B.  Sanguine  Optative.     A  present  subjunctive  is  often  used  to 
express  a  wish  which  in  all  probability  may  be  realized  :  Sange  tebe 
ber  Jtonig  Long  may  the  king  live,     ©efce  ®ott  may  God  grant.     So 
fet  e3  Let  it  be  thus.    £>a3  watte  ®ott  May  God  see  to  it.    ©elj'  e3  31)nen 
gut !  (Wilbrandt's  Die  Tochter  des  Fabricius,  i,  10).     This  wish, 
however,  is  more  commonly,  except  in  a  few  set  expressions  as  the 
foregoing,  expressed  by  the  subjunctive  of  mogen  and  tr often  with 
a  dependent  infinitive  :  SKoge  e3  mir  nun  fcergonnt  fein,  bag  SBegonnene  ju 
(?nbe  311  fiifyren  (Wilmanns5  Deutsche  Grammatik,  Vorrede).     ©otteS 
©uabe  icotie  nut  (Jucfy  fein  (Bismarck  to  his  wife,  Oct.  i,  1850). 

a.  In  A  and  B  normal,  or  more  commonly  question  or  inverted  order  may 
stand :  @r  tebe  fyod) !  (used  in  toasts  and  cries  of  approval).    Jpcf  iljn  bet  Seufel ! 
May  the  devil  take  him  !     (§3  tebe  bie  Sretfyeit !  (It  tncge  or  ntoge  er  ttotlfommen 
gturf(id)  fterben  !     Of  course  the  sentence  has  inverted  order  if  it  begins  with 
an  adverb  :  Sange  lebe  bee  Jlomg ! 

b.  Sometimes,  though  much  more  rarely  than  the  pres.  tense,  the  present 
perfect  is  used  in  wishes.     It  is  employed  to  express  the  wish  that  some 
desired  result  may  be  accomplished  in  the  future :  !£cd)  et  fyabe  |  itmfonjl  ftdj 
bet  aSetbannnmS  iibergeben!  (Schiller's  Jutigfrau,  2,  2)  May  he  in  vain  have  given 
himself  over  to  perdition  ! 

C.  The  present  subjunctive  is  in  logical  reasoning  much  used  in 
laying  down  one  or  more  desired  propositions,  from  which  conclu- 
sions are  to  be  drawn  :  £>ie  8'igur  a  b  c  fei  ein  gtetcfyfdjenfligeS  Sretecf ; 
b  d  fei  ein  Sot  auf  ber  ©rnnbltnte  Let  the  figure  a  b  c  be  an  isosceles 
triangle  and  b  d  a  perpendicular  line  on  the  base,  &c. 

2.  In  subordinate  clauses  : 

A.  Concessive  Subjunctive.  The  present  subjunctive  is  used  in 
subordinate  clauses  to  concede,  grant,  admit  that  something  may 
be  true,  but  the  indicative  in  the  main  clause,  on  the  other  hand, 
affirms  that  the  assertion  of  the  main  clause  is,  in  spite  of  this 
admission,  to  be  maintained  and  defended  :  ©er  3?erg  fei  and;  fo  fjocfc,  or 
@ei  ber  i*erg  aucfy  fo  fyod;  (or  quite  commonly  3ft  ber  2?erg  aucfy  fo  fjod},  or 
SWag  ber  SPerg  and;  fo  fyod)  fein,  or  "Der  2?erg  mag  aud?  fo  t)od?  fein),  id)  erfteige 
U)n  Be  the  mountain  (or  Although  the  mountain  be,  or  Let  the  moun- 
tain be)  ever  so  high,  I  will  climb  it.  Sftein,  e3  gtbt  fein  SBiefcerftnbcn, 
^etj5e  e3  -§tmmel  ober  J^otle  (Wiesner's  Die  schwarze  Dame).  SSo  ber  2Berg 
and;  liege  (or  quite  commonly  Itegen  mag,  or  ttegt),  ict^  crftetge  it)n.  3Kan 
faun  eS  ifaiu  ntct^t  redjt  macben,  ii-aS  man  and)  tue,  tun  mag,  or  tut.  SSelcfye 
(Sntfdjeibung  and;  ^ier  gefafjt  u-crbe  (also  gefapt  rcerten  mag,  or  gefaft 
ivirb),  fte  icirb  niemalS  cine  <Sct;anre  fein  fitr  bie  SSerfammtung  (v.  Gagern, 
Frankfurter  Nationahcrsammlung}.  S?a3  iminer  bu  fei  ft,  id;  gtaufce, 
luir  U'Citcn  ^eut  ntd)t  fptelen  (Schnitzler's  Der  grime  Kakadu,  p.  118). 
The  auxiliary  fonnen  is  also  used,  but  is  not  so  common  as  mogen : 
mag  or  (here  and  in  similar  expressions,  but  not  freely)  fann 
watyr  fein,  eS  anbert  boc^  ntd;t3  an  ber 


222  THE  VERB  168. 1. 2.  A.  a. 

a.  Note  that  the  word-order  in  the  concessive  clause  is  either  normal  or 
question  order,  if  not  introduced  by  a  conjunction,  relative  pronoun,  or 
relative  adverb,  in  which  cases  the  transposed  order  is  of  course  used. 
However,  if  the  auxiliary  fonnen  is  used  instead  of  mogen,  normal  or  inverted 
order  is  usually  employed.  The  use  of  the  normal  or  question  order  indicates 
clearly  that  the  clause  was  originally  an  independent  proposition.  It  has 
retained  its  original  form,  although  it  has  become  logically  subordinate. 

After  a  conjunction,  as  cfcgteid),  &c.,  the  mood  is  usually  indicative :  Dbgletd) 
id)  ifyn  feit  tangent  nid)t  gefdjen  fyatte,  erfannte  id)  if»n  bodj»  augenblirflid).  Occasion- 
ally the  subjunctive  appears  here  in  accordance  with  older  usage :  Db  and) 
bie  SSclfe  jte  verfjiitte,  bie  ©onne  bteibt  am  ^intmet^ett  (Raabe's  Alte  Nester, 
chap.  xv).  In  rather  choice  language  the  subjunctive  of  ntogen  is  found 
instead  of  the  indicative  when  the  normal  or  question  order  is  used  :  (Sr  wnU 
itntev  a((en  ItmjMnben  bie  2Bal)rl)ett  nriffen,  mcge  jte  tauten  ftne  jte  toofte  (Bellermann's 
Schillers  Dramen,  p.  226). 

B.  Sanguine  Subjunctive  of  Purpose.  This  subjunctive  of  pur- 
pose represents  the  statement  only  as  desired  or  planned,  but 
implies  the  hope  that  the  desire  or  plan  will  be  realized.  It  is 
found :  (i)  After  verbs  of  advising,  beseeching,  warning,  wishing, 
willing,  demanding,  &c.,  which  of  themselves  indicate  a  purpose  or 
design :  (Sr  rcitnfcbt,  bafj  e§  gefcfyefee  He  wishes  that  it  may  happen. 
The  idea  of  willing,  &c.  is  often  not  expressed  at  all,  but  implied 
in  the  governing  verb :  llnb  aujjerbent  fcbm&jl  bu  iljm,  bafi  er  intr  feme 
$l)otoa,rapf)ie  uub  bie  beiner  €>d}it)eftern  fcbtcfe  (Raabe's  Horn  von  Wanza, 
chap.  viii).  The  idea  of  willing,  &c.,  is  often  contained  in  a 
noun :  2)Mjter  Ou'cfytwn  tyatte  ju  <§aufe  ben  fttengfien  SBefefel  gegefcen,  bajj 
man  ben  <§unb  reofci  etngefperrt  tyalte  (Riehl's  Der  stumme  Ratsherr, 
II).  (2)  After  other  verbs,  if  the  subordinate  clause  itself  ex- 
presses the  purpose  of  the  action  of  the  principal  verb :  2)tan  tfjit, 
bamit  man  lefce  One  eats  in  order  that  he  may  live.  (3)  In  choice 
language  also  in  relative  clauses  expressing  a  purpose,  and  in  early 
N.H.G.  after  the  temporal  conjunctions  big  and  etye:  (Scfyicft  etnen 
fid)ern  9Boten  ifym  entgegen,  ber  auf  ge^eimem  SSeg  iljjn  ju  mtr  fii^re 
(Schiller),  llnb  nun  male  einen  5^fett,  ber  ^tnuberireife  nac^  ber  anbern 
(Seite  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfursten,  chap,  xxxvi)  And 
now  draw  an  arrow  which  will  point  to  the  other  side.  Q3m6  3ion 
Bitten  fo  tritt  icfy  nic^t  fd;reetgen  |  »nb  omfo  3erufalem  icttten  (o  reitt  id?  nic^t 
inne  fatten  |  5H§  bag  jre  ©ereci^ticifett  aufge^e  une  ctn  glan§  |  unb  jr  «§eil 
cntBrenne  trie  etne  tyarfel  (Isa.  Ixii.  i).  For  etye  see  Psalm  xxxix.  14. 
Sometimes  still  after  6t3,  provided  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposi- 
tion is  in  an  historical  tense  :  Da3  junge  33rautpaar  mad;te  tyeut'  getciffer* 
ma§en  bie  ^otmcitrg  beS  >§aufeg  imb  fianb  ivartenb,  tn$  afleS  $Ia^  genommen 
!^a6e  (Jensen's  Jenseits  des  Wassers,  V). 

a.  This  subjunctive  is  much  used  in  indirect  discourse  after  the  verbs  in  (i), 
but  it  must  be  noticed  that  after  a  historical  tense  it  is  itself  often  attracted 
into  a  historical  tense  (see  169. 1.  C.  a).    Thus  like  the  subjunctive  in  indirect 
discourse  in  general  its  form  fluctuates  after  historical  tenses  between  that 
of  principal  and  that  of  historical  tenses,  but  without  any  difference  in  meaning. 

b.  After  the  verbs  in  (i)   the  indicative   is  now   preferred,  to  denote   a 
positive  expression  of  the  will :  3d)  ttnf(,  bap  cr  fommt.     If  the  indicative  is 
used,  the  tense  is  often  attracted  into  a  past  tense  after  a  past  tense :  llnb 
biefe  5ard)t  xw  ben  aftenfdjen  crfcfyicn  tfjr  fo  natutHd?,  fo  norroenbig  —  fo  gugctjovtg  ju 
ifyrem  ©djicffal.    2Bie  fcnnte  er  »evlangen,  bajj  jie  fret  ba»on  war  (H.  Bohlau). 


168. La. c.  b.  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PRINCIPAL  TENSES  223 

The  subjunctive  in  (2)  has  been  gradually  declining.  _At  present  the 
indicative  is  very  often  used  instead  of  the  subjunctive,  especially  colloquially 
in  the  North,  as  the  present  tendency  is  to  look  forward  and  imagine  the 
design  as  accomplished  rather  than  to  regard  the  statement  as  merely 
planned :  ©oil  ic^  ben  ©emetnra  ^eibertcter  (name)  jurucf|"d)icfen,  bafi  et  bie 
SUarmfanone  lojl  ?  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  chap.  i).  <Sie  tnocfyte  entaS 
recfyt  Jgiibfc^cS  fagen,  bamit  man  frcunbtid)  mit  it>t  ifl  (H.  Bohlau).  (£$  unit'  bod) 
gut,  luenn  cr  es  balb  erfdfyrt,  bamit  il;m  bet  2Jhmb  gejicpft  iji  (Hirschfeld's  Agnes 
Jordan,  5). 

The  subjunctive  in  (3)  is  now  largely  replaced  by  the  indicative  in  colloquial 
language. 

C.  Optative  in  Conditions.  The  optative  subjunctive  occurs  here 
in  two  forms : 

a.  Instead  of  a  subordinate  clause  with  rcenn  we  may  use  a  clause 
with   a  hortatory  subjunctive,  which  has  normal  order  and  was 
originally  independent,  but  has  become  logically  subordinate :  (Siner 
trage  be3  anbern  Laft  |  fo  rcerbet  jr  ba3  gefe£  Gfyriftt  erfutten  (Gal.  vi.  2). 
SBalb,  e§  fenne  nur  jeber  ben  eigenen,  gonne  bem  anbern  |  fetnen  33ortett,  fo  iji 
eivigcr  ft'riebe  gemacfyt  (Goethe's  Vier  Jahreszeiten,  74). 

b.  In   M.H.G.  a  hortatory  subjunctive   was  very   common   in 
clauses  introducing  an  exception  :    des  sint  ir  iemer  ungenesen  | 
got  welle  dan  der  arzat  wesen  (Armer  Heinrich,  variant  of  the 
Strassburg  manuscript)  You  cannot  be  cured  (,  if,  however,  a  cure  is 
possible)  God  must  (or  let  God]  then  be  the  physician.     We  usually 
introduce  the  subordinate  clause  in  English  by  unless,  if  not,  and 
indeed  a  negative  is  found  here  in  M.H.G.     In  the  Heidelberg 
manuscript  this  passage  reads :  des  sint  ir  iemer  ungenesen  |  got 
enwelle  der  arzat  wesen.     In  this  reading,  however,  the  subjunctive 
is  a  potential,  as  explained  in  II.  E.  b,  below.     Some  scholars  claim 
an  ellipsis  of  the  negative  en  in  the  first  reading,  and  construe  the 
subjunctive  there  also  as  a  potential.      Both   constructions,  the 
optative  and  potential,  existed  in  M.H.G.;  the  former  alone  sur- 
vives.    It  was  quite  frequent  in  early  N.H.G.,  not  infrequent  in 
the  classical  period,  and  still  occasionally  occurs  in  poetry  or  choice 
prose :   &>nb  fo  jentanb  and;   fempffet  |  nnrb  er    bod)   uid?t  gefronct  |  er 
fempffe  benu  recfyt  (2  Tim.  ii.  5).     llnb  fommt  man  l;in,  urn  etiuaS  $u  er= 
fyaltcn,  |  erfycitt  man  niclng,  man  bringe  benn  icaS  l;tn  (Goethe's  Tasso,  i,  4). 
28ot)in  er  (i.  e.  ©ott)  unS  fteftt,  ba  mi'iffen  n:ir  au^arren,  er  rufe  imS  benn 
felber  ab  (Spielhagen's  Freigcboren,  p.  176).     Qlkr  cin  SKenfd)  faun 
fid)  nid)t3  ne^men,  eg  ttserbe  i(;m  benn  gegeOen  »om  >§inunel  (Sudermann's 
Johannes,  5,  8).    Here,  as  so  often  elsewhere,  the  present  subjunctive 
yields  frequently  to  the  past  subjunctive :  2Me  OUirenberger  bcnfcn  (in 
the  North  usually  fjangen)  feinen,  |  fie  fcdtten  i^n  benn  »or  (Schiller's 
Ra'ubcr,  2,  3). 

This  old  construction  is  not  now  common  in  prose,  except  in  c6 
fet  benn,  or  eS  leave  benn  unless,  and  in  case  of  nutffen  with  a  dependent 
infinitive.  The  two  expressions  e§  fei  benn  and  eS  unite  benn  differ 
from  each  other  just  as  in  general  the  pres.  subj.  differs  from  the 
past  subj.  The  former  expresses  more  assurance :  3d?  tue  e3  nictyt, 
(d  fei  benn  bap  er  fommt  nnb  barunt  bittet  /  will  not  do  it,  unices  he  comes 
and  begs  me  to  do  it,  but  3d;  tue  e8  nidjt,  eg  rcare  benn  ba^  cr  fommen  nnb 


224  THE  VERB  168. 1. 2.  c.  b. 

bantm  Bitten  fottte  /  will  not  do  it,  unless  he  should  come  and  beg  me 
to  do  it.  The  expression  e$  icd're  benn  is  often  replaced  by  the  past 
subj.  (for  present  or  future  time)  or  past  perfect  subj.  (for  past  time) 
of  ntitffm  with  a  dependent  infinitive  with  normal  word-order  in  the 
subordinate  clause :  5)aS  rcerbe  id?  me  Son  ifym  glauben,  er  mitjjte  e3  mir 
benn  felfeft  fagen.  €ne  tying  fiipen  ^ragen  unb  QSorfteKungen  nad),  benn 
dlimar  t;atte  fceim  93linbeful);  als  er  fie  tyafdjte,  SBorte  fatten  laffen,  bie  nid?t 
mifjbeutet  icerben  fonnten,  er  Ijatte  benn  ein  fd)anblid?er  unb  ^eijimgiger 
Sugner  fein  miiffen  (Fontane's  L'Adultera,  chap.  viii). 

Elsewhere  this  construction  is  usually  replaced  by  a  clause  with 
o^ne  bap  (169.  2.  D),  or  remains  in  altered  form,  the  frenit  remaining 
or  dropping  out,  and  the  subjunctive  becoming  indicative  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  trend  toward  the  declarative  form  of  state- 
ment :  3d;  lajj  nicfyt  afc,  ityr  gefct  ben  ®efangenen  benn  $erau8  (Grillparzer). 
„  3d)  laffe  bid?  nidjt  fort,  QlnfaS,"  rief  fte,  „  bu  fagjl  mir  benn,  iraS  bit  int 
@inn  fyafi"  (Wichert's  Ansas  und  Gritd).  £>enn  niemalS  fe|rt'  er  ^)eim, 
er  fcradjt'  eud?  etreaS  (Schiller's  Tell,  4,  3).  ^ein  33ed?er  rcarb  geteert,  bu 
^attefl  i^n  |  gefuttt,  fein  58rot  gebrod^en  unb  fcerteilt,  |  e§  fam  au3  beineni 
^or6  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  III,  V,  9).  Even  in  case  of  the  verb 
fein  we  find  the  indie,  for  the  expression  of  reality :  5)er  5tr^t  fyatte 
mentals  etrcaS  in  ifyrem  4?aufe  ^u  fdjaffen,  eS  irar  benn,  bap  er  6et  ber  5lnfunft 
etneS  neuen  SSeltBurgerS  ^ugegen  rear  (Telmann). 

D.  Optative  in  Relative  Clauses.     This  subjunctive  is  found  in  the 
following  groups  : 

a.  Hortatory  Subjunctive.      A  relative  clause  often  contains  a 
hortatory  subjunctive,  which  is  translated  into  English  by  we  wish, 
it  is  desired,  &c.     9Son  bent  @rfce'fd)en  ^eftdjen  :  „  23erbeutfd?ung  ber  ^un|% 
auSbritrfe  in  ber  ©cfyule"  ifl  ein  Sfteubrud!  notrcenbig  gercorben   unb    tcirb 
bemnacfyft  auSgegeben,  reorauf  atte  SKitglteber  unb  greunbe  beS  5lttgemeinen 
beutfdjen  (S^rnd^ijereinS  aufmerffam  gemad^t    feien   to  which  we  especially 
desire  to  call  the  attention  of  all  the  members,  &c. 

b.  A  sanguine  optative  is  also  used  here  to   express  a  wish : 
unfer  Jtonig,  ben  ©ott  erl;alte  our  king,  whom,  we  pray,  God  may  keep. 
Also  in  clauses  with  reference  to  the  thought  in  another  clause : 
2Ba3  ttwrben  nrir  tun,  rcenn  —  it>a3  ®ott  ber^ute  (or  i?er^itten  moge)  —  ein 
llngliitf  gefdje^en  fottte?    If  some  misfortune  should  occur — which, 
however,  I  hope  God  may  prevent — what  would  we  do  ? 

c.  For  a  subjunctive  of  purpose  in  relative,  clauses  see  B.  (3), 
above. 

E.  Optative  in  Substantive  Clauses  : 

a.  Hortatory  subjunctive  in  subject  clauses :  @3  ift  tnflig,  ba§  man 
ifjn  unterfKtfee  (=man  unterjiii^e  u)n  let  the  people  help  him)  It  is  fair  that 
the  people  help  him.     (£8  ge^iemt  bent  -Kanne,  baf  er  and?  bag  <8d)trerfie 
retttig  tne  (=  er  tue  aud?  baS  @d?t»erfie  ttjtlltg). 

b.  Sanguine  Optative : 

(1)  In  subject  clauses :  £>aJ3  bu  an  unferer  Sreube  teilne^mefl,  tjl  unfer 
tnniger  QBunfd?. 

(2)  In  object  clauses:  [3d)  tt>itnfd)e,]  2>a{5  er  Sjollfommen  glftrfltd?  njerben 
ntoge !  If  the  governing  proposition  is  expressed,  this  subjunctive 
belongs  to  B.  (i),  above. 


168.  II.A.  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PRINCIPAL  TENSES     225 

F.  Optative  in  Adverbial  Clauses.  This  subjunctive  is  occasionally 
used  here  in  categories  other  than  those  previously  described, 
especially  after  fo  ivatyr  and  fo  (=n?enn) :  3n  ineinen  Qtrmen  antt  id?  bid? 
buvd;  bag  #efcen  tragen,  fo  tracer  C^ott  mir  tyelfe  (Raabe's  Die  Leute  aus 
dem  Walde,  chap.  x).  9Mn,  nein,  fo  ®ott  mir  fyelfe  (Storm's  Chronik 
von  Grieshuus,  p.  no). 

1 1.  Potential  Subjunctive. 

The  potential  subjunctive  of  principal  tenses  represents  the 
statement  not  as  an  actual  fact,  but  as  something  which  is  quite 
possible,  probable,  plausible,  supposable,  or  as  credible,  but  yet  as 
only  resting  upon  the  testimony  of  others,  or  upon  the  subjective 
view  of  the  speaker.  This  potential  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  unreal  potential  (seelQQ.  2)  of  historical  tenses,  which  represents 
on  the  other  hand  the  statement  as  barely  possible,  quite  doubtful, 
or  even  as  in  conflict  with  fact  or  impossible.  In  the  present 
period  of  the  language  the  tendency  is  to  observe  this  distinction 
between  the  subjunctive  of  principal  and  that  of  historical  tenses ; 
but,  as  will  be  seen  below,  there  are  still  many  survivals  of  an 
earlier  usage,  which  always,  irrespective  of  the  meaning,  required, 
as  at  present  in  English,  a  historical  tense  of  the  subordinate  verb, 
whenever  it  depended  upon  a  historical  tense :  @r  fcigte,  er  fci  franf, 
or  often  placing  the  tense  of  the  subordinate  clause  in  accord  with 
that  of  the  principal  clause  :  @r  fagte,  er  trare  franf.  The  thought  in 
both  of  these  sentences  is  exactly  the  same,  but  in  other  sentences 
a  sharp  distinction  is  often  made  between  principal  and  historical 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive,  the  former  expressing  a  probability,  the 
latter  an  improbability  of  the  truth  of  the  statement.  The  tendency 
to  distinguish  between  the  principal  and  historical  tenses  of  the 
subjunctive  is  stronger  than  the  tendency  to  place  the  tense  of 
the  subordinate  verb  in  accord  with  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb, 
but  as  this  growing  tendency  has  not  yet  gained  a  complete  victory, 
there  is  some  confusion. 

The  potential  subjunctive  of  principal  tenses  is  now  only  employed 
in  subordinate  clauses,  but  it  has  nevertheless  a  wide  field  of  useful- 
ness, as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  detailed  statement  of  its  uses  : 

A.  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse.  The  potential  subjunctive 
of  principal  tenses  is  used  in  indirect  discourse  after  verbs  of 
saying,  thinking,  feeling,  £c.,  to  represent  the  indirect  statement  in 
the  subordinate  clause  not  as  absolutely  true,  but  only  as  possible, 
probable,  plausible,  or  as  the  individual  opinion  or  feeling  of  the 
person  spoken  of,  or  as  a  question  in  his  mind :  £ttu3  Vflegte  jit  fagen, 
ter  Sag,  an  njeldjcm  cr  nicljtS  ®utc3  tue,  fei  fur  ifyn  fcerloren.  3d;  jireiflc 
nod),  ob  er  ber  red)te  SRann  fyierfur  fei. 

This  subjunctive  often  differs  markedly  from  other  forms  of  the 
potential,  as  it  is  frequently  no  longer  a  potential  pure  and  simple, 
but  is  often  merely  a  grammatical  form  to  express  indirectness  of 
statement.  See  G.  a.  (2),  2nd  par.,  and  b,  below.  The  subjunctive  in 
this  use  has  a  broad  field,  not  being  confined  to  one  grammatical 
category,  and  hence  may  reappear  in  a  number  of  the  following 
groups.  It  should,  however,  be  carefully  noticed  that  this  sub- 

Q 


226  THE  VERB  168. II.  A. 

junctive  may  not  only  differ  in  each  category  from  the  other  potential 
in  the  same  category  in  its  lack  of  real  potential  character,  but  also 
in  its  much  greater  frequency  of  use,  as  it  has  become  very  pro- 
ductive in  its  employment  as  a  formal  indication  of  indirect  statement. 
This  use  of  the  subjunctive  and  the  similar  use  in  indirect 
questions  are  the  most  common  in  the  language,  and  are  treated  at 
considerable  length  in  171-173. 

B.  Clauses  of  Manner.     The  potential  subjunctive  is  often  used 
in  these  clauses  to  indicate  that  the  comparison  rests  upon  plausible 
grounds,  or  is  the  subjective  view  of  the  speaker:  @g  rcar  ifym,  alg 
tycre  er  nod;  einmal  burcfy  ben  3fegen  unb  2Binb  beit  !>ftad}tirad;ter  fcon  3Ban$a 
in  ber  *yerne  bte  (Stunbe  rufeit  (Raabe's  Horn  von  Wanza,  chap.  xi). 
2)Jir  rear  jwreilen,  alg  fei  id)  i>on  unferm  Itefcen  ©ott  gefd;ieben  (Freytag's 
Rittmeister,  chap,  ix)  It  seemed  to  me  sometimes  as  if  I  were 
separated  from  God  and  his  goodness. 

a.  This  use  of  the  subjunctive  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  unreal 
potential  of  a  historical  tense,  which  implies  that  the  comparison  is  unreal 
and  contrary  to  fact ;  see  169. 2.  B. 

b.  Where  the  comparison  is  made  in  quite  a  positive  tone,  the  indicative  is 
now  quite  commonly  used  in  such  clauses :  Xrojjbem  gmnnnt  e3  ben  Slnfcfyeiit,  a(3 
cb  bie  au&cavttge  ^ctitif  (Snglanbe  and)  nad;  bent  Oiucftritte  Serb  OJcfeBettyS  unb  befien  @r; 
fejjnng  butd)  Sorb  Salisbury  lion  S^tf^l^gen  f)eima,efud;t  toivb  (Deutsche  Rundschau). 

C.  Plausible  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  after  a  Negative  or  a  Question. 
If  the  principal  clause  contains  some  expression  of  negative  force, 
such   as   a  negative  adverb,   adjective,   or  pronoun,   a  verb  with 
negative  force,  or  if  it  contains  a  question,  a  positive  of  an  adjective 
or  adverb  preceded  by  gu  and  followed  by  alg  bafj,  or  the  com- 
parative of  an  adjective  or  adverb  followed  by  alg  (or  less  commonly 
bcnn)  bafj,  the  verb  of  the  subordinate  clause  may  in  choice  language 
stand  in  the  subjunctive  of  a  principal  tense  to  indicate  that  the 
statement  is  not  thoroughly  established  and  must  be  taken  with 
some  reserve,  or  regarded  as  a  subjective  view :  Stimmer  ftnbet  er  ben 
<§etl'gcn,  ber  an  i^m  etn  SSimber  tit'  (Uhland}.     Reiner  tft,  ber  nod)  aufrecfyt 
ffatye,  al3  id)  ganj  aflein  (Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  II.  p.  203).     9ttd?t3  ifr, 
bag  bte  ©ercalttgen  fyemme  (Schiller).     2)iir  ifl  fetn  QJoIE  befannt,  bag  bie 
(S^radjreinigung  fo  entfd^teben  unb  gefd^Ioffen  Derteibtge,  bag  bent  5'rembirort» 
tanntel  (o  unentiregt  nnb  nitt  fo  gropent  (Srfolge  ^tt  Setbe  ge^e,  ivie  bag  bantfdje 
(E.  Mogk  in  Sprachentwickelung  und  Sprachbewegung  bei  den  nord- 
germanischen  Volkern,  1897).     @r  fagt  rcecer,  »tte  eS  ^eift,  nod?  rcer 
ber  33erfaffer  begfelfcen  fci ;  gefdjicetge  bap  er  eg  fur  bag  rufyrenbfie  t»on  aflen 
(Btutfen  beg  ©ttrt^tfeg  erftdre  (Lessing).     SBenn  fie  iveife  fpridjt,  fo  fe^It 
(with  negative  force)  nod;  tttel,  ba§  fie  gemeffen  fyanbte  (Goethe)  If  she 
does  act  wisely  she  comes  far  from  acting  properly.     9Bo  ifl  ber 
23e^erjte,  ber  taud^e  in  btefe  iiefe  nteber  (Schiller).     ®ie  ©rflarnng  ifl  oiel  ^n 
icettldufttg,  alg  bafi   fte  fcei  ©ntfd^eibung  ber   uorfyafcenben  <Strettfad;e  iut 
©ering^en  $n  fraud^en  fet  (Lessing).     Eg  ifl  »ng  leffrt  |  etn  2)ienfd)  fierce 
fur  bag  33olrf  |  benn  bag  bag  gan^e  sjjolrf  »erteroe  (John  xi.  50).     SBtr  atte 
retffen,  ba^  in  gegefrener  Sage  ber  Dffijier,  ber  (Solbat  Iteber  fclinbltngg  fitl;n  ben 
erjien  (Sdjritt  tun  fott  unb  mu§,  alg  bap  er  ^in  unb  fyer,  erwdge :  foU  id;  cber. 
foil  id;  nid;t  (Liliencron's  Krieg  und  Friederi)* 


168.II.E.    SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PRINCIPAL  TENSES      227 

a.  Although  the  subjunctive  of  a  principal  tense  is  still  found 
here,  especially  in  choice  language,  it  is  more  common  to-day  to 
change  the  point  of  view  a  little  and  use  a  historical  tense  here, 
thus  representing  the  statement  as  possible  rather  than  as  probable. 
From  the  idea  of  possible  error  which  lies  in  the  historical  tenses 
of  the  subjunctive  has  arisen  the  very  common  use  of  these  tenses 
to  express  a  statement  modestly  or  cautiously.  This  construction 
is  so  important  for  the  English-speaking  student  that  the  examples 
in  169.  2.  C  should  be  studied  very  carefully. 

D.  Plausible  Subjunctive  in  Negative  Clauses  after  a  Negative  or 
Question.  Where  the  principal  proposition  is  a  question,  or  where 
there  is  a  negative  in  the  principal  proposition  and  a  negative 
adverb,  or  negative  conjunction  (otyne  bat?,  or  bafj  nicfyt),  or  a  negative 
relative  (rer  nicfyt,  or  ivelcfyer  ntd;t)  in  the  subordinate  clause,  the  verb 
in  the  subordinate  clause  may  in  choice  language  be  in  the  sub- 
junctive of  a  principal  tense,  to  represent  the  statement  or  indicated 
result  as  probable  :  93Me  icirb  fie  cingclnc  Sragmente  ertragen,  ofyne  bap  fte 
fte  nidjt  (pleonastic;  see  223.  XI.  B.  a)  aucfy  jitm  ©an^en  bicfyte?  (Herder's 
Religion,  7,  69).  2) a  ift  feinc  biirftic3e  SReffel,  fein  93etld)en  tut  33ufd),  bag 
wd?t  burd)  tyetmhrfje  9Ri£cn  bag  £td?t  fucfye  (Lienhard's  Konig  Arthur,  i). 
£>odj  burfen  tvir  unfere  ©djrcei^ertfyeotie  nicfyt  fcetlaffen,  ofyne  bap  ifyr  tjou  imS 
and;  ©erert)tigfeit  mberfafjre  (Goethe).  (Sr  ferret  me  |  turn  eincr  Sfteife 
irieber,  bap  ifym  md)t  |  etn  5)rtttetl  fetuer  (Sacfcen  fe^Ie  (Goethe's  Tasso,  3, 4). 
<£o  ivirb  e8  fd)tcerli(^  fe^Iett  (with  negative  force),  bajj  man  ntd;t  meijienS 
ben  e^nciirbigen  5llten  fcija'nbe  (Burger).  2Sa§  fann  mtc^  ^tnbern  (with 
negative  force),  ba§  metn  fcetlangenber  ©etfl  ntd;t  con  @p^are  jit  <2pl.Hirc 
trre?  (Wieland).  The  two  negatives  or  a  question  and  a  negative 
clause  in  such  sentences  render  the  force  of  the  subordinate 
clause  affirmative.  The  negative  in  the  subordinate  clause  after 
an  ofyne  bap  which  follows  a  negative  or  a  question,  as  in  the  first 
sentence,  or  after  a  word  with  negative  force  and  also  modified  by 
a  negative  (nicfyt,  fcfynjerltcfy,  faum,  ttxntg),  or  unmodified,  standing  in 
a  question,  as  in  the  last  two  sentences,  is  not  so  common  now  as 
earlier  in  the  period;  see  223.  XI.  B.  a.  The  negative  in  such 
clauses  is  now  usually  dropped,  and  the  meaning  remains  the  same. 
The  subjunctive  in  all  the  above  sentences  is  replaced  by  the 
indicative  when  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a  fact. 
The  subjunctive  here  can  also,  as  in  C,  be  replaced  by  a  subjunctive 
of  a  historical  tense ;  see  C.  a. 

E.  Possible  Conditions.  In  most  conditions  that  are  represented 
as  probable  or  possible  the  indicative  is  now  used  as  in  English : 
3d;  get)e  ntd?t,  icenn  c3  regnet  I  shall  not  go  if  it  rains. 

A  subjunctive — the  plausible  subjunctive — is  only  used  after 
falls  if,  in  case  that,  e§  fei  benn  baf?  unless',  llnb  al3  ber  alte  <£>evr  fid?  ar.f 
fein  <£efa  gefherft  Ijatte  unb  fte  il;n  gut  jugeberft  unb  ifym  bie  3Mrne  ber 
elcftrifd;en  Jtlingel  attf  ba3  £tfd?d?en  an  fetner  <£eite  tyina.clea,t,  falls  et  etiraS 
iraucfye,  fcfylid)  fte  fid;  fcerftofylen  bason  (Ompteda's  Cdcilie  von  Sarryn, 
chap.  ii).  For  an  example  with  eS  fei  benn  baft  see  279.  c.  This  sub- 
junctive can  also  be  replaced  here  by  the  subjunctive  of  a  historical 
tense ;  see  C.  a.  The  indicative  is  also  used  here ;  see  279.  c. 

Q  2 


228  THE  VERB  168.  II.  E.a. 

a.  The  conjunction  fa((<3  is  derived  from  the  noun  %ntt  case,  and  can  be 
replaced  by  the  phrase  im  ftatte  tajj.    This  explains  the  use  of  the  subjunctive 
here,  which  originated  in  attributive  substantive  clauses  after  gall ;  see  G.  b. 

b.  In   M.H.G.   a   plausible   subjunctive  was   very   common   in   negative 
clauses  with  the  negative  particle  ne  or  en   unless,  if  not,  introducing  an 
exception  :  wir  sin  vil  ungescheiden,  ez  entuo  danne  der  tot  We  shall  remain 
iinseparated  if  death  does  not  part  its  (lit.  if  death  do  it  not}.    Some  see  in 
the  expression  e3   fei  tenn  unless  a   survival  of  this  old  construction  with 
suppressed  ne.     It  seems,  however,  more  probable  that  fci  is  an  optative 
subjunctive,  and  belongs  to  the  hortatory  category  explained  in  I.  2.  C.  b. 

F.  Plausible  Subjunctive  in.  Relative  and  Interrogative  Clauses  : 

a.  In  attributive  relative  and   interrogative  clauses.     Relative 
clauses :  fte . .  .  of)n  Srcetfet  nit  metyr  getrefeu  tenn  i£t  fein  mag  ein  arm 
«§au§magb,  fete  ba  tfyu,  rcag  man  fte  im  $au8  ju  tfyun  i)eijje  (according  to 
b.  (2),  below)  (Luther).     9Bo  er  un3  mmmei)r  une  ein  Jttnb  Don  fetneit 
^Icinen  fiir  bie  ndcfyfte  Sutunft  fprad),  a(3  »ott  bent  ©elSftoerjidnblicfyfien,  ira-3 
auf  biefer  (£rbe  toon  febermann  ijorgenommen  rcerben  fonne  (Raabe's  Die 
Aktcn  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  113).     <5o  benft  ber  junge  3)tann  unb  tin  Mer* 
fdjrcang  beS  ©liicf 8  fucJ^te  er  jemanD,  ber  ibm  l;e(fe  feme  ©ebanfen  tragen  (Heer's 
Der  Konig  der  Bernina,  VII).     The  subjunctive  is  most  common 
here  after  an  imperative  or  optative:    C^ott  beirafjre  btrt^  bor  einein 
0tad)6ar,  ber  bir  footel  236fe§  tite  unb  bir  fooiel  SSerbrnf  macfje  (Claudius). 
This   subjunctive   is   now   in   general  rather  rare  except  after  a 
negative  proposition,  as  described  in  D.     The  past  subjunctive  is 
more  common  here  as  explained  in  C.  a.     The  indicative  is  still 
more  common,  as  the  tendency  is  to  regard  the  statement  as  a  fact. 
The  subjunctive  of  principal  tenses,  however,  is  the  rule,  if  the 
relative  clause  is  part  of  an  indirect  statement,  even  though  the 
governing  substantive  itself  does  not  stand  in  a  subjunctive  clause 
with  the  outward   form  of  indirect   discourse :    2)ie   Oiegierung  ber 
23eretntgten  Staaten  6efrt)trerte  ftcfy  fiber  bie  ^aiUMtng  foineler  QJrmen,  iretcfye 
mancfee  euro^aifcfye  Sftegiernng  fortfdncfe. 

Interrogative  clauses  are  introduced  by  oft  whether,  or  some 
interrogative  adjective  or  adverb :  5)ie  Srage,  trie  er  jn  btefer  Qhtffaffung 
fontme,  yerfcluffte  ifjn.  The  subjunctive  here,  i.e.  in  indirect  questions, 
is  quite  common. 

b.  In  substantive  relative  clauses: 

(1)  As  subject  or  predicate.     As  subject :  Jtomme,  iter  rootfe,  id)  tin 
nic^t  jit  <§aufe.     As  predicate :   llnb  irer  ber  Sicfctfunjl   ©ttmme  ntd)t 
tternimmt,  |  ifi  ein  9?avfcar,  er  fei  and?,  icer  er  fei.     This  subjunctive  is 
only  found  in  a  few  set  expressions  where  the  governing  verb  is 
in  the  optative  (especially  the  concessive)  subjunctive. 

(2)  As  object :  'in  a  few  set  expressions  after  a  concessive  sub- 
junctive :  er  fage,  iva3  er  irofle.    (J3  f ofte,  tnaS  e3  icofte.   Also  occasionally 
elsewhere  :  ber  auffcimenbe  Sriefc  ber  £iefre  pnbet,  ivaS  er  crgretfe  (Schiller's 
Mcnschenfeind,  scene  8)  love  springing  up  like  a  shoot  finds  some- 
thing to  which  it  may  cling.    Except  after  the  concessive  subjunctive 
the  past  subjunctive  is  more  common  here. 

c.  In  substantive  interrogative  clauses.    This  subjunctive  is  very 
common  in  clauses  introduced  by  06  whether,  or  some  interrogative 
pronoun  or  adverb. 


168.II.G.&    SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PRINCIPAL  TENSES   229 

(1)  As  subject:  SSer  ben  93rief  afcgefanbt  Ijafce,  tfl  nod;  ntdjt  emttttelt  irorben. 

(2)  As  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition  :  3d;  fjafce  gejiceifetr,  ofr  man 
bem  «§errn  Gramer  etn  poettfcfyeS  ©ente  ^ngeftcfyen  fonne  (Lessing). 

The  subjunctive  in  (i)  and  (2)  is  often  not  the  pure  potential,  but 
a  mere  grammatical  form  for  the  expression  of  an  indirect  question, 
and  hence  may  stand  after  such  words  as  fefyen  to  see,  fcerne^nten 
to  learn,  itiffen  to  know,  £c.;  the  meanings  of  which  naturally 
preclude  the  idea  of  doubt:  5)  it  ftefjfr,  n?ie  ungefdricft  in  biefem  Quigmblicf 
id;  fei  (Goethe).  SSenigftenS  nriirben  ftc  bort  nnffen,  rcofjtn  er  fid)  getrcnbet 
fyabe  (P.  Heyse).  2113  er  in  itenigen  »orlauftgen  SBorten  fcetnafjin,  tvorum 
cS  fid;  fyanble  (what  the  business  was  about,  a  matter  of  fact,  but  sub- 
junctive on  account  of  the  indirectness  of  the  form),  orbnete  er  an,  bay, 
&c.  (G.  Keller's  Kleider  machen  Leute}.  See  also  G.  a.  (2),  2nd  par. 

G.  Plausible  Subjunctive  in  Substantive  S)aj?  Clauses.  This  sub- 
junctive is  not  infrequently  used,  especially  in  choice  language, 
to  represent  some  statement  as  probably  true,  or  to  indicate  that 
the  event  or  result  in  question  is  not  altogether  unlikely.  The  bap 
here  may  sometimes  be  suppressed.  This  subjunctive  is  often  re- 
placed by  the  past  as  described  in  C.  a.  Of  course  the  indicative 
is  used  if  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a  fact.  This 
subjunctive  is  used  in  the  following  relations : 

a.  In  subject  (or  predicate)  and  object  clauses : 

(1)  As  subject  or  predicate.    As  subject :  £>cnn  eg  ift  tmmuglid)  |  ba8 
©ott  liege  (199,  2.  Division,  4)  (Heb.  vi.  18).     2)enn  e§  gefcfn'ef)!,  bap  Dor 
©ott  etn  QlcferSmann  fceffer  tue  ttlit  feinem  ^fliigen,  benn  cine  9tonne  ntit  iljret 
Jteufrt$eit(  Luther).    (£3  ifl  fajl  unmogticfy,  bap  er  bte  ^Ibgefcfymacftljeit  ganger 
(Seiten  nnb  SSogcn  nid)t  etnfe^e  (G.  Keller).    Unter  fotcfyen  llmflanben  ivar  eS 
ait§gefc^Ioffen,  bajj  ^riebrirfj  benX)ienfl  oerlaffe(Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nicder! 
III).   As  predicate  :  (Seine  Qlnticort  [rear],  er  fiircfyte  ftdj  nid)t  (Rosegger). 

(2)  Object  clauses.  As  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition :  2)te  fcMudj* 
genbe  junge  5rau  t»erfianb  ttjn  ntd^t  fo  red;t,  after  fte  oerltep  ftd^  atS  gute  junge 
5"rau  and)  biennial  baranf,  bajj  cr  rcdH  l)abe  (Raabe's  Wunnigel,  chap.  xx). 

The  subjunctive  in  (i)  and  (2)  is  often  not  the  pure  potential,  but 
a  mere  grammatical  form  for  the  expression  of  indirect  statement, 
and  hence  may  stand  after  such  verbs  as  fcerceifen  to  prove,  fd)en, 
an(et)en  to  see,  nerjtdjern  to  assure,  iciffen  to  know,  jeigen  to  show,  &c., 
the  meanings  of  which  naturally  preclude  the  idea  of  doubt :  3UJO 
Ijab  id?  mit  itnfern  alten  Siebent  fceiriefen,  bajj  altein  ber  ©lanO'  an  Sefuiu 
G^riftum  [dig  mad;'  (Alberus,  1539).  <2ie  ttu^te,  er  iverbe  bod;  nidjt 
foinmcn  (P.  Heyse).  2113  bann  akr  it;re  ftufyrertn,  ^rau  $aul|en,  fte  barauf 
aufmerffam  ntad;te,  bajj  jebe  @tift86etoo^ncrin  aud?  einen  etgenen  rletnen  better 
fceftfce,  ba  irurbe  fte  crn^aft  (Use  Frapan's  Mamsell  Biene}.  3d;  trar 
jngleid;  et^ettert  unb  entjiirft,  jinnal  ber  3?ogel  nad;  furjer  ty*\\\t  jeigtc,  ba^ 
feiit  jHeid;tum  nod;  tange  nid)t  er(d;o)?ft  fei  (H.  Seidel's  Der  Ncuntoter], 

b.  In  attributive  clauses :   2)fetne  £erren,  unr  muffett  un3  ben  §att 
fergevjenirdrtigen,  bafj  bte  eine  obcr  bie  anbere  Sftegterung  nid;t  auf  atle  ^ebing^ 
ungen  einge^e  (Vorparlamcnt,  p.  63).      In  one  form  of  this  clause 
this  subjunctive  is  now  very  common — in  indirect  discourse:  ein 
cigeneS  ©efi'tfyl:   cr  nriiffe  beit  Crt  feunen  lernen  (Hirschfeld's  Damon 
Klcist).    6ie  glautten  mid;  ntit  ber  S^ad;ridjt  511  itberrafdjcn,  bap  id)  fd?nnnb* 


230  THE  VERB  168.  II.  c.b. 

fiidjttg  fci  (ib.).  The  potential  idea  often  disappears,  the  subjunctive 
not  implying  uncertainty,  but  merely  indicating  indirectness  of 
statement:  SDfan  burd)benfe  afle3  ba§,  rcag  id;  fyier  nur  anbeute,  unb  man 
rcitb  flu  ber  (SrfenntmS  gelangen,  ber  fyracfyltcfye  93erfetyr  ^reifdjen  jrcci  Jeifen 
fei  auf  ba§  naturlid?jte,  einfadjfie  imb  gered;tefle  fo  jit  regeln,  ba§  icber  $eil  in 
gletd)er,  nicfyt  afl^ufiarfer  SBeife  fcelafict  trerbe  (H.  Schuchart  in  Beilage 
zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  No.  230,  Jahrg.  1901).  SEein  ganger  &elt* 
guggplan  .  .  .  fiel  in  ftd?  jufammen  for  ber  fitfjen  ©eietp^eit,  bafj  fie  mid)  Itefre 
(Paul  Keller's  Waldwinter,  XIV). 

H»  Plausible  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Degree  (see  238. 3.  D). 
This  subjunctive  is  only  found  here  in  clauses  of  result  (see  238.  3. 
D.  2),  and  only  occurs  there  in  the  early  part  of  the  period,  having 
since  entirely  disappeared :  @o  rcitb  mirS  get)en  |  ba§  mid;  tobfdjlage 
reer  mid;  finbet  (Gen.  iv.  14). 

THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  HISTORICAL  TENSES. 

169.  The  subjunctive  of  historical  tenses  is  used  to  represent 
that  which  is  wished  for  without  much  hope  of  realization,  also  that 
which  is  quite  doubtful,  possible,  barely  possible,  impossible,  con- 
trary to  fact,  or  that  which  merely  exists  in  the  imagination,  or 
rests  upon  appearances  without  foundation  in  facts.  This  sub- 
junctive is  used  both  in  principal  and  subordinate  clauses.  It  has 
only  two  tenses — the  past  to  express  present  time,  the  past  perf.  to 
express  past  time :  (pres.  time)  (5r  ftetyt  aug,  al8  06  er  franf  ivate  He 
looks  as  if  he  were  sick;  (past  time)  @r  ftetyt  <m§,  alg  ob  er  franf 
geirefen  rcare  He  looks  as  if  he  had  been  sick.  The  past  subjunctive 
often  points  also  to  the  future,  as  is  usually  made  clear  by  the 
context :  SSenn  id?  fo  etnen  2Jknn  fyafcen  fottte,  ber  ftd)  immer  ©efa^ren 
auSfetjte,  id)  fiur&e  im  erfien  Sa^r  (Goethe's  Gotz,  i,  3).  In  conditional 
sentences  (see  2.  E,  below)  in  principal  propositions,  the  past 
subjunctive  can  be  replaced  by  the  present  conditional,  and  the 
past  perf.  by  the  perfect  conditional.  In  S.G.  and  with  increasing 
frequency  elsewhere  the  past  subjunctive  is  thus  also  in  subordinate 
clauses  replaced  by  the  conditional,  although  the  practice  is  fre- 
quently condemned  by  grammarians.  The  case  mentioned  in  2.  E. 
Note  3  below  will  serve  in  general  as  an  illustration  and  partial 
justification  of  this  forbidden  construction,  which  is  now  often 
found  not  only  in  conditional,  but  also  in  optative  and  concessive 
clauses  and  clauses  of  manner  and  elsewhere,  as  indicated  below. 
See  i.  A.  a ;  i.  B.  a ;  2.  B.  a  and  C.  b,  below,  and  190.  i.  E.  a. 

This  subjunctive  often  loses  the  element  of  unreality  and  is 
used  merely  to  make  a  statement  in  a  less  positive  tone  than 
is  expressed  by  the  indicative,  and  hence  is  often  called  the 
subjunctive  of  modest  or  cautious  statement.  The  especial  cases 
are  mentioned  below  under  the  different  categories. 

The  following  are  the  principal  groups  of  this  subjunctive: 

i.  The  Optative  Subjunctive  : 

A.  The  unreal  optative  subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a  wish  that 
has  no  immediate  prospect  of  realization,  or  towards  the  realization 
of  which  the  speaker  can  himself  do  nothing.  In  these  wishes  the 


169. r.c.    SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  HISTORICAL  TENSES    231 

question  order  is  the  rule,  and  the  subjunctive  is  often  accompanied 
by  the  adverb  bod;  :  .ftdme  er  bod; !  If  he  would  only  come !  Past 
time :  SOBdre  er  bod;  gefommen !  If  he  had  only  come !  It  is  also 
common  to  put  such  optative  sentences  in  the  transposed  order  in 
the  form  of  a  subordinate  clause  introduced  by  bap  or  rcenn  :  D  bajj 
id;  ba3  ©litcf  f)dtte,  einen  £>on  end;  bei  mir  $u  Ijaben !  2Benn  er  bod;  nod; 
lebte !  Such  unreal  optative  sentences  are  in  fact  subordinate  clauses 
of  elliptical  sentences,  the  principal  proposition  being  suppressed  : 
[3d;  ivitnfd;te,]  2)afj  er  gefommen  irdre !  [3d;  itiirbe  mid;  freucn,]  2Bemt  et 
bod;  nod;  lebte ! 

The  subjunctive  of  the  simple  verb  is  often  replaced  by  the  sub- 
junctive of  mogen  or  fonnen  with  a  dependent  infinitive  :  2tt6d;te  er  bod; 
enfclid;  jur  Seftnnung  fommcn  !  5ld;,  fonnte  id;  end;  bod;  nur  einmat  befud;en  ! 

The  past  subjunctive  often  loses  in  large  measure  the  element  of 
unreality,  and  is  employed  to  express  modestly  an  earnest  wish  or 
appeal :  2)i6d;te  btefe  fur^e  Gfyaraftertftif  jit  rceiteren  8'orfdntngen  5tnlap  geben! 
(Richard  M.  Meyer  in  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche  Wortforschung,  II. 
p.  291).  It  is  also  often  used  in  polite  commands  :  2)iod)ten  <£ie  bie 
@ute  fyaben,  nur  ju  folgen  ?  Would  you  be  so  kind  as  to  follow  me  ? 

a.  The  conditional  is  frequently  used  here  instead  of  the  subjunctive  of 
the  verb,  although  this  usage  is  quite  generally  condemned  by  grammarians  : 
3uiluiu<5  Jlevner  fcfyreibt :  SBiivDcft  bit  ifyn  nur  and?  femien !  (K.  Mayer  iiber  Uhland, 
•2,  183^     D,  ttemi  boc^  bet  Jpcrc  SljfcJTot  mat  fcntntcn  ttiiivbe !  (Raabe's  Akten  des 
Vogclsangs,  p.  184).     SBcnn  fte  [bie  QJcfen]  boc^  ntcbt  ivclfen  ttntrben  !  (H.  Bohlau's 
Adam  und  Eva,  chap.  vi).     D,  toenn  <Ste  fie  fennen  iDurbeit  —  ttne  idj!  (Hirsch- 
feld's  Das  griine  Band,  IV).     See  also  190. 1.  E.  a. 

b.  In  the  colloquial  and  popular  language  of  the  North  the  indicative  often 
replaces  the  subjunctive  here  as  elsewhere :  SBenu  unv  man  (=  nnt)  crft  brattpen 
Juaven  !  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjahrige  Reich,  p.  73). 

B.  The  unreal  concessive  subjunctive  which  stands  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause  implies  that  the  conceded  proposition  upon  which 
the  conclusion  is  based  is  not  a  very  probable  one.     Sentences  in 
which  this  subjunctive  thus  stands  in  the  subordinate  clause  are  in 
respect  to  mood  and  tense  in  both  principal  and  subordinate  clause 
exactly  like   unreal  conditional   sentences  (see   2.  E,  below) :    llnb 
wenu  <8ie  mir  golbene  QBerge  gdfcen,  ba3  tri'irbe  id;  nid;t  tun  Even  if  you 
should  give  me  mountains  of  gold  I  would  not  do  it. 

a.  The  conditional  is  frequently  used  here  in  the  subordinate  clause, 
although  this  usage  is  quite  generally  condemned  by  grammarians.  Thus 
a  prominent  German  educator  writes :  SBenn  loir  nun  aucfy  in  Scutfcfylanb  jcne 
Sinridjtung  nacfyabmenetwrtcr  jinbcn  rourben  (instead  of  faubcn),  fo  ujiirben  mis  bcc^ 
afle  ubviijen  SSebingungen  fefytcn.  See  also  2.  E.  Note-$,  below,  also  190. 1.  E.  a. 

C.  Unreal  subjunctive  of  purpose.      In    the    three   groups  enu- 
merated in  168. 1.  2.  B,  the  unreal  subjunctive  of  purpose  is  used 
to   represent   the   thing   desired   or  planned  as  not  liable  to  be 
realized,  or  to  represent  it  as  only  a  faint  possibility,  or  often  as  an 
actual  possibility  :  (i)  3d;  icottte,  cr  icdre  nid;t  geftorben.     3d;  •immfdjte, 
cr  fame.     The  subjunctive  here  often  loses  the  element  of  unreality 
and  is  used  after  the  manner  of  the  subjunctive  of  modest  statement 
to  express  modestly  a  wish  that  may  be  fulfilled  :  5)arum  bet'  id;  $11 
unfenu  4?errgott,  cr  mod;t'  mir  meinc  t)6d;fie  cvreub'  gebcu  (Anzengruber's 


232  THE  VERB  169.  i.  c. 

Schandfleck,  chap.  xii).  Itnb  bag  fyat  bamalg  einen  fo  grofien  Sinbrurf  ciuf 
mid;  gemad)t,  bap  id)  bid;  Intteit  tu6d;te,  bu  mad;tefi  eg  and)  fo  itnb  Ucpcft 
aud;  jtvei  Jtttwen  auffieigen  unb  auf  ber  jrceiteti  Jtuppe  ftdnbe  bte  Jtirdje 
fcott  Qlbamgborf  (Fontane's  Poggenpuhls,  chap.  xii).  (2)  Jtonnt'  id;  alg 
£eid;e  fcor  btr  nieberftnfen,  bamtt  bu  tlufyenb  ftiinbeft  unb  fcerjimgt  (Uhland). 
(£g  ifl  nur  gut  0tad;frage,  rcenn  nur  etnmal  ber  (Sinfaft  fame,  bafj  id;  gletrt; 
fcor  bie  redjte  <ad;nuebe  ginge  (Goethe's  Gb'tz,  2,  4).  (3)  <So  fcefd)Iojj  man, 
ctnen  })atriottfd;=braniatifd;en  Qlbenb  311  oeranftalten,  ber  jugleid)  ®etegent;eit  tote, 
bte  funf  @d;aufpteler  ber  tyofjeren  ©efettfd;aft  ^ranfenfelrg  oor^ufii^ren  (Riehl). 
3d;  martcte,  6iS  bag  ^auS  sjerfauft  ware  (Wilmanns).  3d;  l^ate  gereartet, 
•tiS  id)  Ote  'mat  aflcin  trafe  (Frenssen's  /orw  6%/,  chap.  vii).  (£g  Blieb 
t^m  nid)t3  iikig  al§  o6jurearten,  6i§  btefe  nttyvotte  Drgte  ftd;  erfd;ovft  fya'tte 
(Ertl's  Die  Stadt  der  Heiligeri).  The  subjunctive  in  (3)  is  not  at 
all  infrequent,  while  the  sanguine  subjunctive  of  purpose  is  here 
almost  confined  to  relative  clauses  in  choice  language,  being 
elsewhere  usually  replaced  by  the  indicative. 

a.  After  a  historical  tense  this  subjunctive  cannot  be  distinguished  in  form 
from  the  sanguine  subjunctive  of  purpose  (168. 1.2.  B),  as  the  latter  sub- 
junctive is  often  attracted  into  a  historical  tense  following  the  model  of  the 
principal  verb :  (5't  befall,  bajj  eS  flefcfyafye  (also  gefcfyefyc).     Here  flefcfyalje  is  evidently 
the  sanguine  siibjunctive  of  purpose,  attracted  into  this  tense  by  the  past 
form  befafyl. 

b.  The  subjunctive  here  is  now  often  replaced  by  the  indicative  to  represent 
vividly  some  possibility  as  actually  realized :  2)ie  {RambcrgS,  beine  Itcben  likttctn 
unb  SSormuubcv,  Ijaben  bte  £vaitte  an  @robi$fdj  tterfuppelt.     (Sinfaclj  »erfupvcft  —  Had) 
afleu  Oiegeln  ber  Jhtnfl  —  jatvo^t!  —  bamtt  bu  frei  ttntrbejl  unb  bid)  Berlobcn  fonnteji 
(Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  2,  7). 

2.  The  Unreal  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  : 
A.  In  statements  and  questions  direct  and  indirect: 
(i)  In  direct  statements  and  questions.    In  earlier  periods  the  unreal 
potential  subjunctive  was  established  most  firmly  in  indirect  dis- 
course and  in  other  subordinate  clauses.     It  is  forcing  its  way  more 
and  more  into  independent  propositions.     Its  use  in  subordinate 
clauses  is  treated  at  length  in  the  different  categories  described  below. 
It  is  employed  in  the  principal  proposition  in  the  following  cases : 

a.  In  the  principal  clause  of  unreal  concessive  and  unreal  con- 
ditional sentences.     This  use  is  discussed  in  E,  below. 

b.  In  doubting  inquiries  or  exclamations  of  surprise  :  ©oftte  ^arl 
bag  getan  tyafcen  ?   Can  it  be  that  Charles  has  done  that  ?     5Sar'3 
mbglid;  ?    Jlonnt'  id;  md)t  mefer,  rcie  id;  itottte  ?  (Schiller's  Wallensteins 
Tod,  i,  4).     @r  fcdtte  jebeg  <$inberni8  foftegt,  |  unb  in  bent  eignen  SSiUeit 
fetner  S£od;ter  |  foflt'  (past  subj.)  ifcnt  ber  nettc  <2trett  eutftebn?  (id.,  Die 
Piccolomini,  3,  8)  Can  it  be  that  he  has  overcome  every  obstacle 
only  to  find  in  the  wilfulness  of  his  own  daughter  a  new  source  of 
opposition?    2) it  tva'rjl  |  fo  fatfd)  gfjfffen?  (ib.,  5,  i)  Can  it  be  that 
you  were  so  false  ?    2)te3  ttare  3l)re  <^d;trefier !  Well !  this  is  your 
sister,  is  it  ?    (Si !  bag  ird're !  You  don't  say  so  !    2Bo  rcdre  ber  ?  Where 
in  the  world  can  he  be?    93d'rc  btefe  @prad;e  feme  $aufd;ung?  Is  it 
really  true  or  not  that  these  utterances  are  no  delusion  ?     9iod?  cing. 
—  S)ag  tttire?  I  have  another  thing  to  say  yet. — What  is  it?     It  is 
in  a  similar  manner  often  used  to  express  joy,  satisfaction  over  the 


169.2.  A.  (a)-  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  HISTORICAL  TENSES  233 

attainment  of  some  end  whose  successful  issue  has  seemed  doubtful, 
or  over  a  final  resolution  after  an  inner  debate  or  struggle,  or  to 
express  surprise  or  regret  over  some  unexpected  result :  ©otttob, 
irtr  ictiren  am  %id !  God  be  praised  we  are  there  at  last !  €>o  t)dtte  id) 
benn  n(le3  getan,  iua8  mir  jit  tun  ofcltegt !  And  so  I  have  actually  done 
all  that  is  incumbent  upon  me  to  do !  £)a§  tra're  nun  in  Drtnung ! 
That's  in  good  shape  now,  I  think !  JJhm  macfyte  fte  ol3  energise  &rau 
eincn  @ttid)  unter  bie  ganje  S^ifote  unb  fagte  fid) :  2)amit  w aren  icir  fertig ! 
Now,  as  an  energetic  woman,  she  inwardly  decided  to  put  an  end  to 
the  whole  (love)  affair,  and  said  to  herself:  '  Well !  I  guess  that's 
ended  ! '  @o  uniren  unr  am  @nbe,<§err  tytQfcftor(Freytag'sJournatisten, 
2,  i)  So  I  suppose,  Professor,  we  are  through  with  each  other  (i.  e. 
all  friendship  between  us  is  past).  This  use  of  the  subj.  is  often 
closely  related  to  the  following  one. 

c.  This  subjunctive  often  loses  in  large  measure  the  element  of 
doubt  and  unreality,  and  is  employed  to  state  a  fact  or  truth 
modestly,  politely,  or  cautiously,  in  a  less  positive  and  definite  way 
than  in  the  indicative  :  (Sie  bi'irften  fid)  geirrt  tyaben  You  may  possibly 
have  made  a  mistake.  £)a§  burfte  bag  Oiicfytige  fein  That  is  probably 
correct.  3d)  iru§te  rcofy(,  ivag  ju  tun  rea're  I  think  I  know  what  would 
be  best  to  do.  9Ud)t  gut !  3d)  bad)te  bod) !  (Lessing's  Nathan,  2,  i)  You 
think  I  am  not  playing  well  ?  I  rather  think  I  am !  Unb  fo  vroY 
id)  fur  bieg  3a^r  2)ieifter  (Goethe's  Egmont,  i,  i)  And  so  I  guess  I'm 
master-marksman  for  this  year.  2)itrfte  id?  Htten,  mir  9?efdpeib  fagen 
gu  laffcn?  Might  I  ask  you  to  send  me  word?  <2o  fatten  irir  bod) 
roentgflenS  etroaS  jit  ftanbe  get»vad;t.  2?t3  ba^in  ifl  ttutivenig  gefdjet'en 
(Frankfurter  Nationahers.,  p.  841).  5'afl  jeber  l^a'tte  (subj.  of  cautious 
statement)  ben  ©eifiltdjen  ettcaS  jit  fagen  ge^abt  (Ebner-Eschenbach's 
Glaubenslos,  chap,  v)  Almost  every  one  had  something  to  say,  &c. 

It  is  very  common  in  introducing  a  wish  :  3d)  njunfd)te  (the  present 
indie,  id)  iritnfdje  has  more  of  the  bluntness  of  a  command),  <8ie 
fd;enften  mir  ©e^or  I  wish  you  would  be  so  kind  as  to  grant  me 
a  hearing. 

(2)  In  in  direct  discourse,  to  indicate  that  the  statement  is  improbable 
or  contrary  to  fact :  9Ba8?  [(Sagen  @ic,]  dla'ii&er  inaren  e§  gcicefen,  bie  un3 
anftelen?  —  !iDcorber  >varen  e8,  crfaufte  9)J6rber!  (Lessing's  Emilia,  3,  8). 
Untcrroorfeu  ^att'  id)  mid)  |  bent  JHtd)terfprud)  ter  3w<tonW)ierjtg,  fagt  t^r  ?  | 
3d)  babe  feinegrceg3  mid?  untenvovfen  (Schiller's  Maria  Stuart,  i,  7). 

This  subjunctive  is  also  used  to  denote  a  faint  or  imagined  possi- 
bility, also  often  an  actual  possibility,  and  hence  to  make  a  state- 
ment cautiously  (see  G.  a.  (2)} :  1)ann  ntad;te  er  (Srperimentc  in  bcr  Gfyemte, 
ba§  id)  mandjntal  ^eimlid)  bie  gvof;te  Qlngfl  ausigeftanbnt  ^ak,  ba3  «§au8  flogc 
auf  init  unS  atten  (S.  Junghans).  ^in  Jtompltnunt  an  ben  Jtotmftor 
(Fdcrtnifdi,  unb  ob  e8  morgcn  regnete  ?  (Raabe's  Horackcr,  chap,  i)  Give 
the  assistant  principal  E.  my  compliments,  and  ask  him  whether 
there  is  any  possibility  of  rain  for  to-morrow. 

We  cannot  always  distinguish  the  unreal  subjunctive  from  the 
plausible  subjunctive  which  has  been  attracted  into  a  historical 
tense  after  a  historical  tense.  Even  after  a  present  tense  we  are 
not  absolutely  sure  that  the  historical  tenses  denote  unreality,  as 


234  THE  VERB  169. 2.  A.  (2). 

they  often  under  the  influence  of  dialect  are  used  to  report  indirectly 
simple  statements  made  by  others ;  see  171.  2.  A.  b.  Note.  Thus  a 
historical  tense  of  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  is  often  not 
a  genuine  unreal  potential  at  all.  See  also  G.  a.  (2),  3rd  par.,  below, 
and  168.  II.  A. 

The  subjunctive  of  a  historical  tense  is  not  now  as  widely  used 
in  indirect  discourse  as  that  of  a  principal  tense,  but  nevertheless 
has  a  broad  field  of  usefulness  here,  both  as  a  pure  potential  and 
with  less  reason  also  as  a  grammatical  form,  to  express  merely 
indirectness  of  statement.  This  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse 
not  being  confined  to  one  grammatical  category,  but  assuming 
different  grammatical  forms,  will  reappear  in  a  number  of  the 
following  groups.  It  is  discussed  still  more  fully  in  171-173. 

B.  Clauses  of  Manner.  The  unreal  potential  is  used  to  indicate 
that  there  is  little  foundation  of  fact  for  the  comparisons  made,  or 
to  suggest  a  semblance  or  mere  surmise :  3d?  fyalte  (Sgmont  t)ter,  atS 
ob  id?  ttjnt  nod?  ivag  ju  fagen  fyatte  (Goethe's  Egmont,  Act  4).  9}ettd?en 
lefjnte  fid)  fo  jufrieben  an  tfan,  al§  ob  er  eine  J?ird?enfaule  irare  (G.  Keller's 
Kleider  machen  Leute).  £et  93raune  griff  fo  tapfer  ait§,  al§  irare  er  ftol$ 
auf  fetnen  ftd?ern  «§errfd?et  The'  bay  struck  a  brisk  pace  as  if  he  were 
proud  of  his  firm  master.  The  subjunctive  of  a  principal  tense 
here  has  another  meaning;  see  168.  II.  B. 

The  historical  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  also  often  used  here 
as  elsewhere  to  express  a  possibility,  or  to  make  a  statement 
cautiously  :  3d)  bin  nur  eine  alte  ft'rau  unb  fann  mid?  alfo  taufd?en  •  aber  — 
Jtinb,  Jl tub,  fd?einen  tut  eg  nur  bod?  fo,  al§  06  bie  SBelt  fd?riKer  irurbe  (were 
becoming,  might  be  becoming,  subj.  of  cautious  statement)  (Raabe's 
Horn  von  Wanza,  chap.  xiv). 

a.  The  conditional  is  frequently   used   here   instead  of  the  subjunctive, 
although  this  usage  is  quite  generally  condemned  by  grammarians  :  @te  lichen 
fid)  gar  nicfjt  bet  un3  fefyen,  ivie  uvmt  fie  baa  (slternfyaug  gefitjfentlid?  piemen  toiicben 
(for  flo^Ot)  (G.  Keller).    See  190.  I.E.  a.  • 

b.  We  often  find  the  ideas  of  unreality,  semblance,  possibility,  probability 
expressed  by  a  past  indicative  both  in  poetry  and  common   prose,  most 
frequently  in  the  language  of  the  North,  where   there  is  a  general  trend 
toward  the  indicative :  JDu  fyafl  gmannt  mid?  einett  SScgelftefler,  |  at3  ob  bit  felbet 
feine  ©arne  jegfl  (Freiligrath).      (£$  n^ar,  al3   ob  fid?  itntev  bcr  Jpaut  ^ulficrenbe 
©trdf^ne  fyinjcgen  (Auerbach's  Waldfried).   SKir  irar,  atg  ob  ec  mid?  vlc^lid?  anberg 
anfafj  al3  fonft,  al^  cb  ec  mic  nid)t  mef)t  frei  bie  J&anb  geben  fonnte  (Hirschfeld's 
Agnes  Jordan,  i,  p.  42).     (5(5  iwat  aHe^  inie  tterfyert  unb  »erttjunfd?en.    Sllg  irenn 
tas  nid)t  wirfltd?e  §aitfec  ivaren  (Frenssen's  Jorn  Uhl,  chap.  v.  p.  83).     <£tefy', 
mic  tit,  |  afs  ivaren  lautec  ^uppeu  fonjl  urn  mid?  |  bie  2Jfenfd?en  a((e  (Schnitzler's 
Der  Schleier  der  Beatrice,  I,  p.  31). 

Also  the  present  indicative  is  frequently  used  here,  when  the  reference 
is  to  present  time  or  a  general  fact :  3)umntfS  3cng !  9U3  roenn  bit  iiberfyaupt  'n 
Sifbften  I?aji !  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjdhrige  Reich,  p.  41)  As  if  you  indeed  had 
a  lover  1  SBie  fcmmett  @ie  fyterfyev  ?  Answer :  SUtJ  ob  man  im  (Sramen  tji !  (Carl 
Busse).  3d?  l»ei§  nidjt,  lva5  bag  t|l,  baf  id?  md?t  ovbcntltd?  tad?en  fann.  @3  tji,  a(3 
irenn  mein  ©efid?t  gefcoren  ijl  (Frenssen's  Jorn  Uhl,  chap.  xi).  (Sc  ifl  ben  ganjen 
Sag  in  Uncut?  nnb  fann  bod?  5Jlad?tij  nid?t  fd?lafen  .  .  .  al^  menn  ...  id?  ircip  nidjt .  . . 
al^  town  ec  ein  fdjirerc^  ©eteiffcn  tyat  (id.,  Das  Heimatsfest,  2,  3).  3U3  ob  id?  nie 
oKein  fectig  rocrb' !  (C.  Busse's  Kleinstadtliebe)  You  talk  as  if  I  never  finished 
my  work  alone ! 


169. 2.  c.    SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  HISTORICAL  TENSES    235 

A  principal  tense  of  the  subjunctive  is  often  used  here  with  a  little  different 
shade  of  meaning,  namely  to  represent  the  comparison  as  assuming  for  a 
moment  in  fancy  the  guise  of  reality  :  Sftm  Jrar,  cv  liege  jum  erften  SJJal  a(3  Jtnabe 
ntit  einem  unnennbaren  ©cfitfyl  fiijjen  Scfyauers  in  ber  ©unite  (Jensen's  Heimkunft,  V). 

C.  Unreal  Potential  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  after  a  Negative  or 
Question.  If  the  principal  proposition  contains  some  expression  of 
negative  force,  such  as  a  negative  adverb,  adjective,  or  pronoun, 
a  verb  with  negative  force,  or  if  it  contains  a  question,  a  positive 
of  an  adjective  or  adverb  preceded  by  gu  and  followed  by  alg  bap, 
or  the  comparative  of  an  adjective  or  adverb  followed  by  alg  (or 
less  commonly  benn)  bap,  or  if  the  subordinate  clause  follows  an 
affirmative  proposition  and  is  itself  introduced  by  the  negative 
conjunction  otyne  bap  or  (an)fiatt  bap,  the  subjunctive  of  a  historical 
tense  is  often  used  in  the  subordinate  clause  to  indicate  that 
the  statement  does  not  rest  upon  an  absolutely  sure  foundation, 
and  should  be  regarded  only  as  a  possibility,  and  often  therefore 
to  make  a  statement  modestly  or  cautiously  (see  168.  II.  C.  a)'. 
(Sr  ijl  mcfyt  (o  iceife,  bap  cr  aUeg  nntpte  He  is  not  so  wise  that  he 
could  possibly  know  everything.  (Scrlo  ^attc  fte  nidjt  eimnal'  ju 
©ajlroflen  gelaffen,  gefcfyireige  bap  (238.  3.  C.  c}  er  ifynen  J&offnung  junt 
(Engagement  gemad)t  fydtte  (Goethe's  Lehrjahre,  I.  4,  19)  Serlo  did  not 
invite  them  to  play  for  a  single  evening,  to  say  nothing  about 
giving  them  hopes  of  a  permanent  engagement.  3d;  fenne  nicmanb, 
ber  gcnauere  Jtenntnig  ber  <3ad;e  befape  (who  has  a  more  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  affair,  but  in  German  the  past  subjunctive  indicates  the 
possibility  of  an  error  of  judgment,  and  the  desire  on  the  part  of 
the  speaker  to  be  modest  and  cautious).  «§aben  <Sie  nid;t  jtdrfereg 
papier  ?  Answer :  3d;  fyabe  etrcag,  bag  fidrfer  ijl,  abev  nidjtg  in  ber  geivitnfct^ 
ten  j^ar&e,  bag  ftdrfer  ita're  (cautious  statement)._  5)ie  ©efdjidjte  fennt 
feinen  (StaatSmann,  ber  fid)  grofere  3>erbienjle  urn  Ojlerretd)  envor6en  ^dtte 
(cautious  statement)  a!3  ^rittj  @ugen.  @g  fle^t  fctn  a^enfd;  fo  l)ocfy, 
bap  id;  mid?  neben  ifym  jit  fd)dmen  ^dtte  (the  subjunctive  tempers  the 
statement)  There  is  no  one  in  the  world  so  great  that  I  along- 
side of  him  need  to  be  ashamed.  (£3  fefjtte  (with  negative  force)  tne(, 
bap  SBerncr  etnen  fcorteilfyaften  ©intrucf  gemadjt  ^atte  Werner  came  far 
from  making  a  favorable  impression.  @3  fefylte  nur  nod?,  bap  er  i^r 
gerabejn  ben  SJatt  Jjerboten  l;dtte  He  did  all  but  positively  forbid  her 
going  to  the  ball.  (£3  fe^It  nur  nod;,  bap  er  jlurbe.  9Bo  ijt  ber  SWann, 
ber  baS  tun  fonnte?  Where  is  the  man  who  would  be  able  to  do 
that?  £et  Qtnblicf  n?ar  jit  ergreifenb,  alg  bap  id;  ifjn  mit  UBorten  (dnltern 
fonnte  The  sight  was  too  thrilling  to  be  described  by  me  in  words. 
QlriojlenS  £06  «u3  feinem  9Jhtnbe  l^at  mid;  me^r  erge|t,  |  aid  bap  e§  mid) 
Metbtgt  ^d'ttc  (Goethe's  Tasso,  2,  i).  3»'»  crjt«»  9)iale,  folangc  id; 
benfen  fonnte,  griff  ber  Urgropoater  biefe  ^erauSforberung  nid?t  auf,  iveniger 
(with  negative  force)  U'ofyl,  iceil  er  burd^aug  ntd;tS  ju  entgegnen  gewupt 
l;atte,  al§  au3  aflgemeiner  SBetrubniS  nnb  9)h"tbigfeit  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf 
Ursleu,  chap,  xxiii).  (£te  tat  ba3  iveniger,  ireil  fte  felbfl  QJerguugen  babet 
gefunben  l;dtte,  alS  iceit  fte  glaubte,  ifyn  baburd;  ju  jerflreuen  (ib.,  chap.  xxiv). 
6r  tat  eg,  o(;ne  bap  id;  bag  ©eringjle  bacon  gercupt  ^dtte.  Unb  bte  2)httter 
fd)afftc  i^nen  nod;  braunleberne,  feine  «§albfd;u^e  an,  jlatt  bap  fie  ftd;  felbjl 


236  THE  VERB  169. 2.  c. 

cin  (Sommermdnteldjen  gefanft  tyatte  (H.  Bohlau's  Adam  und  Eva, 
chap.  ii).  Often  after  simple  nid)t:  [It  is  difficult  to-day  to  find 
a  good  poet]  9tid)t,  bafj  ftd)  fyeutyitage  etiw  fo  »iel  iremger  ©uteS  fanbe 
cits  frufcer,  netn,  nur  ba6  Sftittelmafjige,  USerfliiffige  nnb  ©lenbe  J)at  ftd)  in 
einet  SBetfe  »erntef)rt,  bafj  eg  jammercott  tfl  (H.  Seidel's  Poeta  laureatus). 

a.  Often  the  intention  of  the  subordinate  clause  is  to  express  an  actual 
result  or  one  which  is  confidently  expected,  and  hence  the  indie,  is  often 
used  here :  0c  tat  e3,  efyne  baft  id)  e3  hwfjte. 

b.  The  conditional  is  frequently  used  here  in   the  subordinate   clause, 
although  this  usage  is  quite  generally  condemned  by  grammarians  :  3f)OT 
Ijdtte  eg  Ijdufig,  felbft  butd)  ben  drgften,  giftigjien  @d)mtpfen  fytubutd),  treift  nad) 
ntobevtgem   ©trot)  riedjeu  fomun,  cfyne  bafj  er  fid)  bavob  getounbett   fyaben  fturbe 
(Raabe's  Wunnigel,  chap.  viij.    See  also  190. 1.  E.  a. 

D.  Unreal  Potential  Subjunctive  in  Negative  Clauses  after  a  Negative 
or  Question.  Quite  frequently  where  the  principal  proposition  is  a 
question,  or  where  there  is  a  negative,  or  a  positive  of  an  adjective 
or  adverb  preceded  by  jit,  or  a  comparative  in  the  principal  propo- 
sition and  a  negative  adverb,  or  a  negative  conjunction  (uaf}  m'd)t  or 
o^ne  bajj),  or  a  negative  relative  (fret  nicfyt  or  irelcber  tticfyt),  or  al§  bap  in 
the  subordinate  clause,  the  verb  in  the  subordinate  clause  is  in  the 
subjunctive  of  a  historical  tense  :  £Bo  tji  ein  23erg  tin  gan^en  Scmb,  ben 
cr  nicbt  fcefltegen  Ijatte  ?  9lorf)  me  ift  eine  Umrafyrfjeit  gefyrocfyen  Jtorben,  bie 
ittcfyt  fritljet  ober  (vdter  nacfytetlige  ^otgen  ge^afct  ^atte  (which  has  not  had 
evil  results,  cautious  statement).  (Sr  benft  gu  ebet,  a!3  ba^  er  nid;t  bie 
SBafyrfyett  fagte  He  thinks  too  nobly  not  to  speak  the  truth.  £>te 
Gfyriflen  glauben  mefyr  5trm[elig!etten,  j  alS  ba§  fte  bie  nict^t  aud;  nod)  gfauten 
fonnten !  (Lessing's  Nathan,  ?,  i)  Christians  believe  too  many 
miserable  things  not  also  to  believe  that.  €;te  fonnen  ntcbt  tyinbern, 
ba§  bie  9)ienfd;en  ntdjt  nad)  bem  5}td;te  bltcften  (past  subj.)  (Klinger) 
They  cannot  prevent  people  from  looking  towards  the  light.  <5r 
fonnte  ntdjt  oer^tnbern,  ba§  ntdjt  nod)  <§ilfe  fyineingefommen  itcire  (Ranke). 
SBentg  fe|(te,  baf  «§erjog  SBern^arb  nid)t  etn  cifynltd)e3  @d;i(ffat  erfa^ren  ^atte 
(Schiller).  3d)  tin  me  in  bonbon,  bap  id)  nid)t  ba§  SJJttfeum  6efnd?te  I  never 
go  to  London  without  visiting  the  museum.  (£r  f^ra0  nte,  o^ne  bafj  er 
gefcagt  itorben  irdre.  SttcmanD  trat  fyerein,  o^ne  baf  er  t>on  bent  (Spiegel  gur 
S^atur  unb  son  ber  S^atur  jum  (Spiegel  ftd)  nic^t  gern  ^tn  unb  aneber  geitenbet 
^dtte  (Goethe).  The  two  negatives  in  such  sentences,  or  a  question, 
or  jit  +  positive,  or  a  comparative  followed  by  a  negative  clause, 
render  the  force  of  the  subordinate  clause  affirmative.  The  negative 
in  the  subordinate  clause  after  an  ofyne  baf?  that  follows  a  question  or 
a  negative,  as  in  the  last  sentence,  or  after  a  word  with  negative  force 
and  also  modified  by  a  negative  (nid)t,  fd)icerlid),  if  a  it  m,  rcenig),  as  in  the 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  sentences,  is  not  so  common  now  as  earlier 
in  the  period ;  see  223.  XI.  B.a.  The  negative  in  such  clauses  is  now 
usually  dropped,  and  the  meaning  remains  the  same.  Sometimes  we 
find  the  negative  in  the  subordinate  clause  wanting  when  the  verb  in 
the  principal  clause  is  not  negative  in  force,  but  then  the  verb  in  the 
subordinate  clause  is  always  in  the  indie. :  2>nn  menials  fetyrt'  er  £eim, 
er  frrad;t'  end)  etrcaS  (=obne  ba$  er  end)  or  bafj  er  end;  nid)t  etira§  ge&racbt 
fydtte).  For  explanation  of  the  indicative  see  168. 1.  2.  C.  b.  As  the 


169.2.E.   SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  HISTORICAL  TENSES      237 

force  of  the  subordinate  clause  in  all  the  above  cases  is  affirmative, 
we  would  naturally  expect  here  the  indicative,  but  usually  we  find 
the  subjunctive,  which  modestly  admits  that  there  may  possibly  be 
some  error.  If,  however,  the  statement  is  represented  as  a  fact,  the 
indie,  must  be  used  here  :  Gr  fonnte  nicfyt  oerfyinbern,  tap  nod;  <§ilfe  fytnein 
Jam.  (St  fam  menials,  ofyne  bap  cr  em  ©efdjenf  mttfcracfyte. 

a.  When  nid)ttf  a(3  is  used  in  connection  with  a  verb  with  negative  force,  and 
the  subordinate  clause  calls  attention  to  the  want  of  something  necessary  for 
completeness,  the  negative  in  the  subordinate  clause  is  retained,  if  the  verb  is 
in  the  indicative,  but  is  omitted  if  the  subjunctive  is  employed  :  £>eut  3Beine 
fcfylt  md)tf3,  al3  bap  er  nid)t  »el(ia,  geflart  iji,  or  al3  bag  cc  »oflig  geftart  ware. 

E.  Unreal  Conditions.  The  unreal  potential  is  also  used  in  con- 
ditional sentences  in  which  the  conclusion  rests  upon  a  condition 
that  is  not  likely  to  be  fulfilled,  or  upon  one  which  is  contrary  to 
the  facts  in  the  case.  The  principal  clause  has  the  conditional  or 
subjunctive,  the  subordinate  clause  the  subjunctive  only,  as  illus- 
trated in  the  following  sentences  : 

Present  Time. 

a.  3d)  rciirbe  bett  SSrief  fcfyrei&en,  rcenn  id)  3"*  $&tte  /  would  write  the 
letter  if  I  had  time,  or 

b.  3d;  fdniebe  ben  23rief,  icenn  id)  3eit  tyatte  (about  equal  in  meaning 
to  a ;  see  Note  i). 

Past  Time. 

c.  3d?  iritrbe  ben  93rtef  gefdjtieOen  tyaben,  icenn  id)  %t\t  ge^afct  tydtte 
/  would  have  written  the  letter  if  I  had  had  time,  or 

d.  3d;  l;atte  ben  ®rtef  gefd;riet)en,  tvenn  id;  3^  flefyafct  ^a'tte  (equal  in 
meaning  to  c). 

Note  i.  In  the  principal  proposition  the  subjunctive  is  much  more  common  than 
the  conditional  in  case  of  modal  auxiliaries  and  the  passive  of  all  verbs  in  both 
present  and  past  time.  Elsewhere,  however,  the  two  forms  may  be  considered. 
as  equally  good  and  common  with  the  exception  that  the  present  conditional  is  more 
common  in  the  principal  proposition  than  the  past  subjunctive,  at  least  so  in  ordinary 
prose,  perhaps  accounted  for  in  part  at  least  by  the  fact  that  the  subjunctive  forms  are 
frequently  not  formally  distinct  from  the  indicative. 

Note  2.  The  past  indie,  sometimes  takes  the  place  of  both  the  past  and  past  perf. 
subjunctive,  either  in  the  main  or  subordinate  clause,  to  add  more  assurance  or  certainty 
to  the  tone  of  the  assertion :  2fiit  bicfent  *JJfetl  buvdifcfycfj  id)  (Slid),  lucim  id)  nteiit 
Iubf3  Jtint)  gctrcffen  Ijdtte  I  would  have  surely  shot  this  arrow  through  you,  if  I  had 
hit  my  dear  child  (Tell  to  the  tyrant  Gessler).  Jtamft  bit  md)t  im  tetijtcu  ?lugcnblt(fe, 
(o  ivat  id)  vevlcrcn.  Thus  also  in  suggesting  in  a  tone  of  assurance  a  course  of  action 
that  might  have  with  profit  been  pursued  in  some  emergency  of  the  past :  Sir  ftailbctt 
iwei  9ika,e  often  :  enhvetet  bit  tratjl  offen  gegeu  jene  OJanfe  auf,  oter  tu  nahmft  beinen 
Vlbfdjicb  Two  ways  were  open  to  you  :  you  should  have  either  openly  stood  up 
against  those  intrigues,  or  have  given  in  your  resignation. 

Note  3.  From  Luther's  day  up  to  the  present,  the  conditional  is  found  with 
increasing  frequency  even  in  good  authors  also  in  the  subordinate  clause  as  well  as  in 
the  principal:  SBo  abey  jcnianb  nnirfce  $u  cud)  fagen  (i  Cor.  x.  28).  ajjit  SBergniigen, 
ivenit  c>5  etUMsJ  ficlfen  iwurbe  (Raabe's  Horacker,  chap.  vi).  2Benn  nun  bcv  Rafter  »on 
©anfcuniufel,  Jpert  (Sf)rifliait  9Bin(ftet,  allc^  ttc>3  unb  j»ar  in  einem  dhnltd)en  £one 
txne  fetn  (Sl)cn?cib  vcrgetragcit  fyaben  irurbe,  fo  teuvben  l»ic  und  ganj  gcfjcrfamft  bafuc 
tebanfen,  irgenb  tine  Surgfd)aft  fur  ben  Gvfolg  bee  Olcbe  ju  ubernct)mcn  (ib.,  chap.  viii). 
As  explained  in  190.  i.  E.  a,  the  conditional  is  from  a  historical  standpoint  a  form  of 
the  subjunctive,  and  hence  the  use  of  the  former  instead  of  the  latter  is,  strictly 
speaking,  not  objectionable.  They  may  continue  as  interchangeable,  cr,  as  suggested 


238  THE  VERB  169. 2.  E. 

in  190.  i.  E.  a,  they  may  in  time  be  differentiated.  Grammarians,  however,  discourage 
the  use  of  the  conditional  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

Note  4.  Many  sentences  containing  a  subjunctive  will  upon  study  reveal  themselves 
as  a  conditional  sentence  with  the  principal  or  subordinate  clause  suppressed:  9) finale 
ware  id?  gefallen  (rcenn  mid)  nidjt  iemanb  gcfialten  fyitte)  I  came  very  near  falling  (and 
would  have  fallen  if  some  one  had  not  seized  me).  The  conclusion  omitted  :  3a  ftenn 
hnr  ntd?t  todren,  fagte  tie  Saterne  jum  Sftonb.  S)a  gina  fie  au$  (What  would  the 
world  do)  If  we  were  not,  said  the  lantern  to  the  moon.  Thereupon  it  went  out. 

1.  The  subjunctive  of  modest  or  cautious  statement,  which  is  a 
weakened  potential  with  a  suppressed  conditional  clause,  is  used 
quite  frequently  to  make   the   statement  of  a   truth   modestly  or 
cautiously,  in  a  less  positive  and  definite  way  than  in  the  indicative  : 
3d?  fonnte  nod?  mand?e3  fagen  (ivenn  id?  rcotlte,  or  ttenn  eg  berflattet  icdre) 
I  think  I  could  say  considerable  yet  (if  I  desired,  or  if  I  were 
allowed).     See  also  A.  (i).  c,  above. 

2.  We  have  other  conditional  sentences  than  the  ones  described 
in  the  preceding  articles.     The  conditional  conjunctions  given  in 
233.  3.  F  are  used  with  the  historical  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  to 
denote  a  possible  case,  the  subjunctive  clause  usually  following 
a  proposition  containing  an  indicative  :  (Sr  itar  entfd?loffen,  eine  anbere 
©tefle  jtt  fud?en,  falls  ba§,  icag  tfjm  bet  ber  ,,Jtultur"  (name  of  a  periodical) 
geboten  tvurbe,  rttcbt  feinen  3Bunfd?en  entfprdd?e  (Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  x). 

F.  Unreal  Subjunctive  .in  Relative  and  Interrogative  Clauses. 
This  subjunctive  is  much  used  to  represent  the  statement  as 
possible  and  often  to  state  an  opinion  modestly  or  cautiously. 

a.  Attributive  relative  or  interrogative  clauses.    Relative  clauses : 
£>a  iji  ber  Jtalm,  ber  mid?  fyinubertrttge  (Schiller's  Tell,  i,  i).     2>ie  SCelt 
fcum  bir  mdjtS  barfcieten,  rcaS  fte  toon  btr  nid?t  entyftnge  (Schiller's  M enschen- 
feind,  Act  8)  which  it  does  not  receive  from  you,  subj.  of  cautious 

statement.  9Bem  roirb  cwd?  bag  etnfatteu  ?  @inem  junt  ©rern^el,  ber  fdjrcacfy 
irdre  (might  be)  unb  etn  flarf  ©crciffen  ^dtte  (might  have)  (Goethe's 
Go'tz,  -2,  i).  3d?  mod?te  gern  einen  ©elbfceutel  |aten,  ber  nie  leer  rcitrbe 
(Grimm's  Mdrchen).  @te  fefann  fid?  nuf  etrcag,  reag  fte  eqd^Ieti  fonnte 
(S.  Junghans).  llnter  ben  lefcenben  @^rad?en  eine  ober  metyrere  au^uitd^len, 
ber  ober  benen  eine  betorjugte  Oiotte  jitjuteiten  ware,  f)eipt  nid?t3  anbereg  alS 
in  einer  fontinuirlid?en  JRet^e  eine  @d?eibelinie  giefjen  (H.  Schuchardt). 
The  subjunctive  is  here  most  common  after  a  negative  or  a  question, 
and  is  treated  from  this  point  of  view  in  C  and  D,  above. 

The  subjunctive  in  relative  clauses  also  occurs  in  unreal  con- 
ditional sentences  :  (£r  rcdre  ber  lefcte,  ben  id?  urn  0tat  fragte  [,  irenn  id?  in 
23erlegenf)eit  fommen  fottte]. 

Interrogative  clauses  are  introduced  by  ot  whether,  or  some 
interrogative  adjective  or  adverb :  3e£t  warf  man  bie  5rage  auf,  ob  man 
ba§  SCBerE  ^u  @nbe  fitt;ren  fonnte. 

b.  In  substantive  relative  clauses.     It  is  very  common  in  the 
following  relations : 

(i)  As  subject  or  predicate.  As  subject :  9Ser  fie  md?t  fennte  |  bie 
(Slemente,  |  i^re  ^raft  |  unb  @igcnfd)aft,  |  irdre  fein  SDteifter  |  uber  bie  ©etfter 
(Goethe's  Faust,  Studierzimmer).  2Ber  mir  »orau§gefagt  I;dtte,  bafj  bie 
','lrme  mctneS  ©eifteS  fo  balb  jerfd?ntcttert  iverbcn  fottten,  mit  benen  id?  in3 
llnenbltd?e  griff,  unb  mit  benen  id)  bod;  geivip  ein  ©ropeS  ju  umfaffen  ^offte, 


169.2.G.0.  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  HISTORICAL  TENSES    239 

irer  mtr  bag  t>orau§gefagt  tydtte,  iritrbe  mid)  $ur  QSerjrcetflung  gcbradjt  fyafreit 
(id.).  As  predicate :  £>ie  2Renfd?en  flub  nid)t  immer,  ira§  fie  fein  fonnten. 

(2)  As  object :  Jtaufe  bir,  waS  bit  gern  Ijdttefl  (Lessing's  Minna,  2,  3). 

c.  In  substantive  interrogative  clauses.  This  subjunctive  is 
common  in  clauses  introduced  by  06  whether,  or  some  interrogative 
pronoun  or  adverb. 

(1)  As  subject :  (?3  ftet  tfym  nidjt  cut,  rcieoiel  baton  fid}  fagen  liepe. 

(2)  As  object :  3d)  brutete,  trie  id}  bid)  retten  fonnte  (A.  Hausrath). 
The  subjunctive  in  (i)  and  (2)  is  often  not  a  pure  unreal  potential, 

but,  as  in  168.  II.  F.  c.  (2),  3rd  line,  only  a  grammatical  form  for  the 
expression  of  an  indirect  question,  the  tense  having  been  attracted 
into  the  form  of  a  historical  tense  after  a  historical  tense :  SBaS 
mit  bent  -2lnbree  gefdjetyen  icurbe  [or  irerbe],  fitmmerte  ifyn  nidjt  tut  ©eringften 
(P.  Heyse).  In  such  indirect  questions  a  historical  tense  is  not 
now  in  choice  language  so  common  as  a  principal  tense. 

G.  Unreal  Potential  Subjunctive  in  Substantive  ^a^- Clauses.  This 
subjunctive  is  very  common  to  indicate  a  possibility,  or  to  express 
a  statement  modestly  or  cautiously.  The  bap  may  be  suppressed. 
This  subjunctive  is  often  used  instead  of  the  plausible  subjunctive 
described  in  168.  II.  G.  Of  course  the  indicative  is  used  if  it  is 
desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a  fact. 

This  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  following  relations : 

a.  In  subject  (or  predicate)  and  object  clauses : 

(1)  As  subject  or  predicate.    As  subject:  (£3  td  te  not,  id)  gtnge  felbft 
fyin.     See  also  Matt,  xviii.  6.    As  predicate :  SGBaS  er  am  fefynltcfyften 
uriinfcfyte,  irar,  er  fya'tte  bid;  nod}  einutal  fpredjen  fonnen  (L.  Siitterlin). 

(2)  As  object:    3d}  refynete  barauf,  bafj   er   ausbleifcen   fonnte.     3d} 
gtaube,  metne  ^erren,  bamtt  iva're  (subj.  of  modest  statement)  in  ftarfen 
gropm  Untriffen  genug  ton  unferem  ^lufenttjalt  in  SBien  gefagt  (Frankfurter 
Nationahers.,  p.  841).     SRa,  bent  ©d^ctegeniater  itteint,  bit  fii^lteft  (subj. 
of  cautious  statement)  bid}  t)ter  icie  ber  B'ifd?  im  5Daffer  (Hartleben's 
Rosenmontag,  2,  4).     The  context  to  this  last  passage  shows  very 
clearly  that  the  speaker  does  not  represent  the  statement  as  unreal 
or  merely  possible,  but  as  his  own  personal  view,  and  here  seeks 
confirmation  of  it  by  cautiously  representing  it  as  the  view  of  the 
father-in-law,  in  the  hope  of  receiving  an  assuring  reply. 

There  are  also  a  few  traces  of  a  tendency  to  give  the  subjunctive 
here  the  idea  of  unreality :  £a  betaupten  bie  tfeute,  8fmutbe  in  ber  9Jot 
H'dren  fdten  And  now  people  say  that  friends  in  time  of  need  are 
scarce  (which  is  not  my  experience).  3a,  Jtnoten  — ,  ba§  fini>  fie,  bie 
2Kenfd?cn,  alle,  trie  fte  geOarfcn  ftub,  QBeamtenfnoten,  ©etDfnotcn,  9Seruf8fnoten ! 
Unb  am  fnottgflen,  Jvenn  fte  ftd)  Sarffliefct  an^tc()en,  etncn  B:rarf  barubcr 
tydngen  nub  rvomoglid)  ein  ^aar  Drbcn  bran  fterfen  unb  ftd)  einbilben,  je^t 
n-dren  fte  fein  (Wildenbruch's  Neid,  p.  80).  See  also  A.  (2),  above, 
and  171.  2.  B.  c. 

The  subjunctive  in  (i)  and  (2)  is  often  not  a  pure  potential,  but, 
as  in  168.  II.  G.  a.  (2),  2nd  par.,  a  mere  grammatical  form  for  the 
expression  of  indirect  statement  or  discourse,  the  tense  having 
been  attracted  into  a  historical  tense  after  a  historical  tense :  6r 
fapte  e8  ntcfyt,  bap  btefe  £iw«n  erfattct  ivdven,  bie  fo  oft,  nod}  geflern  wit  ifyu 


240  THE  VERB  169. 2.0.  a. 

itfcer  afle  Sragen  ber  SKenfdjien  gerebet  (Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  viii).  3d) 
uwfjte  rcoftt,  baft  e§  ofyne  £drm  nid;t  abgefyen  iritrbe  (P.  Heyse).  In  such 
indirect  discourse  historical  tenses  are  in  general  not  now  in  choice 
language  so  common  as  principal  tenses.  It  would  be  a  gain  for 
the  language  if  they  would  disappear  entirely  except  in  the  cases 
mentioned  in  171. 2.  B.  a.  This  would  leave  room  for  the  clearer 
development  of  the  idea  of  possibility,  unreality,  and  caution  here. 
See  also  171. 2.  B.  c. 

b.  In  attributive  clauses:  £>a8  fcat  ifyn  fo  fnrcbtfcar  gequa'It,  3JJarie. 
£)te  Qlna.fl,  er  fonnte  me  etrcag  erreicfyen  (Hirschfeld's  Mutter,  Act  4). 

H.   Unreal  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Degree  (see  238.  3.  D) : 

a.  In   clauses  expressing  a  comparison  (see  238.  3.  D.  i.  A.  a). 
This  subjunctive  is  common  here  to  express  a  possibility,  or  to 
make  a  statement  modestly  or  cautiously :  @r  ifl  fo  kfdjetben,  ide  etn 
SDJann  feiu  fonnte. 

b.  In  clauses  expressing  a  restriction  (238.  3.  D.  i.  A.  c).     This 
subjunctive  is  used  here  to  express  a  possibility :  3d)  6tn  nid?t  after* 
gtciu&ifcfy,  i?erfe£te  Charlotte,  imb  ge6e  md)t3  auf  btefe  bunflen  Qlnregungen, 
infofern  fte  mir  folcfye  red'ren  (Goethe's  Wahlverwandtschaften,  chap.  i). 

c.  In  clauses  expressing  a  result  (see  288.3.  D.  2).     This  sub- 
junctive is  common   here   to  express   a  possibility,    or   to   make 
a  statement  modestly  or  cautiously:  £>ie  &uft  ift  fo  flifl,  bajj  n?ir  fte 
fontmeu  ^)oren  fomiten.      @8   (Frenssen's  Jorn   Uhl]   ifl,  Son  fetnem 
Jtunfiirert  ganj  a6gefei)en,  ba&ei  fo  beutfd),  bap   feine  anbere  SRation  ber 
(5rbe  eS  Jjatte  ^eroorbrtngen  fonnen.      (58  ift  fpejietl  fo  norbbeutfd?,  bap 
feiu  @iibbeittfd)er  an  feine  innerfie  Jlraft  ^eranfonnte  (Carl  Busse  im  Tag, 
Nr.  ii  vom  8.  Januar  1902).     <Ste  rear  fo  ergriffen,  ba^  ffe  fafl  einen 
SBeinframpf  fcefommen  ^dtte  (Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap,  xxviii)  that  she 
almost  fell  into  hysterics.     Of  course  the  indicative  is  used  here  to 
state  an  actual  result. 

I .  Unreal  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Time  and  Place.  The  historical 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  used  in  adverbial  clauses  of  time  and 
place  to  denote  possibility:  5)ie  $otengraber  fatten  ituer  bent  @arge  eine  $lrt 
©etcotk  au8  ffirettern  ^ergeftettt,  uni  t^n  fpater  irteber  Ietd)ter  auSgrakn  ju 
fonnen,  rcenn  bie  ©ruft  ferttg  gemattcrt  icdre  (Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  ix). 
S^on  nteinen  <Sd)utern  ater  tcerbe  id?  nientalS  rceid?en,  »ro  eine  ®efaf;r  fie 
tebro^en  fonnte  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfiirsten,  chap.  xlii).  See 
also  274.  b ;  275.  b. 

J.  Unreal  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Cause.  The  historical  tenses 
of  the  subjunctive  are  used  here  to  denote  possibility :  3d?  tite  eS 
gleid),  iceil  e8  t;eute  nod;  regnen  fonnte. 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

170.  Indirect  discourse  is  the  indirect  statement  of  the  substance 
of  the  words,  thoughts,  suppositions,  wishes,  &c.,  of  another,  or  is 
the  speaker's  report  of  the  substance  of  his  own  words,  thoughts, 
suppositions,  wishes,  &c.  In  German  such  indirect  communications 
assume  two  general  forms — the  Indirect  Form  and  the  Independent 
Form. 


171.  i.  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  241 


INDIRECT  FORM  OF  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

171.  i.  Mood.  In  reporting  the  thought  of  another  the  speaker 
uses  the  indicative  if  he  positively  wishes  to  endorse  the  report,  or 
represent  it  as  evidently  supported  by  facts;  but  if  he  desires  to  repre- 
sent the  report  as  doubtful,  or  wishes  simply  to  submit  to  the  judgment 
of  the  hearer  the  subjective  views  of  himself  or  others,  or  to  state 
his  or  their  wishes,  hopes,  fears,  intentions,  &c.,  which  are  by  their 
very  nature  not  entirely  certain  of  realization,  he  usually  employs 
the  subjunctive  :  2)cr  5lrjt  glaitfct,  bap"  id;  franf  tin  The  doctor  believes  me 
to  be  sick  (and  I  agree  with  him),  but  2)er  Qtrjt  glaubt,  bafj  id;  frant  [ci 
The  doctor  believes  me  to  be  sick  (but  I  don't  agree  with  him).  @r  fagt, 
tap  ft  fefyeu  j;irei  Jtapitct  gelefett  fyat  He  says  that  he  has  already  read  two 
chapters  (and  of  course  his  word  is  good),  but  S)a  [age  enter,  bap  id;  fein 
feinet  S)tylomat  [ft  Now  let  some  one  say  that  I  am  not  a  shrewd  diplomat! 
(Who  could  now  hold  such  a  view,  as  I  have  already  shown  that 
I  am  one?).  JJubretg  (Salomon  tncint,  man  bi'irfe  SBilfcranbtS  ,,3WaIer"  nefren 
SretytagS  ,,3ournaliften"  fteflen  Louis  Salomon  believes  that  Wilbrandt's 
play  'Die  Maler'  compares  favorably  with  Freytag's  'Die  Jour- 
nalisten '  (the  subjective  view  of  Salomon).  SMein  SSatet  glaufct,  eg  fci 
(the  subjunctive  here  contains  nothing  doubtful  or  disrespectful  to 
the  father,  but  simply  indicates  that  the  view  expressed  is  his)  fcejfer, 
biefen  SGeo,  einjufdjlagen  My  father  thinks  it  is  better  to  pursue  this 
course.  6r  nnmfcfyt  nidjt,  bap"  fie  eg  tyore  He  does  not  want  her  to  hear  it. 

There  is  considerable  fluctuation  in  the  use  of  the  subjunctive 
here  according  to  the  standpoint  and  feeling  of  the  speaker  or 
writer,  but  in  general  it  is  at  present  true  that  it  is  much  more 
common  after  the  second  or  third  person  than  after  the  first,  and 
more  common  after  a  past  than  a  present  tense,  hence  least  frequent 
after  the  first  person  present :  3d)  fiird;te,  bafj  eg  fdjoit  gu  (pat  ift  I  fear 
it  is  already  too  late,  but  (£r  fiirdjtet,  bafj  e§  fdjon  j;u  [pat  fei.  3d)  flrceifle, 
bap"  cr  lefett  ttirb  (O.  Weise)  /  doubt  whether  he  will  read,  but  3d; 
jtueifelte,  bap  er  lefen  iverbe  (id.).  The  subjunctive  after  a  first  person 
present,  however,  is  common  in  case  of  verbs  expressing  will, 
command:  3d;  tt>ifl  nidjt,  baf  and;  mtr  etn  etnjiger  fd;Iaff  u-erbc  turd; 
SBctbertrancu  nub  SBetbergefd^rei  (Sudermann's  Teja,  i,  5)  I  do  not  desire 
that  a  single  man  should  become  enervated  through  the  tears  and 
cries  of  women.  The  subjunctive  is  also  more  common  with 
reference  to  the  future  than  to  the  past :  (£3  ivar  gercip,  bap  cr  log, 
gelogcit  tyatte,  li'tgen  rcerbe  (or  iviirbe). 

As  can  be  seen  from  the  preceding  sentences,  the  subjunctive 
employed  in  indirect  discourse  has  not  one  distinct  meaning,  but 
is  either  optative  or  potential  or  both,  as  the  statement  may  be 
represented  as  the  will  of  some  one,  or  as  something  that  is  possible, 
or  it  may  be  represented  as  both  at  the  same  time.  That  which 
marks  this  use  of  the  subjunctive  as  a  distinct  one  is  the  element 
of  indirectness  which  lies  in  the  statement.  If  the  element  of 
indirectness  is  present  the  subjunctive  may  now  be  used,  although 
the  optative  and  potential  ideas  may  be  entirely  absent :  3d;  ujiif} te 

R 


242  THE  VERB  171.  i. 

rcofyt,  bap  bcr  £unb  fcon  ebler  5lrt  fei(Riehl's  Der  stumtne  Ratsherr,  III). 
See  also  168.  II.  G.  a.  (2),  and  par.;  169.  2.  G.  a.  (2),  yd  par. 

a.  The  indirect  statement  often  depends  upon  a  noun:  Den 
SBonrurf,  baf)  cr  bid)  fyate  taufcfyen  reoflen,  l)at  cr  nid;t  fcerbient.  Die 
2Bef)aufctung,  bafj  bte  (Srbe  fid)  brefye,  fefcte  ©alitei  manigfad;en  23erfolgungen  au3. 

£.  The  report  of  the  speaker  in  the  subjunctive  may  be  interrupted 
by  explanatory  remarks  of  his  own  in  the  indie.,  but  all  remarks, 
explanatory  or  otherwise,  which  are  a  part  of  the  original  direct 
statement  are  put  in  the  subjunctive  when  transposed  into  the  in- 
direct :  Jtarl  erjafylte,  bafi  er  bag  «£aug,  treld;e§  er  ton  feinem  SSater  geerfrt 
fyat,  serfaufen  rcofle.  @eit  3al)ren  (fagte  fte)  fei  fte  mit  cincnt  @tanbe§genoffen 
serlofct  gercefen,  ber  gteid;  ityr  arm  gereefen  fei. 

c.  Often  a  subordinate  clause  is  in  the  subjunctive  in  indirect 
statement,  although  it  has  not  the  outward  form  of  an  indirect 
statement,  which  is  easily  explained  by  supplying  some  omission : 
Die  2ltf)ener  (Athenians)  fcerurteilten  @ofrate8  jum  $obe,  rceti  [fte  fagten, 
bafi]  er  bte  Sugenb  tterberfce.    SKenbel  (name)  foflte  bofcet  Be^ulflic^  fein,  njidj 
ot»er  aitS.  [@r  fagte,]  (Sr  ^a6e  brei  2Bod?en  ju  9Bett  gelegen,  fu^Ie  ftc^  no^  fe^r 
matt  unb  fottte  nad^  be8  5lr^teS  Qtnnjetfung  jebe  Qtitfregung  bermetben. 

In  long  continued  indirect  discourse  it  is  not  necessary  in 
German  to  be  continually  intercalating  such  clauses  as  'she  said/ 
'he  continued,'  &c.,  for  the  subjunctive,  as  in  the  preceding 
examples,  indicates  clearly  that  the  speech  is  indirectly  reported. 

d.  The  unreal  optative  and  potential  subjunctives  of  the  direct 
change  in  the  indirect  their  person  but  not  their  mood  and  tense : 
(Sir  fagt  (or  fagte),  er  mcd)te  @ie  fpretfjen.    Direct :  3d)  mocfyte  ifm  fyrecfyett. 
(Sjr  fagt  (or  fagte),  er  rciirbe  gefyen,  irenn  er  %t\t  $atte.     Direct :  3d;  trurbe 
gefjen,  reenn  ict^  %tit  ^atte.     <5r  fagt  (or  fagte),  ba§  tonnten  @te  am  6efien 
roiffen.     Direct :  Da3  fonnte  er  am  fceften  tviffen.     Past  time  :  (Sjr  fagt  (or 
fagte),  er  J)a,tte  «Sie  f^redjen  mogen.     Direct :  3d)  tyatte  t^n  fprecfyen  mogen. 

e.  In  N.G.  dialect  and  colloquial  language  the  subjunctive  of 
indirect  discourse  is  very  largely  replaced  by  the  indicative :  <£o, 
alfo  ba§  fagfi  bit  unb  meinft,  id)  bin  fold;  etn  2ftenfd)?  (Halbe'sjugend, 
p.  87).     For  other  examples  see  2.  B.yj  below.     The  indicative  is 
here  used  also  in  case  of  unreality :  5)ie  ,ftrup£el  glait&ten,  nit  fja&en  fte 
mid;  (E.  von  Keyserling's  Ein  Friihlingsopfer,  p.  120).     In  South 
German  the  subjunctive  is  better  preserved  here :  Unb  fie  ^at  mtr 
g'fagt,  fte  tyatt'  mid;  nie  mog'n,  '^irungen  war'  f  njorben  (Anzengruber's 
Das  vierte  Gebot,  2,  n).    The  indicative,  however,  is  not  infrequent 
in  the  South :  -2ltte  fagen,  bap  bit  mid;  fcerlaffen  ttrirft !    3ttd;t  nja^r,  bit 
tuft  eg  ntdjt .  .  .  (Schnitzler's  Liebelei,  p.  100).     Mizi :  (SJr  f^ielt  ja  nid)t 
SSa^geigen,  93iottn  frielt  er.    Theodor :  5(d;  fo,  id;  §afc'  gemeint,  er  f^tclt 
SBa^geige  (ib.,  p.  23).    «§ier  ifl  etn  2Bei6,  bag  fd;rett.     3d;  fenn'  fte  faum! 
@te  fagt,  e3  ift  urn  mid; !    3l)r  5Sater  reottte  fte  bent  retd)en  SWann  serfuppeln, 
afeer  fte  fcerbrefyt  bag  ®anje  unb  fagt,  ifjr  3Kann  tt>ar*  aud)  ein  fold;er  ^up^Ier 
unt)  ber  ifl  nur  etn  97arr,  fooicl  mid)  bitnft  (Hugo  von  Hofmannsthal's 
Die  Hochzeit  der  Sobeide,   p.  107).      In   the   South  the   idea  of 
unreality,  as  in  case  of  rcdr'  in  the  last  sentence,  finds  a  more 
natural  expression  in   the  subjunctive,   while  in  the   North  the 
indicative  may  also  be  used  here. 


171. 2.  A.  c.  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  243 

2.  Tense.  The  tense  required  in  indirect  discourse  may  as  in 
English  depend  upon  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb.  Thus  a 
present,  present  perfect,  or  future  follows  a  present,  while  a  past, 
past  perfect,  or  present  conditional  follows  a  past.  Differing  from 
English,  the  German  may  also,  without  regard  to  the  tense  of  the 
verb  in  the  principal  proposition,  use  the  same  tense  in  the  indirect 
as  stood  in  the  direct,  so  that  the  present,  present  perfect,  and 
future  usually  stand  in  the  subordinate  clause,  as  explained  in  B, 
below.  The  former  construction  is  the  older,  but  the  latter  is 
steadily  gaining  upon  it  in  the  literary  language.  In  the  dialects, 
which  often  influence  the  literary  language,  the  old  historic  usage 
has  been  entirely  abandoned  and  new  and  different  constructions 
have  arisen.  In  the  South-west  the  present,  future,  present  perfect, 
and  future  perfect  in  the  subordinate  tense  are  the  rule,  whether 
they  follow  a  present  or  a  past,  while  to  the  East  and  North  the 
past,  present  conditional,  past  perfect,  and  perfect  conditional  prevail 
under  the  same  conditions.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  new  literary 
sequence  has  developed  under  the  influence  of  S.W.  dialect,  but 
it  differs  from  it  in  one  essential  feature — it  abandons  the  new 
sequence  and  retains  the  old  historic  construction,  if  in  any  case  f 
the  subjunctive  of  the  present,  future,  present  perfect,  and  future 
perfect  would  not  be  clearly  distinguished  in  form  from  the 
corresponding  indicative  tenses,  as  explained  in  B.  a,  below. 

The  following  points  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  form  and  use  of 
these  constructions : 

A.  The  old  law  of  sequence : 

a.  A  present,  future,  present  perfect,  or  future  perfect  follows 
a  present :  @r  fagt,  er  fet  franf,  er  irerbe  inorgen  fonnnen,  er  tya6e  e3  fd)on 
getan,  er  iverbe  e3  inner$al6  einer  SQBocfye  getan  fyafcen. 

b.  A  past,  present  conditional,  past  perfect,  or  perfect  conditional 
follows  a  past  or  past  perfect :  (£r  fagte,  er  ware  franf,  er  rciirbe  (would) 
inorgen  fommen,  er  fjd'tte  &  fdjon  getan,  er  rcurbe  eS  innertyalb  einer  SBodjc 
getan  fjaoen. 

Note.  Sometimes  a  past  or  past  perfect  subjunctive  seemingly  depends  upon  a  prin- 
cipal tense.  Such  constructions  are  elliptical,  some  verb  in  a  historical  tense  being 
understood:  Unb  fag'  @r  (140.  a. Note)  ifyr  [, bap  id)  fagte],  jte  foflte  fid)  in  9ld)t  iteljmen, 
ber  fiafiarpe  (name)  —  ba$  ttare  ein  ©pifcbube  (Gutzkow's  Zopf  und  Schwert,  i,  7). 
Sktnge  SiknbcUn  meine  ©rujje  unb  [fage  ibm,  id)  fagte,]  ess  rcare  fyubfd)  »on  iljm 
geifcfen,  bap  ft  bit  biefe  9teife  gegtmnt  (Fontane's  PoggenpvMs,  chap.  viii).  The 
historical  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  nowhere  in  indirect  discourse  so  generally  used 
as  in  these  elliptical  constructions.  We  often,  however,  find  a  historical  tense  after 
a  real  present  tense,  as  the  speaker  or  writer  desires  to  give  a  dialectic  coloring  to  the 
language :  @ie  burfeii  nicfct  theater  fpieten  unb  feme  S3a(le  abfiatten  ;  ber  §ofcr  (name) 
fagt,  fur  fo  chinas  n?are  jefct  fein  SBcttcr  (Rosegger).  This  is  especially  common  in 
naturalistic  authors :  @ie  fagt,  bu  twarfl  fraitf.  3Da<3  tyab'  id)  bed)  turner  jefaqt,  (Kcbert ' 
(G.  Hirschfeld's  Mutter,  Act  4).  SDeitt  Cttfet  ©ottfricb  fagt,  tad  hsdren  bie  ^olgen  bet 
J?abettent)au(3erjte{)ung.  Cb  et  red)t  ^at,  iucip  id)  nid)t  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von 
Ceyer,  L1X).  For  the  dialect  see  2,  above. 

c.  The  unreal  optative  and  potential  subjunctives  of  the  direct 
discourse  do  not  change  their  tenses  when  transposed  into  the 
indirect  statement,  present  time  being  always  expressed  by  the 
past  tense,  and  past  time  by  the  past  perfect  tense,  a  preceding 

R  2 


244 


THE  VERB 


171.2.  A.  C. 


present  or  past  tense  not  influencing  the  construction.  For 
examples  see  i.  d,  above.  Thus  after  a  past  tense  the  unreal 
optative  and  potential  subjunctives  cannot  be  distinguished  by 
their  form  from  the  sanguine  optative  and  the  plausible  potential 
which  have  been  attracted  into  a  historical  tense  under  the  influence 
of  a  preceding  historical  tense.  For  examples  see  169.  i.  C.  a  and 
169. 2.  A.  (2),  3rd  par.  It  will  therefore  be  a  real  gain  for  the  language 
if  the  old  sequence  be  still  further  restricted  in  its  use. 

B.  The  new  law  of  sequence.  The  same  tense  may  stand  in  the 
indirect  discourse  as  stood  in  the  direct  with  the  exception  of  the 
past  and  past  perfect.  The  past  and  past  perfect  of  the  direct 
discourse  are  both  rendered  by  the  present  perfect  in  the  indirect, 
or  the  past  perfect  may  be  rendered  by  the  special  form  described 
and  illustrated  in  e  below.  The  past  and  past  perfect  subjunctive 
are  avoided  in  indirect  'discourse,  as  they  can  easily  be  misunder- 
stood. The  past  subjunctive  is  used  so  much  after  a  past  tense  to 
express  present  time  that  it  is  now  no  longer  as  in  former  periods 
felt  as  having  a  past  force.  The  past  perfect  subjunctive  might  be 
mistaken  for  another  form  of  the  perfect  conditional.  The  tenses 
of  the  subjunctive  employed  in  indirect  discourse  according  to  the 
new  law  are  therefore  the  present,  future,  present  perfect,  and 
future  perfect,  and  the  special  forms  described  in  e,  below,  a  pre- 
ceding present  or  past  tense  having  no  influence  whatever  upon 
the  following  tenses : 


Direct. 

(1)  3d?  6tn  franf 

(2)  3d?  trerte  fonunen 

r  (a)  3d?  tat  eg  ) 

(3)  {  (b)  3d?  tyafte  eg  getan     V 
( (c)  3d?  tyatte  eg  getan     ) 

(3)  (c)  9tod?bem  id?  gelefen  fyatte, 

fd?riefc  id?  einen  23rief 
(an  additional  illus- 
tration of  the  pre- 
ceding point) 

(4)  3d?  tcerbe  eg  innerfyalB  enter 

2Bod)e  getan 


Indirect. 

fagt  or  fagte,  er  fei  franf 
„          „    er  rcerfce  fommen 


„          „    er  t?abe  eg  getan 

„  „  nad?bem  er  gefefen  [fyafce], 
fjaBe  er  etnen  SBrief  ge* 
fd^rieten  (another  in- 
direct form  for  (3)  (c) 
is  given  in  e  below). 

„  „  er  irerbe  eg  itmerjjalfc  einer 
SBodje  getan  tyafcen. 

a.  Modified  new  law.  Although  the  new  sequence  may  be 
followed  as  stated  above,  it  is  more  common  to  employ  it  only 
where  its  subjunctive  forms  are  clearly  distinguished  from  the 
corresponding  indicative  forms,  and  elsewhere  to  use  the  old 
historic  sequence.  Thus  after  a  past  tense  a  past  tense  is  used 
instead  of  a  present,  a  past  perfect  instead  of  a  present  perfect, 
a  present  conditional  instead  of  a  future,  wherever  the  last-men- 
tioned tenses  do  not  have  a  subjunctive  form  differing  from  that  of 
the  indicative :  (Sofrateg  erfldrte,  afleg,  njag  er  rciffe,  fet,  bap  er  nid?tg 
jctffe;  iriete  reufjten  (the  present  subjunctive  would  be  like  the 
indicative)  after  aud?  btefeg  nid?t.  @ie  fagten,  fte  fatten  (instead  of  *•-*"•* 


.B.rf.  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  245 

e§  nicfyt  getan.  <Sie  fagten,  fte  rcitrben  (instead  of  irerben)  morgen  fommen. 
So  strong  is  the  feeling  that  a  clear  subjunctive  form  should  be 
used  that  a  past,  past  perfect,  and  present  conditional  are  used 
instead  of  a  present,  present  perfect,  and  future  even  after  a  present 
tense,  if  a  clear  subjunctive  form  is  thus  secured  :  <Sie  fagen,  fte  tyatteit 
eS  nicl)t  gefetyen,  &c.  ©agen  (£te  ifym,  tcfy  fame  fcfyon. 

In  case  of  unclear  forms  the  historical  tenses  are  preferred  even 
though  they  themselves  are  not  clear  subjunctive  forms :  S)ie  3?ilb* 
fycmerei,  fagen  fte,  fonne  feine  ©toffe  nadjmacfyen ;  btcfe  ^alten  madjten  cine 
i'tble  SSirfung  (Lessing). 

Note.  Opposed  to  this  change  from  a  principal  to  a  historical  tense  is  the  trend 
toward  uniformity,  which  prefers  principal  tenses  throughout :  Set  dujjerfte  [,  fagte 
utir  tnein  giiljrer,] . . .  fei  bet  <£aturnug ;  bet  ntit  bem  rctett  ©djein  . .  .  fei  bet  2J?arg, 
iinb  boibe  bttngen  toenig  ©liicf  bett  SKenfdjen  (Schiller's  Piccolomini,  3,  4).  „  9Ug 
id)  bamafg  mit  bem  SWc'ffer  nad)  3htcr  <2d)U  ftac^,"  fagte  jte,  ,,bac^te  i^»  nit^t,  bag  t<$ 
einft  fo  3f>nen  gegenubet  ftfcen  ttjetbe"  (for  niuvbe)  (G.  Keller).  This  tendency  is 
especially  strong  in  authors  from  the  South-west,  where  in  dialect  the  principal  tenses 
are  alone  used  in  direct  discourse.  See  2,  above.  For  a  different  trend  in  other 
authors  see  b,  below. 

b.  Sometimes  both  constructions,  the  old  and  the  new,  alternate 
in  the  same  sentence  without  any  shade  of  difference  or  without 
any  necessity  at  hand  of  resorting  to  the  old  rule  as  mentioned  in 
a,  above  :  (£r  fagte,  SUtarte  irare  irofyl  sjerfcfyloffen,  a&er  fte  fet  tief  con  ©emiit. 
This  is  quite  natural.     The  old  and  the  new  construction  are  both 
felt  and  will  continue  to  exist  side  by  side  until  the  new  construction 
has  gained  a  complete  victory.     In  the  East  and  North  there  is 
a  natural  tendency  to  use  historical  tenses  more  than  is  necessary, 
as  these  tenses  are  alone  used  in  indirect  discourse  in  the  dialects 
of  these  sections.     For  examples  of  this  usage  see  A.  b.  Note,  above, 
towards  end. 

c.  The  existence  of  the  principal  and  historical  tenses  of  the 
subjunctive  side  by  side  in  indirect  discourse  without  a  shade  of 
meaning  is  contrary  to  the  development  of  these  groups  elsewhere, 
where  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  use  the  principal  tenses  to 
express  something  as  desired,  probable,  or  as  a  subjective  view, 
and  to  employ  the  historical  tenses  to  express  unreality  or  possi- 
bility.    There  are  traces  of  the  idea  of  unreality  also  in  indirect 
discourse :  Unb  ivenn  bte  alten  ©elefcrteu  ba  nod)  immer  fcefyaupten,  <Sie 
itaren  urgrtetlrifcf?,  ttir  feibe  tviffen  eS  mel  freffet  (Meinhardt's  Allcrleiranh, 
p.  177).    ©3  ifi  baS  £eftament,  »on  bem  ivir  gtau6ten,baf)  e3  uernicfytet  ivorben 
luare  It  is  the  will  which  we  erroneously  believed  to  be  destroyed. 
For  additional  examples  see  169.  2.  G.  a.  (2),  2nd  par.     For  the  idea 
of  possibility  or  cautious  statement  see  d,  below,  and  the  reference 
there  given.    These  ideas  of  unreality  and  cautious  statement  cannot 
develop  strongly  in  the  historical  tenses  in  indirect  discourse  until 
the  old  sequence  disappears,  and  even  then  will  be  limited  by  the 
cases  where  the  new  sequence  cannot  well  be  used,  and  where  the 
old  sequence  will  consequently  remain. 

d.  For  the  use  of  the  cautious  or  modest  subjunctive  in  indirect 
discourse  see  169.  2.  G.  a  (2).     See  also  c,  above. 


246  THE  VERB  171.2.  B.^. 

e.  The  present  perfect  of  the  indirect  discourse  stands  for  the 
past,  present  perfect,  and  past  perfect  of  the  direct,  and  hence  there 
is  a  lack  of  clearness  sometimes  in  the  indirect.  There  is  a  ten- 
dency to  represent  the  past  perfect  of  the  direct  in  the  indirect  by 
a  special  form  made  by  adding  ge^ait  in  case  of  transitives  and 
geicefen  in  case  of  intransitives  to  the  regular  present  perfect :  @r 
fagt  (or  fagte),  er  tyafce  bie  <£tra£e  »erlaffen  gefyaOt  unb  fei  fcfyon  in  bag  <£au3 
getreten  gercefen,  al§  bet  <Sd)u£i  fiel  He  says  (or  said)  that  he  had  left  the 
street  and  had  already  entered  the  house  when  the  shot  was  fired. 
This  form  is  borrowed  from  dialect  where  it  is  the  usual  form  for 
the  past  perfect;  see  190.  i.  B.  a. 

f.  If  the  indicative  is  used  in  indirect  discourse  the  same  tense 
may  be  used  as  would  stand  in  the  direct  statement :  3d;  bacfyte,  er 
arfceitet  immer  (Hirschfeld's  Mutter,  Act  4).  2)a  tafiete  id;  an  ben  SRtegeln 
unb  frigid;  ^terfjer,  benn  id;  rcitfjte,  bu  fcifi  Ijier,  Sftetfier !  (Sudermann's 
Johannes,  2,  8).  SBu^te  ja  nid;t,  o&  id;  errcunfdjt  Bin  (Halbe's  Die 
Heimatlosen,  p.  77).  £ai>en  bie  £eut'  nicfct  erjdfylt,  ber  2>etd$aiU)tmann  tfl 
fcorfcet  geritten  auf'n  ©cfytntmet,  2ftama?  (Halbe's  Eisgang,  p.  80).  3d; 
tytib'  fd;on  genwjjt/  e8  unrb  bir  red;t  fein  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  p.  89). 
<£te  stiffen  bod?  —  er  f)atte  mtr  boc^  gefd^riekn  (Hirschfeld's  Mutter,  Act  4). 

After  a  historical  tense  the  verb  of  the  subordinate  clause  is 
often  attracted  into  the  form  of  a  historical  tense :  Unb  btefe  Surest 
ttor  ben  SKenfcfyen  erfcfyien  if)r  fo  natiirlid?,  fo  notrcenbig,  fo  jitge^orig  ^t  intern 
©c^tcffal.  SBic  fonute  er  sjerlangen,  ba§  fte  frei  baton  n;ar  (H.  Bohlau). 
2)?an  l;atte  Befurc&ten  imifjen,  ba^  man  ft(^  9Iafe  unb  ©eft^t  an  ben  metaflenen 
3«den  jerri^  (Wildenbruch's  Vice-Mama). 

A  very  common  feature  of  indirect  statement  in  the  indicative 
mood  is  the  use  of  the  past  tense  instead  of  the  present  perfect, 
which  would  usually  be  employed.  This  shows  that  the  speaker 
or  writer  is  inclined  to  be  influenced  in  his  indirect  statements  by 
the  form  of  lively  narrative  :  <Sie  telegrapfyierten  itfcer  bie  neuefien  @retg* 
niffe,  ba§  ant  30.  Oftofcer  etntge  junge  5lrmenier  in  baS  9Regieruna.ggeMube 
brangen  unb  bort  auf  ben  ^ommanbanten  ber  ©enbarmerie  fcftoffen  (Kolnische 
Zeitung).  Stan  fagt,  er  irar  frii^er  fat^oltfc^er  ^eolog  (Wilbrandt).  3d; 
erfu^r  »on  bent  ©aftunrt,  bie  «§errfd?aften  famen  grate  au§  ^ieftgem  Drt 
(Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  p.  97).  This  usage  is  especially  frequent 
in  a  clause  subordinate  to  a  subordinate  clause  :  (£r  erja'fytte,  fcfyon  in 
ber  Sugenb,  ba  fte  nod;  auf  berfel&en  ©cfyul&anf  (apen,  feien  fte  gute  Jlanteraben 
gercefen. 

3.  Mood  and  Tense  in  Indirect  Questions.  Indirect  questions  (see 
Note  below),  which  are  a  form  of  indirect  discourse,  have  the  same 
rules  for  mood  and  tense  as  are  described  above  with  the  limitation 
that  the  subjunctive  in  the  subordinate  clause  is  now  less  common 
after  a  present  tense  in  the  main  proposition :  (Srgtifyle  ntir,  n?a3 
gefdiefyen  tfl.  Jlein  SKenfd)  ttermag  ju  fagen,  ob  er  nid^t  |  beg  ^elmcS  fcraud^t 
(Schiller's  Jungfrau,  prologue,  3).  The  subjunctive  after  a  present 
tense  can  still  be  used  if  the  attention  is  not  called  to  a  known  fact 
or  result  so  much  as  to  the  condition  of  doubt  or  anxiety  in  the 
mind  of  the  person  or  persons  in  question  as  to  the  result  or 
proper  course  to  pursue :  llberlegen  n;ir  fcerftonbig  unb  mit 


171.  4-  ft  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  247 


^u  tun  fei  (Raabe's  Horacker,  chap.  iv).  3m  93orbergrunbe  fietyt  bic 
nacfy  ber  inneren  (gignung,  b.  fy.,  rcelcfye  ©pradje  bent  3wf«  ber  2ttitteilung  am 
fceflen  unb  einfacfyfien  biene,  trelcfye  alfo  flugleid:)  fur  bie  ftremben  ant  leicfyteften 
ju  erternen  fei  (H.  Schuchardt  in  Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung, 
No.  230,  1901).  Unt>  irenn  bit  bie  junge  Same  fommen  ftefyfi,  getyfl  bit  aitf 
fie  ju,  nimmft  beineu  25ecfel  ab  unb  fragft  fte  tyoflicf),  06  fie  fciefleicfyt  ju  £errn 
£eutnant  SRuborff  trofle  (Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  3,  i). 

After  a  historical  tense  the  subjunctive  here  is  the  rule  :  3d; 
rcartete,  06  er  fame.  (Sir  er^a^Ite  mir,  rcaS  er  gefefyen  tyafce,  trie  e3  in  ber 
belagerten  @tabt  au3fef)e.  Qtucfy  fal)  er  ftd)  nidjt  ein  ein^ig  3Wal  banac^  urn,  06 
man  ttjwt  folge. 

The  subjunctive  is  quite  commonly  used  even  after  a  present, 
when  it  is  desired  to  represent  something  as  false  or  as  a  subjective 
view  :  Set  <StrobeU<§ie8  tyat  feinent  2Bei6  tin  Sa^jorn  cittmal  einett  <Streic^ 
gegefcen,  feitbem  ^at  er  bie  $ott'  auf  (Srben,  unb  feine  teffere  <§alfte  fc^reit'S 
tun,  reaS  er  fiir  ein  SPuffel  icdr'  (Rosegger)  The  individual  known  as 
Strobel-Hies  once  gave  his  wife  a  blow  in  anger,  since  that  time 
he  has  had  in  his  home  a  hell  on  earth,  and  his  better  half  is 
noising  it  about  what  kind  of  a  rude  fellow  he  is.  For  the  use  of 
the  tense  of  the  subjunctive  in  this  sentence  see  2.  A.  b.  Note  toward 
end  above. 

Note.  An  indirect  question  is  one  that  forms  a  subordinate  clause  and  thus  differs 
from  the  direct  question,  which  always  forms  a  principal  proposition  :  SSanit  fommfl 
felt?  (direct),  ©age  mir,  ftatm  fclt  Fommjit  (indirect).  Indirect  questions  are  intro- 
duced by  the  conjunction  ob  whether,  an  interrogative  pronoun,  as  toer,  roag,  or  by 
interrogative  adverbs,  simple  or  compound,  as  toomn  when,  JDO  where,  »ie  how,  toOttttt 
with  what,  ftcljer  whence,  Iccfytn  whither,  &c. 

4.  Imperative  sentences  when  put  into  indirect  discourse  are 
governed  by  the  same  rules  for  mood  and  tense  as  declarative 
and  interrogative  sentences.  The  subjunctive  of  the  simple  forms 
of  the  verb  is  not  usually  employed  here  as  elsewhere  in  indirect 
discourse.  Instead  of  the  subjunctive  of  the  simple  verb  the  fol- 
lowing constructions  occur: 

a.  The  subjunctive  of  the  auxiliaries  foflen  and  mogen  :   Direct  : 
©etyen  <2ie  fcfyneU  !     Indirect  :   (Sr  fagte  mir,  id?  fotte  fcfynell  get)cn.     In- 
direct :  5113  er  (i.  e.  ber  5)iener)  iweber  eintrat,  um  Seefcrett  unb  (Samorcar 
fortjunefjmen,  fceauftragte  icfy  ifjn,  meinem  j?utfd;er  jit  fagcn,  er  moge  ftcfy  um 
acfyt  Ufyr  morgeng  jur  SBeiterfa^rt  fcereit  fatten  (A.  E.  Wiesner).     After 
a  verb  denoting  a  strong  expression  of  the  will  we  sometimes  have 
here  a  subjunctive  of  a  simple  form  of  the  verb  as  elsewhere  in 
indirect  discourse  :  @ie  yerlangte,  bap  bie  Jtede  fcfyunegen  (T.  Matthias), 
or  also  fcfyiveigen  foUten. 

b.  In  case  of  complex  sentences  the  verb  of  the  subordinate 
proposition  may  in  the  indirect   discourse  be  put  into  the  sub- 
junctive, while  the  principal  clause  is  abridged  to  the  infinitive 
construction,  provided  its  subject  is  identical  with  the  subject  or 
object  of  the  governing  verb:    "ilnton  befall  bent  Suiter,  tin  <§aufe 
SBacfye  $u  fyalten  (=  bafj  er  tin  «§aufe  9Bad;e  fyalte),  bi3  er  jurucEfe^re. 

c.  The  indicative  of  the  simple  verb  or  the  auxiliary  fotten,  to 
express  confidence  that  a  command  will  be  complied  with  :   3cfy 


248  THE  VERB  171.4.C. 

gebtete  bit  afar,  baf?  bit  ^unftttcf)  ^uriict  fctft.     ©3  ifl  fcerfcoten,  baft  biefer  S&eg 
»on  frembem  ftufynrerf  fcefafyren  irtrb.     ©age  if)m,  er  [oft  gtetd?  Fommen. 

The  indicative  is,  however,  often  used  without  especial  emphasis 
instead  of  the  subjunctive  of  the  simple  verb  or  auxiliary,  in 
accordance  with  the  general  trend  toward  the  declarative  form  of 
statement  elsewhere  noticeable  in  indirect  discourse :  SBitte,  Jt  niefyafe, 
faqen  <8ie  bent  Ou'ttmeifter,  ba§  er  mid)  brau§en  auf  ber  Sljauffee  encartet 
(Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  iv.  17).  <Sag'  i^r,  ba$  fie  U;n  tterfcrennt 
(id.,  Effi,  chap.  xxiv). 

INDEPENDENT  FORM  OF  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

172.  In  a  lively  style  the  author  or  speaker  often  strips  off  all 
formal  signs  of  subordination,  and  reproduces  the  thoughts,  feelings, 
dreams,  impressions,  fears,  &c.,  of  another  in  grammatically  inde- 
pendent form.  This  form  is  found  in  two  quite  distinct  categories : 

A.  The  author  or  speaker  relates  the  thoughts,  musings,  reveries 
of  another  in  independent  form.  The  words  are  not  represented  as 
a  free  report  of  the  author  or  speaker,  but  as  a  close  though  indirect 
reproduction  of  the  thoughts,  musings,  reveries,  &c.,  of  another. 
The  following  two  groups  occur : 

a.  The  tenses  used  are  the  same  as  employed  according  to  the 
older  law  of  sequence  in  the  Indirect  Form,  as  explained  in  171.  2.  A. 
The  mood,  however,  is  uniformly  indicative  with  reference  to  present 
or  past  time  of  the  direct  discourse  and  present  conditional  with 
reference  to  the  future.  The  use  of  the  indie,  shows  the  influence 
of  lively  narrative,  as  explained  in  171. 2.  B./ferd  paragraph).  The 
present  conditional  is  uniformly  used  here  with  reference  to  the 
future,  and  cannot  be  replaced  by  the  future  subjunctive  as  else- 
where in  indirect  discourse.  Thus  the  tenses  will  be  the  past  indie, 
corresponding  to  the  present  of  the  direct  discourse,  the  past  perfect 
indie,  corresponding  to  the  present  perfect  and  past  of  the  direct, 
and  the  present  conditional  corresponding  to  the  future  of  the  direct 
discourse,  but  in  English  this  manner  of  speaking  is  often  considered 
direct  discourse,  and  hence  the  verb  and  pronouns  will  be  in  the 
ist  person,  and  the  tense  will  be  present,  pres.  perf.  or  past,  and 
future,  and  the  words  are  inclosed  in  quotation  marks :  Sie  I)6rte 
^I6£licfy  auf  (ju  iceinen),  Iie§  bie  «§a'nbe  in  ben  @cfyo§  ftnfen  unb  ftarrte  ing 
Seere.  3a,  irarum  benn  etgentlicfy  ?  (S3  tt>ar  bod)  nicfytS  ilnrecfyteS  gcfrfjeljctt, 
£>a8  fotntte  tfyr  2ftartanne  unb  jebermatm  k^eugen.  llnb  ganj  geivijj,  fie 
l)atte  nicfyt  nut  enter  2)Jtene,  ntcfyt  nut  einent  £Bort  <§emt  2?obmamt  ©runbe 
grgebctt  fid)  in  fte  gu  fcerltefcen.  9Bar  er  benn  ufterfyaupt  in  fte  »erlief>t? 
9Wn,  er  cmpfatib  mtr  etne  fd)one,  warnte  felbjilofe  greunbfcfyaft  fi'ir  fie. 
©i'tntfyer  toitrbe  ftcf)  banUer  freiien,  bap  etn  fo  auSgejetcfyneter  STOann  fie 
einer  eblen  5reunbfrf)aft  reitrbtge  She  suddenly  ceased  crying,  allowed 
her  hands  to  fall  into  her  lap,  and  then  stared  blankly  before 
her.  'Why,  indeed,'  she  thought  to  herself,  'should  I  cry? 
Surely  nothing  wrong  has  happened.  Marianna  and  everybody 
else  can  testify  as  to  that.  And  surely,  I  have  never  by  a  glance  or 
a  word  given  Mr.  Bodmann  reason  to  fall  in  love  with  me.  Is  he 


173.  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  249 

after  all  in  love  with  me?  No,  he  only  has  a  beautiful,  warm, 
unselfish  friendship  for  me.  Giinther  (her  husband)  will  surely  be 
glad  that  such  an  excellent  man  deems  me  worthy  of  a  noble 
friendship.'  The  above  passage  taken  from  a  novel  is  a  good 
example  of  this  now  very  common  usage. 

The  potential  subjunctive  is  not  changed  when  transposed  from 
the  direct  into  this  form  of  the  indirect ;  see  171. 2.  A.  c. 

b.  Instead  of  the  tenses  employed  in  a  we  also  find  the  same 
tenses  as  used  in  the  direct  discourse  according  to  the  new  law  of 
sequence  in  the  Indirect  Form,  as  explained  in  171.  -2.  B.  The 
mood  is  also  the  same  as  in  the  direct  discourse :  llnb  icte  ber  5'rtebl 
nim  fo  mit  ftcfy  atlein  war,  ba  ixrfanf  er  in  ein  Sraiimen,  >rte  fonft  nod)  nie. — 
9ht3  ber  -^ofentafdje  flog  er  etne  fletne  golbene  Utyr  unb  fcfyaute  fte  an  unb  f)of> 
frfjon  bte  £anb,  urn  fte  in§  ©eftetn  ju  fdjleubern,  tat'8  after  nicfyt. — D6  ntd)t 
bie  Sftofet  fo  tra3  mocfrte?  (Si  naturlid),  bte  foil  ftd)'3  nur  felfcer  faufen.  @r 
tt>ir&  ufcerfyanvt  ntcfyt  mcf)r  fciel  re&oit  mit  bent  ®eijjs3WobI,  er  Ijnt  ganj  anbere 
3lu§ftd?ten;  ivenn  er  tPiU.  3Kanrt;mal  eincn  ©efaflen,  njenn'S  brauf  aitfommt, 
faint  man  einer  fa  ivo^jl  enreifen.  Qlber  itngut  tt)ir&  i^m  fcfyier,  a^enn  er  an 
biefe  —  biefe  (Stabtleute  tenft.  ©6  ift  ^alt  boc^  icaf)r,  ivaS  man  yon  ifynen 
fogt.  <£o  badjte  er  nnb  fd)i'tttelte  ben  Jtopf  (Rosegger's  Durch  !  p.  67). 

Just  as  in  171.2.  B./"(2nd  par.),  the  tenses  are  often  affected  by 
the  lively  tone  of  narrative,  so  that  the  present  indicative  (used  as 
a  present  or  a  future)  and  past  subjunctive  (used  as  a  present 
conditional)  of  the  direct  discourse  become  past  indicative  and  past 
perfect  subjunctive:  (,23iefletd?t  fommt  ber  SSater,"  fagte  fte  fyinanggefcenb. 
(£r  fdn'en  e3  at>cr  nidjt  gu  ffin,  benn  fte  ^og  nad$er  bte  <Stu6entur  jit  unb 
(^rad?  gerattme  SSeile  brau^en.  Sine  ina'milid;e  ©ttmme  n?ar  ju  veniefymen. 
tyortttnat  (pi|te  bte  Di;ren,  wafyrenb  er  jerftreut  [ein  [yon  \!em  gemad^teSj 
aJJarterl  fcetrad;tete,  ben  Sa'ger  im  (Sd;nee,  ben  ivtnjigen  GfjrtfiitS  ant  Jtreuj, 
fount  fo  grop  ivic  ein  ^ingergtteb,  nnb  bag  <Stu<fd;en  (StraudjJterf  nnb  ^ede, 
a((e§  einfad)  nut  finbltd^er  U5^antafte  unb  bod?  gcfd;tcft  gemadjt.  5ln§  btcfer 
i?ent  Ijdttf  eticag  aerben  f oiutcit !  SOann  fam  fte  nnr  uneber  ^cretn  ? 
(Berlepsch's  Fortunats  Roman,  pp.  80-81). 

B.  Instead  of  representing  the  words  as  the  musings,  thoughts, 
&c.,  of  some  one  else,  the  author  or  speaker  often  passes  over  into 
narrative,  and  relates  from  his  own  point  of  view  the  substance 
of  the  thought,  &c.,  of  another :  5)iefer  ©ebanfe  gtng  mit  ttyr  311  23ett, 
unb  al3  fte  fdjlief,  fyatte  fte  etnen  ^raunt  fonberfcarcr  Qlrt : 

(£ie  fcefanb  ftd>  in  einent  rafcenfd;n?arjen,  ftnjleren  GJelaj?,  gn  bent  fte  auf 
einer  langen  ^rep^e  ^tnuntergefttegcn  irar  j  ^lo^Itd;  ging  etn  gretlcS  ^id;t  auf, 
nun  tltdte  fie  umfyer  unb  fat),  ba§  fte  in  einent  Jtetter  fionb,  unb  ringSfyerunt 
lagen  unb  ftanben  ©egenfianbe,  bie  fte  nie  gefeljen  (;atte  (Wildenbruch's 
Schwestcr-Secle ,  p.  304). 

CONJUGATION. 

173.  The  infinitive.  The  form  of  the  verb  usually  given  in  the 
dictionary  is  the  infinitive,  which  ends  in  en  except  after  =el  and  *er, 
where  the  e  of  the  en  is  dropped,  as  also  in  the  two  isolated  verbs 
tun  to  do,  fein  to  be:  loben  to  praise,  wonbern  to  wander,  wanbeln 
to  saunter. 


250  THE  VERB  174. 

174.  The  stem.     By  cutting  off  en  from  the  infinitive,  or  n  after 
sd  and  =er,  the  simple  stem  of  the  verb  is  found,  out  of  which  grow 
all  the  varied  forms  of  conjugation. 

175.  Forms  of  conjugation.     Like  the   English,  the   German 
verb  has  a  common  and  an  interrogative  form,  and  has  besides  in 
the  second  person  a  form  for  familiar  language  and  another  for 
polite  intercourse,  but  lacks  the  emphatic  and  progressive  forms  of 
the  English,  the  common  form  serving  usually  for  the  English 
common,  emphatic,  and  progressive.     The  German  has  an  em- 
phatic form  that  corresponds  in  part  to  the  English ;  see  185.  B.  I. 
2.  e.  (2).     See  Note  below  for  the  German  methods  of  expressing 
the  idea  of  progression.     The  polite  form  is  the  same  as  the  third 
person  pi.,  and  is  distinguished  from  it  by  writing  its  subject,  the 
pronoun  fie,  with  a  capital :  fte  lofcen  they  praise,  @ie  lofcen  you  praise. 
This  polite  form  is  the  same  in  the  sing,  and  pi.     The  familiar 
form,  which  is  also  used  in  solemn  style,  has  bit  for  its  subject 
in  the  sing,  and  ityr  in  the  pi.     The  personal  endings  of  the  verb 
are  added  to  the  stem: 

Present  Tense  Declarative.          Present  Tense  Interrogative. 

Singular. 
id)  lofce  I  praise,  am  praising,     lofce  id)  ?  do  I  praise  ? 

do  praise 
/(familiar  form) 
I  bu  lofcft  you  praise,  are  praising,    (totft  bu  ?    \ 


f  do  you  praise  ? 


4      do  praise 

(polite  form) 
V@te  lofccii  (loBett  @ie?J 

er,  jte,  eg  lofct  he,  she,  it  praises,     Io6t  er,  fte,  eg  ?   does  he,  she,  it 
is  praising,  does  praise  praise  ? 

Plural. 

rait  lofcen  we  praise,  &c.  lofceit  njir  ?  do  we  praise  ? 

(familiar  formU 

ibrlobt  .       .       lofcti&r?     ) 

(polite  form)        y°u  Prmse>  &c'  do  you  praise  ? 


fte  lofcen  they  praise,  &c.  lotett  fte  ?  do  they  praise  ? 

Hereafter  the  polite  form  will  be  omitted  in  the  conjugation,  as  it 
is  exactly  the  same  as  the  third  person  pi.,  except  that  its  subject 
<2ie  is  written  with  a  capital  letter. 

Note.  To  emphasize  especially  the  idea  of  progression,  the  German  employs  a 
prep,  phrase  consisting  usually  of  the  prep,  in  or  an  and  the  infinitive-substantive  of 
the  verb  to  be  conjugated  :  ®ie  J?urfe  itnb  ittt  ©tetflen,  tm  ftMni  The  value  of  stocks 
is  rising,  falling.  (£ie  fjatte  eg  grabe  mit  ctnem  J?infce  ju  tun,  bag  am  Jtartoffeffdjaten 
luar  She  was  just  then  occupied  with  a  child  who  was  peeling  potatoes.  It  should  be 
noticed  that  in  this  progressive  form  the  object  must  form  a  compound  with  the 
infinitive-substantive  as  in  the  second  example.  The  progressive  idea  is  also  expressed 
by  means  of  the  part,  begriffen  in  connection  with  a  prep,  phrase  :  £)ie  Xrilppen  fint) 
im  Slnmarfdj  begriffen  The  troops  are  advancing. 


177. 1.  A.  REGULAR  CONJUGATION 

REGULAR  CONJUGATION. 

176.  There  are  two  regular  conjugations,  the  weak  and  the 
strong. 

1.  The  weak  forms  its  past  tense  by  adding  te  to  the  stem,  and 
its  perf.  participle  by  prefixing  ge  and  adding  t  to  the  stem :  loben 
to  praise,  past  lobte  praised,  perf.  participle  gclobt  praised. 

2.  The  strong  forms  its  past  tense  by  a  change  of  vowel  within 
the  stem  of  the  verb,  and  its  perf.  participle  by  prefixing  ge,  usually 
changing  the  vowel  of  the  stem,  and  by  adding  en  to  the  stem  : 
ftngcu  to  sing,  past  fang  sang,  perf.  participle  gefungen  sung. 

The  Simple  Forms  of  the  Verb. 

177.  The  simple  forms  of  the  verb  are  all  active  except  the 
perf.  part,  and  gerundive,  which  are  passive.     In  the   following 
paradigms  all  the  simple  forms  of  the  verb  are  given,  and  besides 
a  few  common  compound  forms  which  supply  the  place  of  the 
wanting  simple  forms.     The  words  inclosed  in  parentheses  are 
under  certain  circumstances  a  regular  part  of  the  verbal  form, 
while  under  other  circumstances  they  are  omitted.     The  accom- 
panying reference  will  usually  explain  in  full  this  point. 

I.  The  simple  forms  of  the  weak  verb : 

Present.  Past.  Present. 

I  praise,  &c.       I  praised,  £c. 
Indie.  Subj.       Indie.  &  Subj.  Imperative. 

id)  lobe  lobe  lobte  lobe  id) 

(familiar)     (polite) 

bit  lobfl  lobefl          lobtefi         lobe,      lobeit  <8te  praise 

er  lobt  lobe  lobte  er  lobe  let  him  praise,  or  er  fofl  loben 

nrtr  lobeit        loben  lobten         loben  irir  let  us  praise 

(familiar)      (polite) 

ifjr  tobt  lobet  tobtet          Iob(e)t,      loben  <Sie  praise 

fie  loben          loben  lobten         fte  fotten  loben  let  them  praise 

Infinitive.  Participle. 

Pres.  (ui)  loben  to  praise  (185.  A    Pres.  lobcnb  praising 
and  B)  Perf.  Passive  getobt  praised 

Gerundive. 

Predicate  Form  :  311  loben  (180.  A). 

Attributive  Form  :  ber  (,  bte,  bag)  $u  lobenbe  (180.  B). 

A.  The  imperative  of  both  strong  and  weak  verbs  has  forms  only 
for  the  2nd  person  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  familiar  form  and  the  ist 
person  pi.  The  other  simple  forms  are  subjunctive  forms  used  to 
replace  the  wanting  imperative  forms.  The  subjunctive  imperative 
of  the  ist  pers.  sing,  is  only  rarely  found :  5)enn,  gejlc^'  id)  e3  mtr, 
ntd?t  ruft  bie  nafje  ©efafyt  mid;  |  au3  bent  4?aufe  be3  53ater3  (Goethe's 
H.  und  D.,  iv.  137).  ©efiefy'  id;'3  dud) !  (Grillparzer's  Dcr  treue 
Diener,  3).  Slflein  311  £ieb'  unb  Cr^e  braitcfyt  e8  jivei;  |  nnb  fag'  id/S  nur, 


252  THE  VERB  177. 1.  A. 

ntein  23ater,  euer  fturfr,  |  irar  niir  beS  2ftanne3  ein  fo  nmrbia,  5Mfi>,  |  ba£  id; 
cergebeng  feineggtetdjen  fud;e  (id.,  Libussa,  2).  (£r  (Schiller)  lebe  fjod;, 
unb  —  rcunfd;e  id;  Sfmen  (/<?/  me  wish  you)  einc  angenefyme  Stacfytrulje  unb, 
inorgen  fritlj,  ein  recfyt  frofctidjeg,  frifdjeS  (Srrcadjen  jit  ben  branqenberen  $flid}ten 
unb  9J6ten  beg  $age§ !  (Raabe's  Der  Draumling,  XXVI).  For  the  3rd 
pers.  sing,  the  subjunctive  imperative  has  either  normal  or  question 
order:  er  lobe,  or  lobe  er.  In  the  ist  pers.  pi.  and  in  the  polite  form 
of  the  and  pers.  sing,  and  pi.  the  question  order  is  alone  used  :  2>od), 
lafj  rittyen  bie  £oten,  fetyen  rcir  in  bie  3"funft  (Bismarck  to  his  betrothed, 
June  13,  1847).  Soften  <sie  (polite  form,  sing,  and  pi.).  The  3rd  pers. 
sing,  and  pi.  of  the  simple  verb  is  usually  replaced  in  colloquial 
speech  by  an  auxiliary  with  a  dependent  infinitive ;  see  B.  a,  below. 
It  is,  however,  still  quite  common  in  commands  which  have  the 
indefinite  man,  einer,  feiner,  nientanb,  or  jeber,  ein  jeber  for  a  subject :  2ftan 
bead;te  ^olgenbeS  Let  everybody  note  the  following  points,  ©el;'  einer 
i>on  end) !  ©taube  feiner,  fein  9Jad;bar  fei  gliirflidjer  al8  er  (Isolde  Kurz's 
Es  und  icti).  9liemanb  glaube,  je  bie  (finbrutfe  feiner  Jtinbfyeit  oencinben  3 a 
fonnen  —  fo  ober  atyntirf?  l^at  einmat  ber  alte  ^radjtmenfdj  t>on  $Beimar  ge* 
fd;rieBen  (Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alien  Doktors,  p.  41).  5)ee^)aI6  fe^)e 
ein  jeber  nad)  feinen  Qlujjenftcinben,  3Serpflid?tungen  unb  bergleidsen  (Raabe's 
Villa  Schonow,  1 1).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  in  general  not  infrequent 
in  poetry  and  choice  prose :  5)er  fptite  SCBanterer  erquitfe  ftrf?  |  an  bent 
©ebanfen,  bap  nod^  jemanb  readjt  (Grillparzer's  DesMeeres  und  derLiebe 
Wellen,  3).  £)ann  ^erBred^e  bie§  SBritannien,  roenn  e3  gu  e^ren^aftem  Sebert  gu 
ntorfdj  i^  (Lienhard's  Konig  Arthur,  i).  Less  common  in  the  plural,  as 
the  form  is  the  same  as  for  the  indie. :  ©efy'n  etnige  unb  jiinben  JRete^oIj 
an  (Schiller's  Tell,  2,  2).  More  common  in  a  few  formal  expressions 
in  polite  language  :  (Srtauben  mir  bie  <£emn,  (Sic  tuit  einanber  befannt  flu 
madden :  «§err  »on  £eglie=®orbon,  t§err  ^of>rebtger  5)r.  35orffet  (Fontane's 
Cecile,  chap.  18).  ©efiatten  bie  4?erren,  bap  id;  3^nen  £errn  Sot^ar  SBranbt 
sorjlette  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  2,  6).  5)ie  4errfrf?aften  Uerjei^en,  aber, 
&c.  (ib.). 

a.  The  pronoun  in  the  familiar  form  is  only  expressed  for  especial 
emphasis  or  contrast :  SBartet  il)r,  inbem  wir  ooranlaufen.    The  pronoun 
may  not  only  follow  the  verb  as  in  the  example  just  given,  but  it  may 
also  precede  :  3l)r  ba !  feib  aufmerffam !  2)uba!  fci  aufmerffain !   Instead 
of  a  pronoun,  a  noun  can  of  course  be  used  :  J?arl,  fei  aufmerffam! 

The  (2ie  of  the  polite  form  is  usually  expressed  in  the  literary 
language,  but  colloquially  it  is  not  infrequently  omitted,  especially 
if  it  has  been  once  expressed:  Cfta,  ba§  iiberlegen  ftd;  man  (=  nur)! 
(Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  p.  152).  SHeiten  @ie  jur  ^abrif  unb  bringen 
mir  —  id;  Htte  flotte  ©angart  —  3?eridH  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovelleri). 

b.  For  the  pres.  perfect  imperative,  see  190.  i.  A. 

B.  Substitutes  for  the  imperative  of  strong  and  weak  verbs  are  : 

a.  The  modal  auxiliaries,  which  in  connection  with  the  infinitive  of  the 
verb  to  be  conjugated  are  much  used  to  replace  the  simple  imperative  and 
the  wanting  forms  of  the  imperative.  First  person  plural :  lafj  (sing,  familiar 
form),  kf t  (pi.  familiar  form),  laffcn  (£ie  (polite)  un3  loben,  or  ttnr  troKfii  lefrett 
instead  of  tobcn  twr.  The  question  order  is  also  used  with  Jv>ef(en,  although 
not  so  commonly  as  the  normal  order :  SBcflen  toir  fca3  annefymen !  (Storm's 


177. 1.  B.C.          REGULAR   CONJUGATION  253 

Es  ivaren  zwei  Konigskinder,  p.  2).  Jtcmtn  —  tocft'n  ftir  [edjten  !  (Wilden- 
bruch's  Konig  Laurin,  3).  Second  person :  @ed)3  £age  [off  ft  bu  arbeiten ; 
am  ftebenten  Sage  follfl  bu  feiern  (revised  edition,  Ex.  xxxiv.  21).  The  past 
subjunctive  softens  the  force  and  imparts  to  the  utterance  the  idea  of 
advice  offered  modestly :  9leutid)  fragte  fte  nod)  nad)  bir.  $)ie  [offteft  bu  toafylen 
(Goethe's  H.  und  D.,  2,  241).  Sraute,  minniglidie  grau,  tooltefl  (subj.)  ntmmev 
fliefyett  (Holty).  JBcttet  (imperative;  addressed  here  to  one  person)  bag  nid)t 
»on  tntr  fyeifdjen  (Storm's  Zur  Chronik  von  Grieshuus,  p.  113).  SScllct 
mir,  geftebte  23rubet  im  £errn,  Slufmevffamfeit  fdjeufett,  bafj  id)  eudj  ein  ©feid)ni3 
er$df)le  (Ertl's  Die  Stadt  der  Heiligeri).  Past  subj.  of  ntcgen  is  very 
common  in  polite  language :  2)?cd)ten  @ie  bie  ©iite  fyaben,  mic  j(U  fcfgen  ? 
The  auxiliary  bitrfen  is  much  used  here  in  prohibitions :  3I)t  biirft  nidjt 
laut  fd)rcicn  !  Children,  you  must  not  scream  out  loud  !  2JluiJen  is  much  used 
here  in  the  positive  form  of  statement,  to  express  the  idea  of  compul- 
sion :  „  ©el) !  "  „  3d)  ttnfl  md)t."  „  2>u  mufit  gefcen  !  "  Third  person  :  @c  [off 
(indie.)  toben !  Let  him  praise !  (command),  or  er  mcge  (or  fooKe ;  both  subj.) 
loben,  or  nicge  (or  tootle)  er  lebeu  !  May  he  praise !  (wish).  Plural :  fte  [often 
Icbcn,  or  mcgeu  fte  fcben.  Sometimes  also  the  indie,  of  ntcgen  is  used  :  9iur  I)abe 
id)  eine  ffeine  93itte  an  t^n  jit  tun.  (Sr  mag  [o  gut  [ein  unb  e3  bent  -§errn  5pro[. 
©clfcrt  nid)t  §ufcf)reiben  (Lessing). 

b.  The  2nd  person  of  the  present  indie,  to  express  in  a  stern  tone  that  the 
command    must  be  obeyed  :    Kuhnert  (trotzig)  :    3d)  lajj  tnir  nid)t'n  9)?unb 
»crbicteii !     Die  alte  Kuhnert :  @tift  btfl !  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjdhrige  Reich, 
p.  66). 

c.  The  2nd  person  of  the  future  indie,  to  express  an  admonition  or  give 
advice  :  2)u  tt>irft  fyier  bteiben  !  You  certainly  will  stay  here.     Often  in  a  more 
positive  tone  :  Sit  tutrfl  ben  §tyfel  [djiefjen  »on  bent  Jlcvf  |  beg  .Jtnaben  —  id)  bcgef)t'g 
unb  und'g  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  3).     Three  lines  further  on  the  pres.  indie,  is 
used  in  still  more  positive  tone.    Also  tooften  with  dependent  infinitive  is  used 
in  admonitions  ;  see  213.  6.f  (last  sentence). 

d.  The  perfect  participle  in  short,  sharp  commands   or  warnings  :    9lu[* 
geftanbcn  !  Stand  up  !     2)en  SBagen  angefyannt !    <§>d)nell  ^ilfe  gdjett !     SBorgefcfyen ! 
Look  out !     9iuc  nidjt  ju  [ruf)  gcfreut,  Sendjen !  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjdhrige 
Reich,  p.  48).    9lidjt  geplaubevt !  No  talking  !     §lbet  reincn  9)iunb  ge()alten  !  But 
don't  you  tell  a  word  of  it.    Lenten  »erfd)out !  Spare  nobody  ! 

Note.  The  perfect  participle  here,  as  in  183 .  G,  is  used  as  a  finite  verb  rather 
than  as  a  participle  with  participial  force.  Notice  (i)  that  the  perfect  participle 
of  transitive  verbs  here  does  not  have  passive  force  as  elsewhere,  as  this  imperative 
form  as  all  others  takes  a  direct  object.  It  is  probably  true,  however,  that  these 
imperatives,  although  they  are  felt  to-day  as  imperatives,  were  originally  past 
participles  nsed  as  predicate  complement  after  the  auxiliaries  [ein  and  loerbeil,  or  in 
case  of  transitives  as  objective  predicate  after  fjaben  :  [@et]  aufgetfanben  !  [Jpabe]  ben 
SBagen  Ottgcfrannt !  (2)  In  case  of  reflexive  verbs,  the  reflexive  pronoun  drops  out  in 
this  imperative  form,  as  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  examples  above. 

e.  The  present  infinitive,  to  express  a  command  or  warning  to  children 
and  informal  commands  in  general,  such  as  entreaties,  directions,  especially 
those  directed  to  the  public  :  SRaul  hatten  !  Hold  your  tongue !     (Sd)tt>etgcn  ! 
Be  still !     9lber  bid)  me  nnebet  [o  btd)t  am  SBaffer  auf  bie  (Svte  l;gcn  uub  einfd)fa[en  ! 
^erjiattben  ?  (Wildenbruch)  But  don't  ever  lie  down  again  so  near  the  water 
and  go  to  sleep !     Do  you  understand  ?     3?ul)ig,  tul)tg !     9lur  ja  nid)t  argent 
(Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  i)  (see  (3)  in  Note  below).     91ein,  nein, 
bitte,  [e£ctt !  (Sudermann)  No,  no,  please  be  seated.     93itte,  mid)  aud)  fliegcn 
laffen  !  Please  throw  me  up  into  the  air  too  !     3d)  bitte,  bitte :  ejTen  !  nut  einen 
23ifien  bavctt,  abcr  effcn !     ,,  9iut  nid)t  att[regcn,"  irarnte  bet  ?lqt,  „  bant^fen !     3cr; 
ftreuitng  brandit  cr  jcfct  uid)t,  laitgwciten  [cl(  er  fid) "  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Ritt- 
meister  Brand,  XVII).    55ann  rte[  id)  bem  J?ut[d)cr  git :  „  umfef)rc»."     2hie[e  voft' 
lagernb  Jtonfianj  abvefiicven  (in  an  advertisement)  Address  letters  to  Constance, 


254  THE  VERB  177.  1.  u.*. 

to  be  called  for.  (finfieigen  !  All  aboard  !  (to  passengers).  UmfUigen  aad) 
J&aanoser  !  Change  cars  for  Hanover  !  Often  in  telegrams  :  Skater  fd)rt?et 
franf.  .Itemmea.  ©ottfrieb  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  -von  Geyer,  LXIII).  The 
infinitive  in  all  these  cases  probably  depends  upon  some  auxiliary  under- 
stood :  [£it  foltfi  beta]  Sftaitf  fatten  ! 

Note.  Observe  in  the  above  examples  (i)  that  in  a  negative  command  the  negative 
must  precede  the  infinitive,  (2)  that  the  separable  prefix  is  not  separated,  (3)  that 
reflexive  verbs  in  this  imperative  form  sometimes  take  the  reflexive  pronoun  and 
sometimes  are  without  it,  especially  so  in  certain  set  expressions,  as  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  examples. 

/.  A  substantive  or  adverb  :  9ld)tuag  !  Attention  !  93ortt>drt$  !  Forward  ! 

g.  A  subordinate  clause:  £Dafi  ba  fo  fortfdfirfl  unb  beinea  lieben  (Sttern  ttiet 
greube  taadjft  !  Keep  right  on  in  this  way,  and  thus  bring  your  dear  parents 
much  joy  !  (Sbuavb  !  baf  bie  SBriefe  nod)  cor  8  aaf  bet  $oji  jtab  Edward  !  see 
to  it  that  the  letters  are  at  the  Post  Office  by  eight.  Such  clauses  depend 
upon  some  verb  understood,  such  as  id)  (age  bir,  id}  bitte  bid),  &c. 

C.  The  personal  endings  of  the  plural  pres.  indie,  vary  in 
different  dialects  from  the  above  models.  There  is  in  some 
dialects  a  tendency  to  use  uniformly  the  same  personal  ending 
throughout  the  plural,  one  form  levelling  the  others.  This  is 
also  true  of  str.  verbs,  as  they  .have  exactly  the  same  personal 
endings  as  the  wk.  Thus  in  most  editions  of  Goethe's  Gotz,  i,  i 
(not,  however,  in  the  Weimar  edition)  we  find  in  the  dialectic 
language  there  employed  =en,  the  ending  of  the  ist  and  3rd  pers. 
pi.,  also  in  the  2nd  pi.  :  SBotten  fljt  9fhi§  fyafon? 

The  old  ending  ent  for  the  3rd  pers.  pi.  is  preserved  in  Alemannic 
and  has  there  spread  to  the  other  persons  of  the  pi.  This  old 
ending  is  also  preserved  in  the  literary  language  in  the  one  word 
flnb  (for  irregular  spelling  see  III,  foot-note  marked  a),  which  form 
has  also  spread  to  the  ist  pers.  pi.  In  dialect  the  older  correct 
ist  pers.  pi.  form  fein  often  occurs  and  has  spread  to  the  3rd  pers.  : 
JDtr  fein,  fte  fein. 

In  the  Swabian  and  some  Swiss  dialects  the  ending  et  is  heard 
instead  of  ent  in  the  3rd  pers.  pi.,  and  has  also  spread  to  the  ist 
and  2nd  pers.  pi.  The  pi.  ending  here  is  also  e. 

In  Bavarian  and  Austrian  dialects  this  levelling  does  not  take 
place  in  the  pi.  The  ending  for  the  ist  and  3rd  pers.  pi.  is  e(n)  and 
for  the  2nd  pers.  pi.  et  or  tS  (regular  2nd  pers.  pi.  ending  t  +  3,  the 
latter  element  of  which  is  the  contracted  form  of  the  old  dual  e3  ; 
see 


II.  The  simple  forms  of  the  strong  verb  : 

A.  ftngen  to  sing.           B.  fatten  to  fall.  C.  ^elfen  to  help. 

Present. 

Indie.                    Subj.               Indie.                 Subj.  Indie.                 Subj. 

icfy  ftnge            ftnge             fade              fatte  tyelfe             tyelfe 

fcuftngft           jfngefl           faflft             fafleft  Wlfjl            $elfef* 

erjlngt            ftnge            fdUt             fafle  mlfi 

n>ir  ftngen        ftngen           fatten           fatten  ^elfen 

i^r.  ftngt           finget           fattt              fattet  f  elft 

fie  flngen          ftngen           fatten           fatten  ^elfen           ielfen 


177.  II.  D.  c.         REGULAR  CONJUGATION 


255 


Past. 


Indie. 

id?  fang 
bu  fangft 
er  fang 
ttrir  fangen 
it)r  fangt 
fte  fangen 


Subj. 

fdnge 

fdng(e)fi 

fdnge 

fangen 

fdng(e)t 

fangen 


Indie. 

flel 

(Mft 

ftel 

ftelen 

ftelt 

ftefen 


Subj. 

ftele 

fleleft 

flele 

flelcn 

ftelet 

ftelen 


Indie. 


Subj. 


jalfen 
Mft 

jalfen 


dlfe 

alfen 

W(e)t 

jalfen 


ist    flnge  id) 

(familiar)     (polite) 

2nd  ftng(e),  ftngen  <S 
3rd   er  ftnge 


Present  Imperative. 

Singular, 
fatte  id) 

(familiar)    (polite) 

fatt(e),    fatten  @ie 
er  fatte 


tyetfe  id) 

(familiar)     (polite) 


er  tyelfe 


ftngen  rcir 
ftng(e)t,  ftngen  (&te 
fte  fotten  fingen 

Infinitive. 
Pres.  (311)  ftngen  (185. 
A&  B) 
Pres.  (ju)  fatten 

Pres.  (ju)  tyelfen 

Plural. 

fatten  nnr                        ^elfen  trir 
fafl(e)t,  fatten  <£te             l«If(e)t,  ^elfen  ®ie 
fte  foKen  fatten                 fte  follen  Ijelfen 

Participle.             Gerundive  (180) 
Pres.  ftngenb       ju  ftngen  (predicate  form) 
Perf.  gefung'en    ter  (&c.)  ju  ftngenbe  (180.  B) 
Pres.  fatten!)        lacking  with  intransitive  verbs 
Perf.  gefaflen 
Pres.  fyetfenb       ju  ^etfen  (the  attributive  form 
Perf.  ge^ol'fen         is  lacking  ;  see  180.  B.  a.) 

D.  The  three  models  given  above  represent  the  three  different 
forms  of  inflection  in  the  simple  mood  and  tense  forms  of  strong 
verbs,  concerning  which  the  following  particulars  are  given : 

a.  Those  that  have  an  a  in  the  stem  modify  as  a  rule  that 
vowel  in  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing,  of  the  present  indie.,  as  in  B 
above.     Saufen  and  faufen  are  the  only  verbs  in  au  that  mutate  here, 
•ftotnmen  to  come  sometimes  mutates.     For  cause  of  mutation  see 
197.  C.  a. 

Note.  In  S.G.  mutation  is  often  suppressed  here :  bit  fdjfafft,  er  fcfjtaft  for  bu 
fdjlfiffi,  er  fdjlaft. 

b.  Those  that  have  an  e  in  the  stem  change  it  in  the  2nd  and  3rd 
person  sing,  of  the  present  indie,  to  i,  if  it  stands  before  two  or 
more  consonants,  and  to  ie,  if  it  stands  before  one  consonant  or 
silent  f) :  id?  treffe  /  hit,  bu  trifffl,  er  trifft,  but  id?  lefe  /  read,  bit  liefeft, 
er  lieft,  and  id)  tefefyle  /  command,  bu  fcefiefylft,  er  fceftefylt. 

©rlofd^en  to  become  extinguished,  go  out  changes  6  to  i :  bu  erlifd)efr, 
er  erlifd^t.  ©efctiren  to  give  birth  to  changes  d  to  ie :  bu  gefcierft,  fte  ge6tert. 

Note.  In  earlier  periods  t  was  also  found  in  the  first  person  sing.,  and  this  old  form 
survives  in  S.G.  dialect:  3d)  vergifT  ifyr  af(e3  —  fte  ttergtfjt  mir  nir  (Ebner-Eschen- 
bach's  Glaubcnslos,  chap.  i).  For  cause  of  change  of  vowel,  see  26.  C.  and  197.  C.  b. 

c.  The  imperative  of  the  class  that  changes  e  to  i  or  ie  in  the 
2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  of  the  present  indie,  also  has  in  the  2nd 


256  THE  VERB  177.  II.  D.  c. 

pers.  (never  in  the  3rd  pers.,  as  it  is  in  fact  a  subjunctive  form)  sing., 
except  in  case  of  inerben  to  become,  the  same  change  of  vowel,  but 
does  not  have  a  personal  ending :  triff,  git,  fcefteb,!,  but  rcerbe.  The 
exclamatory  imperative  ftebe!  behold!  look!  (from  fefyen)  deviates  often 
from  the  rule,  in  that  it  not  only  has  change  of  vowel  but  also  after 
the  analogy  of  the  wk.  imperative  may  take  the  personal  ending  e. 

The  imperative  of  all  strong  verbs  not  having  an  interchange 
of  e  to  i  or  ie  in  the  2nd  person  either  remains  without  an  ending 
in  the  2nd  sing,  according  to  long  established  usage,  or  takes  an  e 
after  the  analogy  of  wk.  verbs :  fafyr  or  fabre  drive,  ftng  or  ftnge. 

The  imperative  is  often  replaced  by  other  forms  just  as  in  the 
wk.  verb ;  see  I.  B,  above. 

d.  The  following  exceptions  occur  to  the  rules  given  in  b  and  c 
above  :  (i)  @eben  to  give,  nebmen  to  take,  and  treten  to  step  change  long 
e  to  short  i  and  nebmen  and  treten  also  double  the  consonant  in  the 
2nd  and  3rd  sing.  pres.  indie,  and  the  sing,  imper. :   id?  gebe,  bu 
gtbft,  er  gtbt,  g!6;    id?  nefmte,  bit  nimmft,  er  nimmt,  nintmj    id?  trete,  bu 
trittfl,  er  tritt,  tritt.     (2)  SBeitegen,  gefjen,  genefen,  b>6en,  ^flegen,  flerfen, 
flefyen,  iceben,  and  often  fd?eren,  do  not  suffer  an  interchange  of  vowel 
at  all  in  the  present  tense  of  either  the  indie,  or  imper.     Now  and 
then  other  verbs  show  no  interchange  in  the  present,  especially  in 
familiar  conversation :  id?  fd?elte,  bu  fd?iltjt  or  fd?elteft,  imper.  fd?tlt  or 
fd?elt(e).    „  3e§t  fontm,"  Idd?ette  fte,  fd?on  naeber  jut>erf!d?tlid?  ifyn  an  ber  «£anb 
fortjiefyenb,  —  „  unb  fd?elt  fcalt  nod?  einmal,  rcenn  id?  e§  nid?t  red?t  gentad?t 
ijab' "  (Berlepsch's  Forlunats  Roman,  p.  18).     -§elf  ben  «§errfd?afte«  bte 
<8ad?en  atne^men(Halbe's^f«//^r  Erde,  i.  p.  18).  In  the  language  of  the 
common  people  this  tendency  to  level  out  the  irregularities  of  form 
and  become  regular  is  much  stronger  than  in  the  literary  language. 

e.  The  subjunctive  never  shows  interchange  of  vowel. 

/.  All  strong  verbs  not  described  in  a  and  b  follow  the  inflection 
of  ftngen  in  pres.  tense  indie. 

g.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  past  tense  indie,  often  added  an  e  in  the  1st  and 
3rd  person  sing.,  after  the  analogy  of  weak  verbs :  Dct.  gaujhu?  name  (for 
itafynt)  jm  (for  ifym  =  ftd?)  nnefceramb  em  ©efpradj  fiir  (for  »or)  mtt  feinern  ©etft  gu 
fyalten  (Historia  »pn  2).  Sotjann  5*ufl««f  1587).  We  find  these  forms  only 
rarely  in  the  classical  period :  id?  titte  (Lessing's  Nathan^  3,  8,  I4th  line). 
G<3  jlclje  grmnb  imb  getnb  (Goethe's  Gotz,  3,  13). 

III.  The  simple  forms  of  the  irregular  verbs  b^afcen,  fein,  njerben : 

a.  fyafcen  to  have.  b.  fein  to  be. 

Present.  Past.  Present.  Past. 

Indie.  Subj.         Indie.          Subj.        Indie.         Subj.  Indie.        Subj. 

id?  tyabe  fyafce  tydtte  ^dtte  But  fei  rear  njdre 

bu  fydfl  ^abejl  ^dttejl  ^«tt(e)fl  fctft  fei(0i^  worjl  irdr(c)ft 

er  fjat  ^abe  ^atte  ^)dtte  t|1  fei  war  irdre 

icir  ^)a6en  tyaben  fatten  fatten  ftnb  feien  rcaren  waren 

t^r  ^abt  ^)a6et  ^)dttet  f)dttet  feib1  feiet  n?art  irdr(e)t 

fte  ^a ben  fyabcn  fatten  fatten  finb1  feien  ivaren  redren 


1  The  official  spelling  here  needlessly  obscures  the  etymological  relations  of  the 


178.  i. 


REGULAR  CONJUGATION 


257 


Infinitive. 

Imperative. 

Infinitive. 

Sing. 

Pres.  (jit)^aOen 

ist  fet  id) 

Pres.  (;$it)  fein 

(185.  A  &B) 

2nd  fei,  feien  @ie 

(185.  A  &  B) 

3rd  er  fei 

Participles. 

Plur. 
ist  feien  ictr 

Participles. 

Pres.  tyafcenb 

2nd  feib,  feien  <2te 

Pres.  feienb 

Perf.  ge^aSt' 

3rd  fte  fotten  fein 

Perf.  gerce'fen 

Imperative. 

Sing. 

ist  t)56e  id) 

2nd  fyafce,  fya&en  (Sie 

3rd  er  Ijafce 

Plur. 

ist    tyafcen  trir 
2nd  fjafct,  fyafcen  <8>te 
3rd  fie  foflen  Ijaben 

Gerundive, 
ju  tyafcen  (predicate  form)  ber  (,  bie,  bag)  jit  tyafcenbe  (attributive) 

Note.  Instead  of  the  usual  subjunctive  present  singular  of  fein,  we  occasionally  find 
the  forms  id)  feie,  bit  feiefi,  er  fete:  JDa  meint  er,  e3  feie  bie  Sitrg  fd)on  gencmmen 
(Uhland's  Graf  Ebersteiri). 

c.  nrerben  to  become. 
Present.  Past. 

Indie. 

irarb  or  rcurbe ] 
warbjl  or  ttitrbefl 
rcarb  or  njurbe 
rcurben 


Indie. 

id)  iverbe 
bit  anrft 
er  rctrb 
mir  irerben 
ityr  Jterbet 
fte  Jrerben 


Subj. 

Jterbe 

rcerbeft 

njerbe 

icerben 

reerbet 

werben 

Infinitive. 
Pres.  (jit)  rcerben  (185.  A  and  B) 


nwrbet 
tcitrben 


Subj. 

tritrbe 

njitrbefl 

murbe 

trurben 

rcurbet 

tritrben 


General 


Imperative 

irerbe  id? 
tterbe 
er  iverbe 
irerben  nrir 
mrbet,  icerben  @ie 
fie  foflen  iverben 

Participles. 
Pres.  reerbenb 
Perf.  (ge)reor'fcen  (178.  2.  C.) 

Remarks  respecting  the  Simple  Forms  of  the 


178. 

Verb. 

i.  Sometimes  in  adding  the  various  endings  to  the  stem,  sounds 
are  brought  together  that  are  difficult  to  pronounce,  in  which 
case  an  e  is  placed  between  stem  and  ending  to  facilitate  the  pro- 
nunciation :  j;eid;nen  to  sketch,  draw,  bit  jeidjneft  not  jeidjnfi ;  e8  recuiet 
(not  regnt)  it  is  raining,  &c.  This  e,  once  a  vital  part  of  the  word, 
has  so  lost  its  original  force  that  it  can  thus  be  used  to  facilitate 
the  pronunciation  and  dropped  when  it  is  not  needed.  It  is  also 

words.  @etb  and  finb  should  both  be  written  with  a  t  instead  of  b  :  feit  and  ftnt.  In 
all  other  verbs,  as  for  example  in  ;{jt  gefyt,  the  2nd  person  pi.  ends  in  t  and  should 
also  do  so  here.  In  earlier  periods  of  the  language  the  3rd  pers.  pi.  indie,  of  all  verbs 
ended  in  tit  as  also  in  Latin  :  O.H.G.  farent  =  N.H.G.  fte  fafymi.  The  3rd  pers.  pi. 
indie,  form  ftttb  is  the  only  remaining  verb  that  still  has  this  ending,  which  is,  however, 
falsely  spelled  nb  instead  of  nt.  Indo-European  nt  (as  in  Latin  ama«/)  became  in 
prehistoric  Germanic  nth,  which  according  to  Verner's  Law  (see  40.  2.  a)  became 
Gothic  nd  as  it  followed  an  unaccented  vowel,  or  as  in  case  of  jtnb  was  used  enclitically. 
This  nt>  became  in  the  last  shifting  of  the  consonants  O.H.G.  nt.  It  is  said  that  the 
intention  of  the  spelling  feib  is  to  distinguish  it  from  the  prep,  feit,  which,  however, 
seems  a  weak  justification.  For  the  explanation  of  1st  pers.  pi.  form  ftnb  and  its 
dialectic  form  see  I.  C.  above. 

1  SSBurbe  is  the  more  common  form  in  ordinary  prose,  todtb  is  a  favorite  in  poetry 
and  choice  prose.  The  plural  forms  tpovben  and  ttdtbeit  occur  earlier  in  the  period  : 
fte  ifcrfcen  (Luther).  <Dte  Sanbsc  . . .  tearben  dud)  burdj  37?arga«ten3  •franb  (Grill- 
parzer's  Kiinig  Ottokar^  i). 

S 


258  THE  VERB  178.1. 

sometimes  retained  to  distinguish  the  different  inflectional  forms 
more  clearly  from  each  other,  as  for  instance  the  subjunctive 
from  the  indie.  It  is  thus  to-day  sometimes  a  mere  connecting, 
sometimes  an  inflectional  vowel,  and  hence  is  used  or  dropped 
according  to  the  requirements  of  euphony  or  grammatical  clearness. 
A  brief  outline  of  its  present  use  is  as  follows  : 
A.  The  connecting  vowel  is  usually  retained  in  the  following  cases : 

a.  If  the  stem   ends  in  single  m  or  it  preceded   by  another 
consonant,  the  connecting  vowel  e  always  stands  between  stem 
and  ending :  atmen  to  breathe,  bu  atmefl;  fcegegnen  to  meet,  bu  fcegegneft, 
cr  fcegegnete,  &c.,  but  fjemmen  to  retain,  check,  bu  tyemntft,  &c. 

Note.  These  stems  ending  in  single  m  or  n  preceded  by  another  consonant  are 
derived  from  nouns  or  other  parts  of  speech  in  sent  or  tin.  In  the  conjugation 
of  the  verb  the  e  of  the  suffixes  ',tm  and  ttT\  is  suppressed  in  harmony  with  the  contrac- 
tion of  adjectives  ending  in  ;en  (see  110) :  bet  Sltem,  beg  Sltetng,  but  atmen;  ber  SRegen, 
beg  {Regeng,  but  regneit.  In  colloquial  speech,  however,  the  connecting  vowel  e  is  often 
suppressed  in  the  verbal  forms  :  fegent  or  fegnt,  efcent  or  ebnt.  Traces  of  this  usage 
occur  in  the  written  language :  2JJdne  fitebe  tat  jit  Btet  fur  bidj ;  redjen'g  ifir  nid)t  $um 
$er)ler  an  (Goethe's  Gotz,  1771,  Adelheidens  Vorzimmer).  9lun  fommt  bag  @djUmtttfte 
nod) ;  eg  regent  (Heine).  In  early  N.H.G.  this  usage  is  quite  common  :  £>ag  eg  regent 
ailffg  Sanb  (Job  xxxviii.  26).  In  careless  pronunciation  the  tt  is  also  often  assimilated 
to  the  preceding  consonant :  ebtttt  instead  of  ebnt.  See  41.  4. 

b.  When  stems  ending  in  b  or  t  would  stand  before  the  ending  t 
(and  often  before  ft),  the  connecting  vowel  is  usually  placed  between 
stem  and  ending,  except  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing,  present 
tense  of  those  verbs  having  a  modification  of  vowel  or  interchange 
from  e  to  i  or  ie,  which  latter  classes  never  take  the  connecting  vowel 
but  the  regular  endings  ft,  t,  or  in  case  of  combinations  difficult  to 
pronounce  suffer  contraction  :  teten  to  pray,  er  fcetet,  bu  6et(e)fl,  bu  beteteft, 
gebetet,  &c. ;  but  laben  to  load,  bu  Idbft,  er  Ictbt  (If.f);  fatten  to  hold,  bit 
tyattft,  er  ^alt ;  treten  to  step,  bu  trtttft,  er  tritt ;  fecfyten  to  fence,  bu  ftcfytft, 
er  ftcfyt,  but  in  the  pi.  according  to  rule :  i^r  labet,  ^altet,  tretet,  fecfytet. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.,  and  still  in  the  language  of  the  youthful  Goethe,  contraction 
was  here  common,  not  only  in  the  and  and  3rd  person  sing,  of  the  strong  verbs  above 
mentioned,  but  in  all  verbs  in  any  place  where  a  b  or  t  would  be  followed  by  a  t-  in  the 
inflectional  ending :  (Goethe's  Urfausf)  angemd'fl  for  angentdftet,  gefndt  for  gefnetet, 
Jltgeridjt  for  gugerid^tet.  A  few  adjective  participles  still  remain  as  survivals  of  this 
former  usage :  (ber)  93eamte  (for  Seamtete),  berebt,  butdjlaitdjt,  erfaudjt,  getrcft  (for 
getroftet ;  see  208.  I.  a).  In  early  N.H.G.,  however,  verbs  which  have  a  modification 
of  vowel  or  interchange  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  present  tense  indicative  may 
sometimes  have  there  either  an  uncontracted  or  a  contracted  form,  as  Jjciltet  (written  in 
early  N.H.G.  Ijeltet)  and  Ija'tt,  jlidjtet  and  ffttfyt,  while  to-day  only  the  contracted  form 
is  here  used  in  prose,  the  older  usage  continuing  only  in  poetry. 

c.  When  stems  ending  in  a  sibilant,  as  f,  fy,  ff,  £ ,  fdj,  g,  x,  would 
stand  before  ft  the  connecting  vowel  is  inserted  between  stem  and 
ending  except  in  the  and  pers.  sing,  present  tense  of  verbs  having 
a  modification  of  vowel  or  interchange  from  e  to  i  or  ie,  which  latter 
classes  may  take  the  connecting  vowel  in  choice  language,  but  in 
ordinary  conversation  add  only  the  regular  ending  ft,  or  in  case  of 
combinations  difficult  to  pronounce  suffer  contraction :  fifcfyen  to  fish, 
bu  ftfdjeft ;  but  tcafcfyen  to  wash,  bu  njctfc^efl  or  irdfcfyft ;  n?acf?fert  to  grow, 
bu  rod cfyfeft  or  rodcfyft  •  effen  to  eat,  bu  iffefi  or  ifjt ;  lefen  to  read,  bu  Itefeft  or 
liefi.    In  familiar  conversation  contraction  is  also  quite  common  here 


178.  I.E.  a.  REGULAR  CONJUGATION  259 


even  when  there  is  no  interchange  of  vowel  :  bu  ^afiit,  liefjt  instead 
of  paffefl,  Itefiefr.  The  choice  language  of  our  time  is  becoming  ever 
more  unfavorable  to  contracted  forms. 

d.  The  connecting  vowel  e  besides  serving  to  facilitate  pro- 
nunciation distinguishes  the  subjunctive  from  the  indicative  in  the 
present  and  also  in  the  past  of  the  strong  conjugation,  but  the 
indicative  and  subjunctive  weak  are  identical  in  form  in  the  past 
tense,  and  in  the  strong  conjugation  the  e  may  drop  out  of  the 
past  subjunctive  where  the  modification  of  the  vowel  already  dis- 
tinguishes the  subjunctive:  bu  tufi  (indie.),  but  bu  tuejl  (subj.)  ;  bu 
flingft  (past  indie,  of  gefyeit  to  go),  but  bu  gingeft  (subj.);  bu  ga&ft  (past 
indie,  of  gefceu  to  give),  but  bu  gdfc(e)fi  (subj.).  Verbs  in  =elit  and  =cru 
may  in  the  present  tense  not  only  distinguish  the  subjunctive  from 
the  indicative  by  retaining  the  connecting  and  inflectional  vowel  e 
but  also  by  dropping  (not  always,  however,  as  it  may  be  retained) 
the  e  of  the  verbal  suffix  :  (indie.)  id?  fyeud^ejte,  bu  f)eud?eljr,  er  l)eud?elt, 
ictr  t?eud?elu,  ifyr  fyeucfyelt,  fte  f?eud?eln  ;  (subj.)  id?  t)eud}(e)le,  bu  t;eud](e)[efr,  er 
f?eud)(e)(e,  nrir  J)eud;(e)len,  Ujr  ljeu<Jj(e)tet,  fte  beud;(e)len. 

Verbs  the  stems  of  which  end  in  single  in  or  n  preceded  by 
another  consonant  cannot  distinguish  between  indicative  and  sub- 
junctive except  in  the  3rd  pers.  sing.  :  id?  atme  (indie.),  id;  ntme  (subj.)  ; 
bu  atmefi  (indie.),  bu  atmeft  (subj.);  er  atmet  (indie.),  er  atme  (subj.). 

Note,  Earlier  in  the  period  the  inflectional  ending  ?e  was  uniformly  retained  in 
verbs  in  ;el  and  ;et  throughout,  while  the  e  of  the  suffix  was  dropped,  and  this  usage  is 
still  found  in  some  N.G.  dialects,  as  in  Hanover  :  id)  ljeud?le  (indie,  and  subj.),  fte 
tyeudjlen  (indie,  and  subj.).  Also  the  very  opposite  usage  is  found  in  some  N.G. 
dialects  —  the  uniform  retention  of  the  c  in  the  suffix  :  3d?  bibber  ja  ntd?t,  £etr  SUJajor 
(Wilhelm  in  Sudermann's  Fritzchen,  scene  3).  §lber  fo  tt)d$  fd?uttel'  id?  letd?t  son  mir 
ab  (M.  Dreyer's  Winterschlqf,  2). 

e.  In  early  N.H.G.  the  connecting  vowel  was  much  more  used  than  at 
present,  being  found  in  many  cases  where  it  is  not  found  at  all  to-day  :  U)cc 
SBcifm  jmio,e  mad?ct  bie  £ere  Ucblid)  |  Set  barren  wunb  Octet  eitcl  narrt?ctt  (Prov. 
xv.  2).  The  poet  still  often  uses  these  old  forms,  either  because  old  forms 
are  in  general  well  suited  to  a  poetic  style,  or  because  they  here  and  there 
suit  his  measure  :  Tsd?  bin  ber  bunfte  (Sbctjtein,  |  au3  ticfcm  @d?ad)t  ijciBuljtct  :  |  bu 
abcr  bijl  ber  @onnenfd?ciu,  |  bavin  cr  5^''n  fpietct  (Geibel). 

f.  In  the  Bavarian  dialects  (including  those  in  Austria)  the  past  subjunctive 
usually  retains  the  connecting  vowel  e  and  suppresses  the  personal  ending, 
thus  terminating  in  ct  (representing  O.H.G.  oti,  eti)  in  weak  and  often  in  strong 
verbs,  as  the  latter  have  come  under  the  influence  of  the  former  :  3d?  ma^ 
i(?n  ja  ntdit,  tvenn  er  mit  gefaflet  (=  geftele),  fo  fagct  (=  fagte)  id?  md?h3  (Raimund's 
Der  Verse  hiuender,  2,  i).  Also  with  vowel-gradation  :  3Bo  nat?met  benn  unfer 
Jperr^ctt  b'Singer  I?ev,  Jvanit  er  aitf  jebeu  eiiifd?td?tifleu  Sauent  beuten  ttjoflt'  (Anzen- 
gruber's  Die  Kreuzelschreiber,  2,  3).  ?lbcr  blinb  mu^t'  mer  fein,  iraun  man  nit 
fabct,  ivcf?cr  eng  anf  einmal  b'grofj'  ^Bu^fjaftigfcit  ein^'fd^cffcu  \$  !  (ib.  3,  4).  These 
dialects  have  no  past  indie.  ;  see  165.  2.  b. 

B.  On  the  other  hand,  instead  of  inserting  an  e  between  stem  and 
inflectional  ending  verbs  often  drop  an  e  of  the  latter  :  id?  fef?  for  id? 
fetye  ;  bret)  (imper.  2nd  pers.  sing.)  for  bre&e,  &c. 

a.  Verbs  the  stem  of  which  ends  in  =et  and  =er  always  drop  the  e 
of  the  inflectional  ending  before  u  in  the  indicative  and  infinitive: 
ttnr  ipanbeln,  &c.  For  exceptions  see  A.  d.  Note,  above.  When  e 

S  2 


260  THE  VERB  178.  i.  B.  a. 

constitutes  of  itself  the  inflectional  ending,  it  can  never  be  dropped, 
but  the  e  of  the  suffix  may  then  be  suppressed  in  its  stead,  more 
commonly  so  in  the  indie,  and  imper.,  not  always  however,  and 
often  in  the  subj. :  (indie.)  id?  fycmb(e)le;  (imper.)  §anb(e)te  (bu);  (subj.) 
id;  t)ant(e)Ie.  See  A.  d.  above. 

b.  The  infinitives  tun  and  fein  are  regularly  without  e,  and  tun  also 
in  the  plural  of  the  pres.  indie.,  and  fein  in  the  ist  and  3rd  pers. 
pres.  subj. :  twr  tun,  &c. ;  id)  fei,  bu  fei(e)fr,  er  fet.    All  verbs,  both  str. 
and  wk.,  may  drop  the  e  of  the  inflectional  ending  en,  when  the 
stem  ends  in  a  vowel  or  a  vowel  followed  by  1) :  fcfyreien  or  frfjretn  • 
gefetyen  or  gefefjn.     This  dropping  of  e  is  very  common  in  ordinary 
conversation,  but  is  not  usually  indicated  in  the  written  language, 
the  full  ending  =en  being  there  preferred.    The  poet  marks  clearly 
the  full  or  contracted  form  in  the  orthography,  so  as  to  make  plain 
the  metrical  scheme.     Even  though  the  e  drops  out,  the  number  of 
syllables  in  the  word  is  not  in  natural  prose  diminished,  as  the  n 
assumes  full  syllabic  function  :  Blitfyen  =  bly.n. 

c.  The  imperative  of  the  2nd  pers.  sing,  of  the  weak  conjugation 
has  regularly  an  e,  and  the  strong  in  imitation  of  the  weak  often 
takes  an  e,  except  those  that  have  a  change  of  vowel  from  e  to  i  or 
ie  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  sing.,  which  never  take  it  with  the  one 
exception  ftefye :  ki§c  bite  for  beifi ;  reafdje  wash  for  rcafd? ;  fomme  come 
for  fomm ;  but  always,  ntmm  take,  tytlf  help,  gift  give,  &c.     On  the 
other  hand,  the  wk.  imperative  often  drops  its  e  in  the  2nd  sing., 
but  those  in  =el,  =en,  and  er,  usually  retain  it :  reicfy  reach  for  retcfye, 
but  usually  Idd)(e)le,  offne,  flolp(e)re.     Those  in  *el  and  *er  drop  some- 
times in  colloquial  language  the  e  of  the  ending  and  retain  the  e  of 
the  suffix :  tdctyet,  ftofyer.     Those  in  =en  always  suppress  the  e  of  the 
suffix  and  retain  the  e  of  the  ending :  offne. 

2.  @e*  does  not  stand  in  the  perf.  participle  of: — 
A.  Those  verbs  that  have  no  accent  upon  the  first  syllable.     For 
the  reason  of  the  absence  of  ge*  here  see  246. 1 1 .  4.  a.  Such  verbs  are : 

a.  Those  that  have  the  following  prefixes:  fce,  ent  (emp  before  f: 
empfefclen),  er,  ge,  intjj  (usually;  see  246.  II.  8.  B),  »er,  mtber,  $er;  and 
the  following  when  unaccented:  burd?,  fainter,  ufcer,  um,  unter,  »ofl, 
irieber:  tierle^t'  injured,  fcefdw'Digt  damaged,  u6erfe|t/  translated,  but 
u'&ergefefct  transported  across,  &c. 

Note.  Exceptions  occur  in  words  where  the  prefix  has  been  contracted  and  blended 
with  the  verb  so  that  its  force  as  a  prefix  is  not  felt :  gefreffen  part,  of  freffm  to  eat 
(of  animals),  from  »(e)reffen,  &c. 

b.  Many  foreign  verbs  and  a  few  German  ones : 

(1)  Those  ending  in  ie'ren  :  ftubtert'  studied,  6ud?fklnert'  spelled,  &c. 
Children  and  xmeducated  people,  earlier  in  the  period  also  good 
authors,  often  prefix  ge  here :  gefhtbiert. 

(2)  Those  in  ei'en :    £ro^ejett/  prophesied,  fafteit'  chastised,  mor- 
tified, &c.      Earlier  in  the  period  ge  is  often  prefixed  here,  and 
sometimes  still  in  case  of  fcenebet'en  to  bless  :  ©ie  gebenebette  iwter  beit 
Srauen  (Spielhagen's  Faustulus,  p.  19). 

(3)  A  few  other  verbs  which  cannot  be  designated  by  an  outward 
sign :  alau'nen  to  alum,  d;autyagn'ern  to  drink  champagne,  fapau'neu  to 


178.2.B.0.  REGULAR  CONJUGATION  261 

capon,  falfa'tern  to  calk,  fat6atfd)'en  to  scourge,  lash,  farba'tfdjen  to 
curry  (a  horse),  card  (wool),  farrio'len  to  drive  rapidly,  fartd'tfd)cn  to 
shoot  with  grape-shot,  frafee'Ien  to  kick  up  a  row,  to  be  noisy,  freben'^en 
to  hand  (a  cup  of  wine  to  some  one  to  drink),  furon'jen  to  drub, 
Jjofau'twn  to  trumpet,  sound  forth,  rigo'fen  (also  riio'Ienjrajo'fcn)  to  plow 
deep,  to  make  a  trench,  rumo'ren  to  make  a  noise,  rumble,  fal&a'bern 
(part,  sometimes  gefatfca'bert)  to  twaddle,  fd?arnw§'etn  to  skirmish, 
jcfyarrcen'jeln  or  fdjertrerv^eln  to  bow  and  scrape,  be  officious,  fdjlam* 
Vam'pen  to  feast,  live  high,  fd}maro|'en  to  sponge  on  others,  fpefta'fetn 
to  make  an  uproar,  fHfcifc'en  to  pilfer,  trompe'ten  to  trumpet,  jigeu'nem 
to  rove  about  like  gypsies,  and  usually  offenfca'ren  to  manifest,  reveal, 
but  it  is  also  accented  on  the  first  syllable  and  hence  takes  ge*  in 
the  participle  and  usually  so  in  its  special  sense  of  divine  revelation  : 
ein  offenfcarteg  @ef)etmni3,  but  SBer  an  fetnen  £erf6nlirt)en  ©ott  gtaubt,  fann 
ftrt?  jii  fctner  geoffenfcarten  Oieltgion  Mennen  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  142). 
Earlier  in  the  period  usage  fluctuated,  so  that  offen&a'ren  could  also 
be  used  in  the  sense  of  divine  revelation  :  5)  a  rcatb  Spaniel  fold?  cerfrorgen 
2>ing  burd)  ein  ©eftcfyt  be3  nacbtS  offenfcart  (Dan.  ii.  19).  Usage  is  even 
to-day  not  entirely  fixed. 

In  the  case  of  the  following  compounds  fro^Iotfen  to  rejoice,  liettfofen 
to  caress,  unflfafyren  to  humor  a  person,  usage  fluctuates  (with  preference 
perhaps  for  first  mentioned  form)  between  gefrofy'locft  and  frofyloctt', 
geliefc'f  oft  and  lieb'gefoft,  and  sometimes  Itebfoff,  getcttt'fafjrt  and  retflfatyrt'. 
Thus  the  compound  may  be  treated  as  a  simple  verb  taking  accent 
on  the  first  syllable  and  prefixing  ge  in  the  participle,  or  the  first 
component  element  of  the  compound  may  be  treated  as  an  in- 
separable prefix  taking  no  accent  and  hence  no  ge=  in  the  participle ; 
see  also  217.  b. 

In  spite  of  its  accent  the  adj.  participle  genaturt' (earlier  in  the  period 
common,  now  little  used  except  in  popular  language)  -natured 
prefixes  ge,  after  the  analogy  of  geartet :  feiner  genaturt  all  bie  au3  fettem 
£on  gefovmte  3Kenfd^eit  (Musaus). 

B.  Certain  auxiliaries  or  auxiliary-like  verbs,  when  in  a  compound 
tense  they  have  an  infinitive  depending  upon  them. 

a.  The  participle  has  no  ge*  and  has  seemingly  no  other  sign  of 
the  perf.  part,  but  has  to  all  appearances  the  form  of  the  infinitive 
(for  historical  explanation  see  Note  i) :  6r  f)at  eS  gemufst  He  has  been 
compelled  to,  but  (£r  fyat  eS  tun  imiffen  He  has  been  compelled  to  do  it. 
These  auxiliaries  comprise  the  following,  only,  however,  when 
simple  verbs,  never  when  compound :  bittfen,  founen,  ntogen,  mitffen, 
f oUen,  and  irotlen ;  and  the  auxiliary-like  verbs  fyeipen  to  bid,  tyelfen  to 
help,  fjoren  to  hear,  laffen  to  let  or  cause,  macfyen  to  make,  fe^en  to  see, 
usually  fcroudjen  to  need  (to  do  something),  sometimes  fitt;len  to  feel, 
Icrnen  to  learn,  and  rarely  lefyren  to  teach  and  mffcn  to  know,  all  seven- 
teen of  which  except  braucfyen  (185.  B.  I.  2.  a)  and  ittffen  (212.  2.  c)  take 
an  infinitive  depending  upon  them  without  ju :  3cfy  ^afce  es  gefonnt 
/  have  been  able,  but  3d)  tyafce  e3  tun  f onnen  /  have  been  able  to  do  it. 
SSMe  oiel  traute  ©tunben  ^atte  mir  ber  alte  99urfdjc  fcereiten  ^elfen!  (Paul 
Keller's  Waldwinter,  xxi).  SKan  finite  auS  ben  iRebeiuenbungen  ^erau§, 
baf  bie  3^it  bod;  ityr  5Serf  fletan,  ba^  neue  dinbriirfe  bie  alten  Jjerrcifdjt,  neue 


262  v  THE  VERB  178.2.  B.  a. 

©ejtdjter  bte  ©rinncrung  an  bie  altcn  fatten  Jjerfetaffen  madjen  (G.  Ompteda's 
Eysen,  chap.  ii).  llnb  rcoju  I)a6t  ityr  e§  unS  benn  glaiiben  inadjen,  il)r 
fallen  £eut'?  (Rosegger's  Fruhling).  3d?  fcatte  mid?  Wofj  nid;t  einju* 
mifd?m  fcraudjen  (or  perhaps  less  commonly,  but  more  correctly 
einmifdjen  faaudjen,  or  ein^timifcben  ge6raud?t)  /  simply  had  no  need  of 
mixing  myself  up  in  the  matter.  Sir  fatten  biefe  @d?ulb  aud)  bann  nod? 
auf  ling  laften  fiit)(en  (Wustmann's  Sprachdummheiten,  p.  60,  3rd  ed.) 
—  now  more  commonly  laflen  gefiitylt.  £ier  tritt  bie  3ubitfy  ivteter  ein, . . . 
bie  ben  Xeufel  tyat  gasmen  lernen  (G.  Keller  an  T.  Storm,  25.  Juni 
1878)  —  now  more  commonly  gasmen  gelernt  [tyat]. 

Note  I.  These  peculiar  forms,  which  are  outwardly  infinitives  but  in  function  par- 
ticiples, are  in  fact  for  the  most  part  old  strong  perfect  participles  without  ge;.  They 
must  have  originally  been  felt  as  participles,  as  we  also  find  forms  with  ge;  :  <£o  hail 
l»it  biefen  Sirieff  gel&eifjen  fdjreiben  (Lehmann).  SJliemant  fiat  e$  gebcrffen  fagen  (Hutten). 
The  ge;  became  fixed  with  these  words  when  they  were  used  with  the  full  force  of  inde- 
pendent verbs,  but  was  discarded  when  they  were  used  as  auxiliaries,  just  as  in  the 
case  of  toerben  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive  voice.  Notice  that  in  case  of  fieifjen, 
lafiett,  fehen,  the  participle  without  ge^  is  identical  in  form  with  the  infinitive.  Double 
forms  of  the  participle  arose  in  case  of  the  modal  auxiliaries — a  weak  and  a  strong 
form.  Originally  they  had  no  perf.  participle  at  all.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present 
period,  when  the  participles  were  coined,  both  the  strong  and  the  weak  formations 
presented  themselves.  Luther  still  used  them  without  differentiation  :  Slber  id)  hab 
nit  tooflett.  £ett  id)  bod)  felb  nit  ntodjt  fo  tool  bit  antirortten  aid  biffer  reamer.  Non- 
differentiation  still  occurs,  especially  in  dialect,  but  in  general  they  are  so  differentiated 
that  the  weak  participle  with  ge*  is  employed  when  these  words  are  used  as  independent 
verbs,  but  the  strong  participle  without  ge;  when  they  are  used  as  auxiliaries. 

The  above  explains  the  participial  forms  of  the  modal  auxiliaries,  and  fjeijjetl,  lafien, 
feljen,  and  also  pflegen  (formerly  in  Class  V),  which  earlier  in  the  period  had  the  same 
construction.  These  peculiar  participial  forms  were  not  clearly  understood  and  were 
naturally  construed  as  infinitives.  Hence  other  verbs  were  attracted  into  the  same  con- 
struction. ^>6ren  naturally  followed  the  example  of  fefien,  and  later  anfangen,  braudjen, 
fufilen,  madjen,  lefiren,  lemen,  »ermogen,  and  hrijien,  joined  more  or  less  frequently 
the  group.  Of  these  onfangen,  fflegen,  and  t>ertnogen,  have  abandoned  the  construction 
entirely.  There  is  at  present  a  growing  tendency  for  other  of  these  verbs  to  discard 
this  peculiar  participle  and  use  the  form  they  have  as  independent  verbs,  regularly  so 
in  case  of  fufylen,  lehreil,  Iftnen,  and  tinjfen,  quite  often  in  case  of  braildjen,  66ren, 
macfyen,  feben,  laffen,  and  occasionally  so  in  case  of  others :  3d)  fiabe  ifin  mehrfadj  reben 
gebort  (Sudermann).  35et  Jtonig  »on  S^anfreicf)  hat  ben  $apfl  glauben  gemadjt  ^Ranke). 
£>ie  ©eligf  eit  ber  5f  tube  fidttefeine  werftegenbe  Sebensftaft  nen  rinnengemadjt  (Jamtschek's 
Liel>eswunder,VlIY).  3d)  fiabe  ihn  nod)  nie  fdjlafen  gefefien  (Auerbach).  2)u  ^dtteft  gew§ 
bie  ^evfer  fdjlagen  geljolfen  (Hamerling).  The  modal  auxiliaries  hold  most  tenaciously 
to  the  old  construction,  but  the  weak  participial  form  with  ge;  seems  also  here  to  be  gain- 
ing ground,  especially  in  subordinate  clauses  with  suppressed  tense  auxiliary  and  also 
in  principal  clauses  where  the  dependent  infinitive  has  been  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  sentence  for  emphasis  :  38ir  Batten  eg  ja  nid)t  beffer  Ijaben  gettoUt  (Raabe). 
9U3  ein  fitenger  (Ridjtet  hdtte  er  »or  tfjc  jlefien  gewcllt  (Ebner-Eschenbach).  3Benn 
er  ifir  bacon  fpred)en  getooflt  ^atte,  iDiirbe  fie,  &c.  (Jensen).  2Benn  er  bodj  fterben 
gebuvft!  (G.  Ompteda).  ©ewi§  benfen  fie  hne  id),  iht  Jtinb  twrb  cinmat  ®ro§f3 
leiften,  rttras  toie's  nod)  gar  fein  SWenfd)  fviiljer  errcid)en  gefonnt  (Adalbert  Meinhardt). 
@lien  l)ab'  id)  nid)t  »iel  gentod)t  (Schulze-Smidt). 

Note  2.  2eBren,  lernen,  Jjelfen,  and  fieipen  may  also  require  a  jit  before  the  dependent 
infinitive,  as  described  in  185.  B.  I.  2.  c,  Note.  In  this  case  their  participles  usually 
take  the  regular  participial  form  with  ge*  instead  of  that  of  the  infinitive  :  §tutj  fd&cit 
fcatten  iie  fid)  fennen  lernen  (or  more  commonly  gelernt),  but  @r  fiat  fidj  gu  beberrfdjcn 
gelernt  and  35u  fiafl  gelernt,  ben  SDJunb  uerfdjlojfen  ju  fatten.  S8raud)en,  however,  quite 
commonly  takes  the  infinitive  form  instead  of  the  participial,  whether  the  dependent 
infinitive  has  a  ju  or  is  without  it ;  see  example  in  a.  Sometimes  fieijjen  :  3efl>3  hat  bie 
Slrmut  itnb  bag  @(cnb  nie  unb  nirgenbs  fonfewieren  lt?of(en,  fbnbern  er  fiat  fie  befdntvft 
unb  JU  befdm^fen  fieif  en  (Hamack's  Das  Wesen  des  Christentums,  Sechste  Vorlesung). 


178. 2.  B.e.         REGULAR  CONJUGATION  263 

Note  3.  If  the  dependent  infinitive  has  active  force,  the  participle  of  tafiett  may  take 
either  the  participial  form  with  ge;  or  that  without  it,  but  if  the  dependent  infinitive  has 
passive  force  the  participle  usually  takes  the  form  without  Qd  :  2)tf  ^i  utter  fyat  bad  .RtnJ) 
fallen  lafjen  (or  gelafien),  but  3)ie  aflutter  Ijat  ba3  ,Rini>  taufen  lajfen  (not  gelafjen). 

b.  If  the  verb  is  understood,  both  constructions  are  found  :  3Btr 
Ijafren  nicfyt  welter  [getyen]  gefonnt,  or  less  commonly  fonnen.    The  use 
of  the  infinitive  here  is  strictly  confined  to  the  modal  auxiliaries. 

c.  The  participle  which  has  the  form  of  the  infinitive,  usually, 
as  in  the  preceding  examples,  stands  at  the  end  of  the  sentence, 
but  it  may  sometimes,  especially  when  the  dependent  infinitive  is 
modified  by  other  words,  stand  before  the  first  dependent  infinitive 
or  its  modifiers :  2Bir  fatten  un0  bod)  nicfyt  fotten  in8  93ocf§1)orn  jagen 
laffen.     For  especial  emphasis  also,  the  dependent  infinitive  some- 
times stands  in  the  emphatic  position  at  the  end  of  .the  sentence, 
even  when  it  is  not  modified :  I) it  Ijattefi  fonnen  fcfrirei'geit  You  could 
at  least  have  kept  still.    Also  for  especial  emphasis  the  auxiliary 
may  be  removed  from  the  usual  position  at  the  end  of  the  sentence 
to  the  exceptional  and  hence  emphatic  position  before  the  dependent 
infinitive :  dr  tyat  ba3  foflen  unb  mit'ffen  tun  He  just  had  to  do  that. 
This  position  of  the  auxiliary  before  the  dependent  infinitive  is 
now,  in  general,  rather  unusual  and  strictly  confined  to  the  above 
cases,  but  in  earlier  parts  of  the  period  it  was  quite  common  and 
not  thus  restricted.     Popular  and  poetical  language  still  frequently 
show  here  the  older  usage. 

d.  In  the  passive,  however,  the  past  participle  of  the  auxiliary 
assumes  its  regular  participial  form  :  SJJan  f)at  ben  9lrjt  fommcn  laffen 
They  have  sent  for  the  doctor,  but  in  the  passive  form :  S)er  5lr<|t 
nwrbe  fommen   getaffen.      This   passive  construction  is  not   found 
except  in  case  of  laffen,  letyren,  and  ^ei^en,  and  also  there  it  is  not 
used  if  the  dependent  infinitive  has  passive  force.     Thus  instead 
of  Die  SBrittfe  ivurbe  fcaiten  gelaffen  we  must  choose  some  other  con- 
struction.   When  used  in  the  passive,  tyeitjen  and  teljren,  differing  from 
laffen,  require  gu  before  the  dependent  infinitive,  and  the  former 
usually,  and  the  latter  often,  prefers  as  subject  the  word  representing 
the  thing  to  that  representing  the  person,  the  person  standing  in 
the  dat. :  ©3  irurbe  i^m,  or  (£r  icurbe  frufyjeitig  gelet)rt,  ©ott  ju  Dertrauen, 
but  usually  (£3  ifi  mit  ge6ei§en  tcorben,  bieS  ju  tun. 

e.  In  the  perfect  infinitive,  made  up  of  the  perf.  participle  of  the 
auxiliary  and  the  infinitive  of  tyaben  (as  for  example  gefonnt  tyaben), 
the  participle  of  the  auxiliary  usually  assumes  the  form  of  the 
infinitive,  when  an  infinitive  depends  upon  it,  or  may  here  sometimes 
remain   in   participial   form :   (5t   nrirb  bag   23itcfy  nictyt   friifyer   fyabru 
erfcfjcincn  laffen   to  mini,   or   lialn-u    romtni   i-rfrfu-iimt   laffcit    He 
probably  has  not  been  able  to  have  the  book  published  before. 
2)it  iniipt  beine  «§au£tfotberung  fallen  gelaffen  Ijafon  (G.  Hauptmann's 
Vor  Sonnenaufgang,  5).     The  future  perfect  tense  er  irtrb  gefonnt 
^aten  becomes  er  reirb  Ijafcen  (fc^reibcn)  fonnen,  the  ^aben  preceding  the 
other  infinitives  and  the  fonnen  either  standing  at  the  end  or  after 
l)afcen  before  the  other  infinitives,  according  to  c.  above. 

Note.    The  regular  part,  form,  however,  should  be  nsed  instead  of  the  infinitive 


264  THE  VERB  178.  2.  B.*. 

form  in  a  contracted  clause,  formed  with  ju  and  a  perf.  infinitive  :  3dj  touttfdjte,  bicS 
fdjon  geflern  tun  fjetwrft  ju  l&aben/  not  ftabnt  tun  ju  burfett,  as  jju  can 

only  stand  before  a  genuine  infinitive  and  not  before  a  word  which  is  in  fact  a  parti- 
ciple. This  rule  is  more  frequently  violated  by  even  good  authors  than  it  is  followed, 
apparently  because  the  speaker  or  writer,  not  seeing  clearly  into  the  construction  at 
the  time,  takes  the  closing  part,  for  an  infinitive  :  *ftut  ein$  fdjmetjt  tnid}  :  ber  ebten 
ungtucfUdjen  grew  ba  bruben  nidjt  fagen  $u  burfen,  une  tief  tcfc  eg  nad)tvdg(tc$  beflage, 
ghnfdjen  ifa  unb  ifitem  itnwiirbigen  ©atten  bie  OJoKe  beg  SWittlevs  fyaben  fpielett  ju 
foollen  (Spielhagen's  Selbstgerecht,  p.  115).  @t  fiif)Ue  fidj  ttcrftidjt,  bem  9lrtat  ju 
fagen,  ba§  ct  e3  fcfjon  bereite,  mit  feinen  SSertoanbten  jtd)  einen  <Sd?er$  ^aben  macf)cn  ju 
lro((en  (Deutsche  Rundschau).  It  is  usually  better  to  avoid  here  the  contracted  clause 
altogether  and  employ  a  full  proposition  :  bafj  er  mit  feinett  93ertt>anbten  ficfy  einen 
ma^en  wofien. 


C.  When  an  auxiliary  and  not  an  independent  verb,  rcerfcen  drops 
the  ge  of  the  past  part.  :  (Sr  tfl  gelott  icorbeit  He  has  been  praised,  but 
(5r  ift  fronf  geirorben  /fg  has  become  sick.     See  also  E. 

D.  A  few  adj.  participles  without  ge,  survivals  of  a  period  when 
the  part,  had  no  ge,  are  still  found  :  recfytfcfyaffen  upright,  lit.  created 
right;  trunfeu  drunk;  fotan'  (,  i.e.,  fo  getan)  such,  lit.  thus  fashioned, 
now  rare  ;  the  following  participial  compounds,  which,  however,  also 
have  a  regular  form  with  ge  :  oltBacfeit  or  altgefcarfen  stale,  tyauSBcicfen 
or  f)au8ge6acfen  home-baked,  home-made,  neuitacfen  or  neugefcacfen  new- 
baked,  fnfcfjfcacf  en  or  ftifd?ge&a<f  en  new-baked,  f)alfwad?fen  or  tyalfcgeiracfyfen 
half-grown,  tieittcafc^en  or  neitgeicafcfyen  newly-washed,  tyauSgercebt  or 
^au§ite6en  home-woven,  and  occasionally  ^augntad^en  (for  ^auggemacfyt) 
home-made,  in  analogy  with  those  in  =fcacfen. 

E.  A  few  participles  without  ge*  are  found  in  early  N.H.G.  and 
less  frequently  still  later  in  the  classical  period,  and  even  to-day 
in  S.G.  dialect,  especially  fommett  to  come,  frtegen  to  get,  rcerben  (even 
when  an  independent  verb):  3d)  fyafce  bag  ®elb  crft  ben  19.  3anuar 
frtegt  (Goethe).     Often  still  in  case  of  rcerbett  in  poetic  or  archaic 
style:  £>er  ifl  ein  $BeIfcf)er  worben  (F.  Dahn's  Ein  Kampf  urn  Rom, 
I,  i).     For  further  treatment  and  explanation,  see  246.  II.  4.  a. 
(especially  towards  the  end)  and  c.  (2). 

VERBALS. 

179.  Those  simple  verb-forms  which  partake  of  the  nature  of 
verbs  and  have  in  addition  the  function  and  inflection  of  adjectives 
or  nouns  are  the  gerundive,  participles,  and  infinitives. 

GERUNDIVE. 

180.  The  gerundive  assumes  two  forms,  one  for  the  predicate 
and  one  for  the  attributive  relation. 

A.  Predicate  Gerundive.  The  infinitive  with  git  assumes  a  peculiar 
force  in  the  predicate.  Though  active  in  form,  it  here  has  passive 
force  and  expresses  the  necessity,  possibility,  or  fitness  of  an 
action  :  (£8  ifl  tttel  ju  tun  There  is  much  that  must  be  done.  Suft  ifl 
iifceratt  ju  tyafcen  Air  can  be  had  everywhere.  2)ag  fletyt  ntdjt  $11  dnbern 
That  cannot  be  changed.  £)er  @d)merj  ifl  faum  311  ertragen  The  pain 
can  scarcely  be  borne.  2)iefe8  ^leifd?  ifl  nid)t  ju  effen  This  meat  is  not 
fit  to  be  eaten,  dr  ifl  gu  Io6en  He  ought  to  be  praised. 

This  construction  is  found  in  the  following  common  cases  : 


180.  B.  a.  GERUNDIVE  265 

a.  As  predicate  complement  of  the  intransitives  fetn  to  be,  Wei  ten  to 
remain,  gefyen  to  be  possible,  can,  ftef)en(  =  fetn,  but  not  so  common) 
to  be,  and  sometimes  fcfyeinen  to  seem  :  (£3  6Iet6t  afcjurcatten  It  remains 
to  be  seen.     9Sic  nnmberlid),  baft  be3  einen  ©liid;  fjiemeben  nur  immer  auf 
bem  llnijlucf  eineS  cmberen  aufynfcauen  gefyt !  (Hans  Hopfen's  Stellvertreter, 
II,  i).     ©6  ftefyt  jit  tyoffen  It  is  to  be  hoped.     Jtaum  fd;eint  eS  ju  glaufcen 
(Goethe)  It  seems  scarcely  credible.     £)a  rear  fo  tneteg  ju  fefyen  There 
was  so  much  there  to  be  seen.     (£3  rrar  nid?t  j;u  ertragen  It  was  not  to 
be  endured.    SSon  biefem  Bin  id?  ju  retten  I  can  be  rescued  by  him.    In 
English  this  passive  construction  survives  in  only  a  few  expressions: 
The  house  is  to  let.    He  is  to  blame.    This  is  to  eat.    Now  usually 
passive  form  :  He  is  to  be  censured.    The  older  construction,  how- 
ever, is  still  quite  common  where  the  infinitive  is  used  attributively : 
the  man  to  blame,  the  thing  to  do,  a  duty  to  perform.     The  passive 
form  is  also  often  used  here  :  a  question  to  be  lightly  touched  upon. 
In  German  the  attributive  phrase  must  be  rendered  by  an  adjective 
clause  of  which  the  gerundive  is  the  predicate,  or  the  form  in  B  may 
be  employed  :  ber  SWcmn,  ber  gu  tabeln  ware ;  or  ber  ju  tabctnbe  9Kann. 

Note  I.  If  the  predicate  verb  governs  the  gen.  or  dat.,  the  subject  of  the  sentence 
is  always  the  impersonal  eg,  expressed  or  understood :  (Sinettt  (SirtWtirfe  iji  I)ter  ncd) 
Vorjltfommett  (Lessing)  There  is  here  still  one  objection  that  must  be  met. 

Aote  2.  As  reflexive  verbs  in  general  cannot  form  a  passive,  they  ought  not 
to  be  used  in  this  construction,  but  occasionally  in  popular  language  cases  can  be 
found :  Sluf  jebcm  cffetitlicfyen  Qkfte  ift  fid)  in  bee  {Jteiljenfolge  fcer  £dnje  genau 
an  bie  iSanjovbnung  ju  fcaltcn,  instead  of  Ijat  man  fid),  &c. 

b.  After  ge&en  in  its  impersonal  forms,  eg  gifct  there  is,  e3  ga&  there 
was,  &c. :  (£3  gifct  nocfy  fcicl  gu  tun  There  is  still  much  to  be  done. 

c.  As  objective  predicate,  or  object-complement,  especially  after 
finbcn,  fyafcen,  and  fel)en :  3cfy  fanb  on  ifyr  bieleS  augjufefcen  I  found  in  her 
a  good  deal  to  criticise.    See  185.  A.  1. 6  for  fuller  list  of  such  verbs. 

B.  Attributive  Gerundive.  This  form  is  made  up  of  the  present 
part,  with  311  prefixed  and  like  the  participle  has  the  declension  of 
adjectives.  It  is  a  N.H.G.  formation  created  in  order  to  express 
attributively  the  same  idea  that  had  already  proved  so  convenient 
in  its  predicate  form  (explained  in  A  above).  It  has  therefore  the 
same  force  as  the  predicate  gerundive  :  ber  ju  tabelnbc  ©duller  the  pupil 
who  is  to  be  censured  ;  bie  ju  fadenten  23dume  the  trees  that  are  to  be 
cut  down;  etn  won  bir  ju  cerbeffernber  ??et)Ier  an  error  that  must  be 
corrected  by  you ;  biefe  leicfyt  ju  Bfenbc  Qlitfgafre  this  task  that  can 
easily  be  performed ;  ein  leicfyt  ju  erreicfyenbeS  %id  a  goal  that  can  easily 
be  reached ;  aUmdfylicf)  jit  leiflenbe  S^Iungen  payments  that  are  to  be 
gradually  met ;  etn  nicfyt  gn  itberfefyenber  llmftanb  a  circumstance  that 
ought  not  to  be  overlooked. 

a.  The  attributive  gerundive  is  avoided  in  case  of  verbs  which  govern  the 
gen.  or  dat. :  instead  of  ber  gu  gebcnfenbe  93orfa((  the  incident  that  is  to  be 
mentioned  we  can  say  :  £>er  33orfal(,  bcffcn  man  gebenfm  mujj ;  instead  of  bie  ju 
gefyordbcnben  ©efefce  the  laws  which  are  to  be  obeyed  we  can  say :  25ie  ©efffce, 
bcncit  matt  gcfyorcfyen  muf;.  Or  if  the  short  gerundive  expression  is  preferred, 
the  verb  can  be  changed  and  a  synonym  selected  which  governs  the  ace.  and 
thus  admits  of  this  construction :  25er  ju  envafctunbe  SSorfall  and  bie  jit  befclgenben 
©efcfce. 


266  THE  VERB  180.  B.  b. 

b.  Since  the  gerundive  is  passive  in  force  we  would  not  naturally  expect 
to  find  it  formed  in  intransitive  verbs,  but  notwithstanding  the  oft-repeated 
protests  of  grammarians  this  compact  construction  is  still  frequently  used  by 
good  authors  with  active  meaning  and  the  peculiar  modal  force  of  the 
gerundive : — SDajj  man  bag  ©efd)efycne  fid)  efyet  gefaften  lafit,  ate  bafj  man  in  ein 
nod)  j;u  ©efd)el)enbf$  euwUligt  (Goethe);  bte  voranjngefyenbe  33ebingung  (Hegel). 
2Bihtfd)e  etne  tedjt  ftofyljufdjlafenbe  (see  182.  z.  b}  9lad)t,  &rc  Slmtmann  (Raabe's 
Odfeld,  chap.  viii).  We  have  a  similar  construction  in  English :  the  life 
to  come. 

THE  PARTICIPLES. 

181.  Participles  are  so  called  because  they  participate  in  the 
nature  both  of  the  verb  and  of  the  adj.     They  sometimes  have 
the  force  and  construction  of  verbs,  sometimes  a  force  approaching 
nearer  that  of  the  adj.,  but  they  always  have  the  inflection  of  the 
adj.,  except  in  their  adverbial  use  (see  a),  and  also  when  the  adj. 
force  is  stronger  than  the  verbal  they  are  compared  like  adjectives : 
S)ie  ©efatyr  ift  brobenb,  trie  broljenbe  ©efaljjr,  eine  treffenbere  5Inttrort  an 
answer  more  to  the  point,  mein  geliebtejler  Sreunb.     For  points  con- 
cerning comparison  see  115.  4  and  114.  3. 

a.  Both  participles  can  be  used  as  adverbs  and  then  remain  unin- 
flected :  ftebenb  Ijeif  eg  SBaffer  boiling  hot  water,  ein  auggejeicfynet  geleljr* 
ter  2)iann  a  very  finely  educated  man.  The  present  part,  often  ex- 
presses manner :  @r  lernt  fyielenb  He  learns  as  easily  as  if  it  were  play. 

THE  PRESENT  PARTICIPLE. 

182.  The  leading  points  concerning  the  use  of  the  present  part, 
are  : 

i.  The  present  participle  can  be  used  : 

A.  As  an  adjective :  bag  ftngenbe  Jttitb,  bte  untergetyenbe  (sonne.  2ftan 
fanb  Ujn  fcfytafenb  (objective  predicate).  2)u  Itegfi  tyier  trditmenb  (predicate 
appositive). 

a.  The  present  participle  is  not  only  inflected  as  an  adjective, 
but  also  governs  the  same  case,  or  takes  the  same  construction  as 
the  verb  from  which  it  is  formed.    If  the  part,  has  thus  a  complement 
or  adverbial  modifiers,  they  must  stand  before  it :  ber  bte  Sefhtng 
itfcerrafcfyenbe  &einb  the  enemy  taking  the  fortress  by  storm,  bte  bent 
g-remben  geljorenben  (Sacfyen  the  things  belonging  to  the  stranger,  eiit  am 
Sluffe  ftetyenbeg  >£au3.    S^un  trat  SWargarete  gatij  fremb  im  ^ater^aufe,  alien 
ein  @tetn  be3  Qtnfto^eg,  alle  Ijaffcnb,  tton  aflen  ge|apt.    Notice  that  in  the 
attributive  relation,  as  in  the  first  three  examples,  the  participle 
stands  immediately  before  the  noun,  not  after  it  as  in  English. 
The  position  of  the  participle  after  the  noun  is  rare  in  the  attributive 
relation  except  in  the  cases  described  for  the  adjective  in  104.  2.  B.  a. 
The  predicate  appositive,  however,  as  fyaffenb  in  the  last  example,  is 
usually  separated  from  the  noun. 

b.  The  pres.  part,  is  not  used  predicatively,  if  the  verbal  element 
becomes  prominent.     Thus  we  do  not  as  in  English  say  2)er  £e£rer 
i]i  lobenb,  but  £)er  £ef)rer  lofct  The  teacher  is  praising.     But  when  it 
is  felt  as  an  adj.  it  can  like  any  adj.  stand  in  the  predicate :  £>iefe3 
SBtlb  tft  reijenb  This  picture  is  charming.    2)ie  Srage  ifl  fcrcnnenb  The 
question  is  one  that  is  exciting  interest     2)er  SBerreiS  ifl  fcfylagenb 
The  proof  is  a  striking  one.     (£r  iji  nocfy  iinmer  letbenb  He  is  still 


182.  I.E.  THE    PRESENT   PARTICIPLE  267 

sickly.    For  the  earlier  use  of  the  present  participle  in  the  predicate 
with  verbal  force  see  190.  i.  G. 

c.  The  English  present  participle  is  here  often  replaced  by  other 
constructions  in  German  :  The  fog  came  pouring  in  at  the  window 
£>er  0}e6el  fant  jum  frenfier  tyewngejirontt.  He  came  running  (£r  fain 
getaufen.  I  cannot  go  on  doing  nothing  3d)  fann  nid)t  fortfatyren,  nicfytg 
311  tun.  I  do  not  like  him  coming  here  so  often  3d)  I)a6e  eg  mcfct  gem, 
bafi  er  fo  oft  fjerfommt.  Who  told  you  of  your  wife  being  there? 
SBer  fagte  3fcnen,  bap  3tyre  8rau  ba  war? 

B.  As  a  noun  to  denote  persons  engaged  at  the  time  in  question 
in  an  action,  duty,  or  occupation,  or  in  case  of  neuter  substantives 
to  denote  the  characteristic  feature  of  an  act,  or  to  represent  some- 
thing as  continuing  or  acting :  ber  9Rebenbe  the  speaker,  cin  ©cfdjaftS* 
reifenber  a  commercial  traveller,  bcr    33orftfcenbe  the  chairman,   bte 
Umftefycnben  the  bystanders,  bag  S)emutigenbe  bicfeg  5luftrittg  the  humiliat- 
ing nature  of  this  scene,  bag  U6errafd)enbe  biefeg  (Jreigniffeg  the  surprising 
character  of  this  event,  atleg  ©eienbe  all  that  exists.     S)ie  <£prad)e  ift 
fein  fertigeg,  rufjenbcg  Sing,  fonbern  etwag  in  jebem  Qhtgenolid!  SBerbenbeg  unb 
S3ergel)enbe§. 

a.  Corresponding  to  the  English  participle  in  ing,  the  adjective- 
verbal,  is  a  noun-verbal  in  ing,  the  gerund.  There  is  no  such 
correspondence  in  German.  The  English  gerund  is  variously 
translated :  Seeing  is  believing  (Seljen  iji  glan'&en.  She  stopped 
writing  (£te  ^orte  ouf  jit  fd)reifcen.  She  finished  writing  <2ie  fain  mit 
bent  ©djreiten  jit  (Snbe.  I  like  getting  up  early  3d)  ftefye  gern  fritf)  auf. 
I  do  not  like  his  coming  here  so  often  3d)  fyafce  eg  nid)t  gern,  bap  er  fo 
oft  fyerf onunt.  Who  told  you  of  your  wife's  being  there  ?  SEer  fagte 
3f)nen,  bap  3^re  S'tan  ba  war  ?  I  put  the  money  into  my  pocket  without 
looking  at  it  3d?  fterfte  bag  ©etb,  o^)ne  eg  ju  fttfegen,  in  bte  Safs^e.  Instead 
of  helping  us  he  abandoned  us  -2lnftatt  bap  er  ting  fydtte  Ijelfen  foUen,  or 
QCnflatt  ung  jit  ^elfen,  cerlie^  er  ung.  By  cutting  off  the  supplies  bnrcfy 
QtOfd^neibung  bcr  3«fu^. 

C.  As  an  adverb ;  See  181.  a. 

D.  As  a  prep,  in  case  of  watyrcnb  (w.  gen.)  during. 

E.  As  an  appositive  to   a  noun  or  pronoun  where  it  with  its 
modifiers  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause  :  Sieg  tyorenb  (  =  5l(g  er 
bieg  I)crte),  &rad?  er  in  Srdnen  attg.    It  is  also  used  absolutely;  see  265.  B. 

Note.  The  use  of  such  participial  clauses  instead  of  complete  subordinate  clauses 
is  more  common  in  poetry  than  in  prose,  but  in  both  prose  and  poetry  is  much  less 
common  than  in  English.  In  German  the  participial  construction  in  its  adverbial 
use  can  generally  only  be  used,  as  in  the  example  given  above,  where  the  subject 
of  the  participle  is  also  the  subject  of  the  principal  verb,  but  also  there  only 
sparingly.  Only  in  one  case  is  the  adverbial  participial  construction  quite  common, 
namely,  in  place  of  a  clause  of  manner  to  express  an  attendant  circumstance: 
,,£>er  ©inter  tear  ftii  tana,  nnb  fircng  fur  bid),"  fagte  tljr  ©atte,  brforgt  auf  ttyte 
blctcfxn  SBangen  bticfcnb.  35cn  ganjen  Jag  arbeitct  er'tnit  ctncm  altm  £tcnet  im  ®\na 
ten,  fdjnci&cnb,  begicfjeitb,  pflanjtnb,  unb  {jcg'cnD  (II.  Seidel's  Eine  Sperlingsgestkichte). 
A  participle  may  also  sometimes  denote  a  cause,  only,  however,  when  the  cause  of  the 
act  is  represented  as  lying  in  the  state  of  the  mind  of  the  subject  of  the  leading  verb, 
otherwise  a  complete  subordinate  clause  must  here  be  used :  Ginen  ©tltrnt  fittdjtenb, 
fefn'ten  unr  nad)  bcm  Sanbe  (shore)  jumtcf,  but  5)a  i<^  fetne  Slntlfort  crljiclt,  hjupte  i^ 
nic^t,  tote  icfy  Ijanbctn  fcllte.  Aside  from  the  above-mentioned  cases,  the  student  would 
do  better  to  render  English  participial  clauses  used  adverbially  by  complete  sub- 


268  THE  VERB  182.  I.E. 

ordinate  clauses,  as  in  many  instances  the  participial  construction  cannot  be  used  at 
all :  9Hg  id)  in  $atig  tooljnte,  brad)te  id)  viele  3«t  itn  2ons>re  ju  While  living  in  Paris 
I  spent  much  time  in  the  Louvre.  Setter  Unr  tie  ©telle  erttU&tett,  &c.  Before  reaching 
the  spot,  we,  &c.  It  should  be  especially  noted  that  participial  clauses  of  cause  formed 
with  being  or  having  should  be  rendered  by  complete  subordinate  clauses:  £>a  ft  nod) 
nid?t  auggeljen  formte,  tnujjte  er  gu  §aufe  bleiben  TVb/  being  yet  able  to  walk  out,  he  had 
to  stay  at  home.  £)a  id)  nid)tg  jit  tun  fyatte,  ging  id)  ing  Sweater  Having  nothing  else 
to  do,  I  -went  to  the  theatre.  The  adverbial  expression  generally  speaking  is  translated 
by  the  perfect  participle:  SRein  33atet  rjatte  fid),  allgemein  gefprodjen,  unter  »ct(ct 
©elbftbefierrfdjung.  Adjective  clauses,  however,  are  very  often  rendered  by  present  par- 
ticiples, but  then  the  participle  must  usually  be  inflected  and  stand  before  the  noun, 
and' not  after  it  as  in  English :  25ie  ciuf  meinem  $utte  flefienbe  glafdje  entfyilt  ®ift  The 
bottle  standing  or  which  stands  upon  my  desk  contains  poison.  It  may  also  sometimes 
stand  after  the  noun ;  see  104.  2.  B.  a. 

2.  The  pres.  part,  has  as  a  rule  active  force.     When  it  limits 
a  noun,  its  relation  thereto  is  such  that  the  noun  is  conceived  of  as 
the  subject  of  the  action  contained  in  the  part. :  ber  6liifjen.be  9Baum 
the  blooming  tree  =  ber  SBaunt  blitf)t. 

a.  The  pres.  part.,  however,  has  also  passive  force,  as  seen  in  a  few  set 
expressions  sanctioned  by  long  usage,  but  in  our  own  time  reduced  in  number 
in  comparison  with  former  periods :  fafyrenbe  (construed  also  as  active)  Jpabe 
chattels  =  4>at>e,  bie  gefabren  unrb ;   bie  melfenbe  Jtur;  the  cow  that  is  milked, 
milch  cow ;  bie  rtnejenben  «£dnbe  hands  that  are  wrung  ;  bag  betreffenbe  33ud)  the 
book  in  question  =  bag  33ud),  bag  betroffen  tmrb  ;  fein  in  2Jh)tf)ifon  fyabenbeg  Slmt 
(C.  F.  Meyer)  the  (pastoral)  charge  in  Mythikon  filled  by  him ;  fraft  fetneg 
tragenben  Sltnteg  (Storm's  Sohne  des  Senators,  p.  301)  by  virtue  of  the  office 
held  by  him ;  fur  bie  Seburfntffe  iinb  ettcatgen  (Suentualttaten  3(jreg  sorfjabenbeu 
2lii8Jnigeg  (Spielhagen's  Was  will  das  iverden,  II,  10),  &c.    We  do  not  com- 
monly say  to-day  as  formerly  feine  babet  fyegenbe  9lbftd)t  the  intention  that  is 
cherished  by  him,  bie  in  bcr  «£>anb  l)abenbe  fteine  ©rget  (Goethe),  the  little  organ 
that  is  being  held  in  his  hand,  £c. 

b.  The  noun  in  connection  with  the  pres.  part,  is  not  always  its  subject, 
but  is  sometimes  associated  with  it  in  a  much  freer  way,  to  express  a  close 
relationship  between  the  idea  contained  in  the  noun  and  the  activity  contained 
in  the  participle  :  cine  fdjunnbelnbe  Jpcfye  a  height  at  which  one  becomes  dizzy  ; 
cine  U)ei)tfd)(afenbe  5Jlad)t  a  night  favorable  to  sleep  ;  eine  Iddjelnbe  Slnhvcrt ;  eg  ifl 
jefct  aef)n,  alfo  nad)tfd)Iafenbe  3eit  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap,  xii)  time  for 
everybody  to  be  asleep  ;  eine  fi^enbe  Sebengweife  a  sedentary  life,  &c.    This  is 
a  productive  construction  according  to  which  from  time  to  time  new  and 
felicitous  expressions  have  been  created,  but  the  list  is  limited,  and  we  cannot 
at  will  form  kindred  expressions,  such  as  eine  gittentbe  Jfdlte  a  temperature  at 
which  one  trembles  with  cold,  &c. 

3.  There  is  a  decided  paucity  of  participles  in  German,  there 
being  in  the  active  only  one  form — the  present.     Hence  the  pres. 
part,  is  used  for  the  past  and  future  active  as  well  as  for  the 
present :  bie  i?or  Jur^ent  nod;  Hu^enben  SBIumen  =  bie  SBliimen,  iceldje  oor 
furjent  ttitfyten ;  bie  je£t  ober  fritter  ober  funfttg  lefcenben  SKenfdjen  =  bie 
SKenfcfyen,  iteldje  je^t  leien,  ober  iceld)e  geleit  ^afcen,  ober  lefcen  icerben. 

In  a  relative  sense  the  present  participle  expresses  time  con- 
temporaneous with  that  of  some  other  action,  and  hence  it  should 
express  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  principal  verb,  but  the  real 
lack  of  different  participles  leads  many  to  use  the  present  participle 
also  for  time  preceding  or  following  that  of  the  main  proposition  : 
contemporaneous  action :  @tegenb  ftatfc  ber  <£elb.  Antecedent  action  : 
2>en  2,6.  Cftofcer  son  Swd)  abretfenb,  langten  rcir  beu  6.  9to»em&er  tit 


183.  i.e.  THE   PERFECT   PARTICIPLE  269 

SRurnfcerg  an  (Goethe).  0ie6en  3J?aric  tretenb,  fang  Qfba  (Spielhagen). 
Subsequent  action :  Qtba  rear  in  bie  ©efeUfcfjaft  ^uritcfgetreten,  ben  £)anf 
berfeI6en  entgegennefymenb  (id.). 

THE  PERFECT  PARTICIPLE. 

183.  The  leading  points  concerning  the  use  of  this  participle  are : 
i.  The  perfect  participle  can  be  used : 

A.  Adjectively:  bet  ge&rocfyene  <£ta&.     2)er  €>taf>  ift  gefcrocfyen  (pre- 
dicate).     2Wan  fanb  U;n  eingefd^Iafen  (objective  predicate).     (5r  fod}t  nut 
SBunben  fcebedt  (predicate  appositive)  He  fought  covered  with  wounds. 
In  the  conjugation  of  verbs :  ®r  ift  gefommen  (predicate).      @t  ictrb 
gefd)tagen  (predicate).     3d)  tyafce  ben  SSrief  gefcfyriefcen  (objective  predicate). 

Note.  The  perf.  part,  is  much  more  used  in  German  in  the  predicate  and  appositive 
relation  than  it  is  in  English  :  3<J)  iveifj  t»ot}(,  toa3  iftr  tttcgt,  ifjr  atten  Seamen !  | 
gefauert  jtfcm  in  ttcrjdljrtem  SBitji  (Grillparzer's  Konig  Ottokar,  i).  @3  Hang  cfyne 
ttgenbroe(cf)en  ©pott  gefragt  (Jensen's  Die  Kinder  vom  Oedacker,  I)  There  was  no  trace 
of  sarcasm  in  the  tone  of  the  question.  For  other  examples  see  185.  B.  II.  b. 

B.  Substantively : 

a.  To  denote  persons  or  things  in  a  state  or  condition  produced 
by  the  action  expressed  in  the  verb  (see  2.  below):  ber  ©etotete  the 
man  who  was  killed,  ber  ©ele^rte  the  scholar,  bie  Qlngeflagte,  the  accused 
woman,  defendant,  bag  ll&ertrie&ene  biefer  SBetyauiptung  the  exaggerated 
character  of  this  statement,  bag  ©efcfyefjene  that  which  has  happened, 
QUtf)era,ebrad)teg  time-honoured  customs. 

b.  As  subject  or  predicate,  always  without  inflection,  to  denote 
a  general  condition  of  things  (see  also  111.  7.  h.  (2)) :  <£d?Iecfyt  gerttten 
ifi  buffer  ol3  gut  gegangen  Bad  riding  is  better  than  good  walking,    freuer 
auf  ben  «£erb  gemac^t  ifl  gut  fur  ©enntter  Fire  upon  the  hearth  is  good 
protection  against  lightning.     This  use  of  the  part,  differs  from  the 
preceding  in  that  the  part,  here  may  have  active  force  and  can 
even  take  an  object,  as  in  the  second  sentence,  while  in  a  it  has 
passive  force  in  words  formed  from  transitives  and  active  force  in 
words  formed  from  intransitives ;  see  2.  A.  below. 

C.  As  adverbs ;  see  181.  a. 

D.  As  a  prep,  in  a  few  cases,  as  in  unfcefd)abet  (w.  gen.  &  daL) 
without  detriment  to,  ungeaefytet  in  spite  of. 

E.  As  an  imperative ;  see  177. 1.  B.  d. 

F.  As  an  appositive  to  a  following  or  preceding  noun  or  pronoun 
where  it  with  its  modifiers  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause : 
Qtfljufiraff  gefpannt  (=  rcenn  er  atfyiftraff  gefpannt  ttirb),  gerfpriitgt  ber  SBogen. 
It  is  also  used  absolutely;  see  265.  B. 

G.  It  is  often  used  in  vivid  language  without  close  grammatical 
relations  almost  with  the  force  of  an  independent  verb  indicating 
past  time  :  «§eut  fritfy  iviebcr  3uben,  id)  cine  lange  jRebe  gegcn  bie  (fmanjipation 
gefyalten,  inel  2?ittre3  gefagt  (Bismarck  to  his  betrothed,  June  15,  1847). 
3d?  fcitt  end?,  fd;reibt  nieber :  -2U3  (Solbat  bie  $flid)t  getan.     3m  Strolevlanb 
gefaflen  auf  bent  $elbe.     3m  8'nebett  gcflorteu.     Unb  bag,  bag  fd?reifct  t^nen 
and) :  @inen  guten  2)ieufd;en  jur  ©cite  ge^a6t  (Rosegger  in  Wirt  an  dcr 
Mahr}.    33ater,  bee  war  mir  friujer  atteg  gercefen — ber  war  auf  SRetfen,  unb 


270  THE  VERB  183.  i.e. 

id>  nicfyt  cmS,  ntdjt  etn  gercufjt  (Sudermann's  £"5  lebe  das  Leben,  p.  27). 
See  also  190.  i.  A.  b.  (i)  and  (2). 

2.  A.  The  perf.  participle  used  adjectively  and  substantively 
expresses  usually  a  condition  or  state  of  things  resulting  from 
previous  action  but  at  the  time  in  question  finished  and  completed, 
and  hence  with  the  exception  of  the  case  in  i.  B.  b.  above  can  only 
be  used  (i)  with  transitive  verbs  with  passive  force,  and  (2)  with 
active  force  with  intransitive  verbs  that  are  conjugated  with  fetn 
and  represent  a  state  or  condition  resulting  from  previous  action. 
According  to  the  very  nature  of  this  part.,  which  expresses  a 
condition,  it  cannot  be  used  with  intransitive  verbs  which  are 
conjugated  with  tyafcen  and  express  action,  or  with  reflexive  verbs 
which  express  action  of  the  subject  exerted  upon  itself.  Thus  we 
can  say :  £er  getofymte  8ru$  the  foot  that  has  been  lamed  and  is  now 
in  a  lame  condition ;  also  ber  umgefaflene  SBaum  the  tree  which  has 
fallen  and  is  still  prostrate,  for  we  say  S)er  93cmm  ift  umgefatten,  the 
auxiliary  [etn  expressing  state;  also  substantively  ber  ©efanbte  the 
ambassador,  i.  e.  the  one  who  has  been  sent,  (Sncacfyfene  grown  people. 
But  grammarians  maintain  we  should  not  say  (though  very  many 
do)  bie  ftattgetjatte  Unterrebung  the  interview  which  has  taken  place, 
nor  bag  tntcfy  fcetroffene  Ungliicf  the  misfortune  which  has  befallen  me, 
for  neither  of  these  participles  represents  a  condition  resulting  from 
previous  action,  but  both  express  only  simple  action. 

B.  The  lack  of  a  perf.  part,  with  active  force  for  transitives  and 
those  intransitives  that  are  conjugated  with  t)o6en  leads  some  to  use 
the  perf.  part,  (already  described  as  limited  to  passive  use  with 
transitives  and  active  use  with  such  intransitives  as  are  conjugated 
with  fetn)  with  active  force,  or  more  commonly  to  make  a  special 
form  by  adding  fyatenb  to  the  perfect  participle:  Don  feiner  mit  ben 
Safjren  ^ugenommenen  <£>erjen8falte  (Gutzkow's  Sohne  Pestalozzis,   2, 
394).     (Sin  Qlugreartiger —  fo  fyorte  icf)  —  f)a6e  bag  fritter  bort  geftanbene 
geraumtge,    after    fcerfattene    ©e&dube   in   (Sr&gang   ober   fonfhrie   errrorfccn 
(Storm's John  Riew').  £>er  fcfyon  jiarf  gefrittyftucfte  Jtantorgfofyn  (Fontane's 
Unterm  Birnbaum,  xi);  biefer  fo  fcfyon  Begonnene  5l6enb(Jensen's/<?ws^'/s 
des  Wassers,  II,  17).     5luf  etnem  griinen,  Bequemen  (Sofa  lag  ber  recfytS* 
funbige  SBeiftanb  ber  gefranften  ober  gefrd'nft  fya&enben  SKenfcl^eit  (Raabe's 
Pechlin,  II.  chap.  xvii).    £>a§  SBartertya'ngcfyen  tritg  iifceratl  bie  (Spitren 
etne§  t)ier  ^eftig  getofet  tyafcenben  ^am^feg  (Liliencron's  Krieg  und  Frteden, 
Das  Warterhauschen).     In  case  of  reflexives  and  transitives  the 
reflexive  pronoun  or  substantive  object  are  used  in  connection  with 
these  two  participial  formations  :  an  btefem  nacfy  unb  nacfy  ftcfy  Derfcretteten 
©e^eimniS  (Goethe) ;  bag  ben  ©rafen  Befattene  Unglitcf  (id.) ;  and  quite 
commonly  in  case  of  flattgefyafct  and  jiattgefimben :   fiattgef)afete,  ftattge= 
funbene  Sreftlicfyfetten.     SSergeblid^  turnite  er  i^nt  atte  wa^renb  berfelben  %t\i 
flc^  erfyofcen  ^aBenben  ©c^Jtiertgfeiten  unb  5lnftof  e  »or  ber  01afe  auf  (Raabe's 
A.  T.,    chap,   xxvii).      Grammarians  do   not   favor   any   of  these 
formations,  although  they  have  been  employed  by  good  authors. 
Usage  has  found  a  way  out  of  this  difficulty  in  a  number  of  cases ; 
see  C.  a  and  b. 

C.  There  are,  however,  to  the  rule  as  stated  in  A  above  a  few 


183. 2.c.d.        THE   PERFECT   PARTICIPLE  271 

exceptions  or  apparent  exceptions  which  have  been  sanctioned  by 
good  usage : 

a.  A  number  of  transitive  verbs  and   intransitives  which   are 
conjugated  with  f)a6en  have  a  perfect  participle  with  active  force, 
which  can  be  defended,  as  these  participles  are  in  reality  felt  as 
adjectives  or  adjective-substantives,  since  they  denote  a  quality, 
fixed  habit,  or  state:   a&gefagt  professed,  open  (ein  afcgefagter  fteinb), 
fcetvanbert  versed,  erfafjren  experienced,  gebicnt  veteran,  gelernt  by  trade 
(ein  geternter  (£d;uf)mad;er),  ©efcfytcorener  juryman,  ftubtert  well-read,  edu- 
cated, trim  feu  drunk(en),  Uerlogen  mendacious,  oerfcfyrctegen  taciturn,  &c. 

b.  A  few  reflexive  verbs  have  a  perf.  participle  unaccompanied 
by  fid) :  fcebart;t  mindful  of,  tetrunfen  drunk(en),  6efd;eiben  modest,  tier* 
bient  (from  early  N.H.G.  ftd)  tterbienen,  now  replaced  by  ftcfy  urn  ettraS 
fcerbient  madden)  of  merit  (ein  tterbienter  2ftann),  oerliebt  in  love,  enamored, 
erfaltet,  evfyi&t,  geitBt,  £c.     Thus  we  can  say :  2)a3  Jtinb  tyat  fid;  erfaltet 
and  ein  erfafteteS  Jlinb.    Also  2)ie  33erfyiiltniffe  fjafcen  ftd;  fcerdnbert,  and  btc 
sjeranterten  93erfyaltmffe.     But  the  formation  of  perf.  participles  from 
reflexives  is  in  present  usage  limited,  and  often  to  avoid  ambiguity 
recourse  must  be  taken   to   the  much   censured   construction   of 
placing  the  reflexive  pronoun  before  the  past  part.,  or  in  choice 
language  to  the  formation  of  a  relative  clause  or  some  other  con- 
struction :  £)er  ftd;  ^uritrfge^ogene  or  ftd;  ^imtcfge^ogen  tyafcenbe  6eibent)tinbler, 
or  in  choice  language  2)er  ©etbentydnbler,  ber  ftd;  juritcfgejogeu  J)at,  or 
S)er  in  bcr  3utficfge$o(}en$eit  lebenbe  (seiben^dnbler. 

c.  A  class  of  trans,  and  intrans.  verbs  form  a  perf.  part,  with 
active  force  which  are  only  apparent  exceptions,  as  these  participles 
comply  with  the  general  rule  in  that  they  express  a  condition : 
3d;  ritt  uugeirafdjen  itnb  ungefritfyfturft  gegen   <£eban  (Bismarck).     Jtarl 
tnu^te  ungegeffeu  ju  93ette  gefyen  C.  had  to  go  to  bed  without  having 
eaten,  i.  e.,  in  the  condition  of  being  hungry.     9rt£,  ungeSetet  tjjt  man 
ntd;t  (Gerok).     IMeber  ungegcfjen  in8  «§imtnelrfid?,  al3  mit  aUen  3^afd;eu  oott 
^rofiant  in  b'«§6ft'!  (Anzengruber's  Das  vierte  Gebot,  i,  u).     (Sr  gtng 
un^rdpnriert  $ur  <2d;ule.    Thus  also  wngctrunfen,  ungebeidjtet,  &c.    The 
participle  here  may  also  be  construed  as  an  adverb.     Perhaps  such 
words  were  originally  regular  participles  with  passive  force,  the 
active  force  arising  later  from  a  shifting  of  the  grammatical  relations 
between  the  words  of  the  sentence  :  Ungegeffcn  fanit  id;  bie  @£etfe  md)t 
fceurteilen,  where  the  participle  refers  to  @peife.     Later  the  participle 
was  brought  into  relations  with  id;,  and  such  sentences  arose  as  the 
second  one  given  above. 

The  noun  or  pronoun  used  in  connection  with  such  a  participle 
is  usually  its  subject,  but  sometimes  here,  as  in  182. 2.  b,  the 
participle  is  used  in  a  much  freer  way  to  express  a  close  relationship 
between  the  idea  contained  in  the  noun  and  the  activity  contained 
in  the  participle  :  Hub  nun  finite  fte  bie  ungefd)lafene  9iad;t  (Use  Frapan's 
Wegscheidc}  And  now  she  felt  the  effects  of  the  sleepless  night. 

d.  A  perfect  participle  cannot  be  formed  from  all  intransitive 
verbs  that  are  conjugated  with  fetn,  but  only  from  those  in  which 
a  condition  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  verb  is  expressed. 
Thus  we  can  say  ein  entlaufener  <5fUm  an  escaped  slave,  because  the 


272  THE  VERB  183.2.c.</. 

slave  has  changed  his  condition  by  escaping  from  bondage,  but  we 
cannot  say  ein  gelaufener  (Sflatte,  although  we  say  2)er  <3f lafe  ift  gelaufeu 
The  slave  has  run,  because  there  is  no  change  of  state  resulting 
from  the  action. 

3.  The  past  part,  does  not  necessarily  imply  past  time,  but  also 
often  present  or  future  time,  as  there  is  no  other  participial  form 
with  passive  force.  It  refers  to  the  past  when  the  context  points  to 
the  past,  as  in  2)er  am  15.  b3.  (biefeg  2ftonatg)  eroffnete  2lu3oetfauf  tctrb  nocfy 
6i3  dnbe  be§  2Konat3  fortgefe^t,  but  it  also  refers  very  often  to  an  action 
that  continues  in  present  time :  uietn  »erd)rter  S't? unb,  bie  geltefcte  SKutter, 
&c.  Thus  also  (Sr  iji  fcemutjt,  tefirefct,  &c.  See  also  184.  e.  Future 
time :  £)a8  ®eri$t  rcoflte  ftd)  and)  nicfyt  fo  afyne  ireitereS  mit  einer  irietteidjt 
nacf^er  getabelten  2lrfcett  belaften  (Immermann's  Munchhausen,  2,  321). 

184.  On  account  of  the  paucity  of  participles  attempts  are  being 
made  to  form  additional  ones  to  supply  the  deficiency.  The  fol- 
lowing will  serve  as  examples  of  such,  most  of  which  are  not  yet 
generally  accepted : 

a.  A  present  passive,  formed  with  the  perf.  part,  of  the  verb  and 
the  present  part,  of  irerben :  2)er  ge^offt  tnerbenbe  ©profiling  the  offspring 
that  is  being  expected. 

b.  A  future  passive  formed  with  the  present  passive  infinitive  of 
the  verb  and  the  pres.  part,  of  rcerben :  bie  in  ocfyt  Xagen  fcegangen  utrben 
trerbenbe  ^eftfeter  the  celebration  that  will  be  celebrated  in  a  week. 
This   construction  is   mentioned  by  Keller  in   his  Antibarbarus, 
p.  66,  but  the  author  of  the  present  work  has  not  found  it  elsewhere. 

c.  A  perf.  part,  with  active  force ;  see  183.  2.  B. 

d.  It  is  now  common  to  use  a  participial  expression  made  up  of 
the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  and  getrefen,  which  latter  form 
indicates  that  the  state  or  condition  expressed  by  the  participle  of 
the  verb  existed  in  past  time :  fcer  in  jiingeren  Safyren  inelfcegefyrt  geirefene 
9(rjt  the  physician  who  in  younger  years  was  much  sought  after. 
See  also  194.  4. 

e.  Usually  the  perf.  passive  has  but  one  participial  form  (getofct), 
and  cannot  show  here  the  shades  expressed  by  the  two  forms 
(regular  passive  and  quasi-passive  form ;  see  194.  i.  A.  &  4)  of  the 
indicative.     To  emphasize,  however,  the  idea  of  a  state  or  condition 
of  things  in  past  time  the  quasi-passive  form  in  d  above  is  often  used. 
Since  the  usual  perfect  participle  is  not  only  used  for  past  time,  but 
also  for  present  time,  as  in  bag  son  mir  fcercofynte  £au3  (=i>a3  <§au8,  bag 
Don  mir  fceroofjnt  rctrb),  ambiguity  may  arise:  bie  »on  bent  fcetfbrbnen 
Rentier  <Sd?.  Bemotjnte  ffiofynung  ift  jit  Djlern  anberrcett  j$u  bernueten.    The 
writer  of  this  advertisement  intended  the  participial  form  as  a  perfect, 
but,  as  G.  Wustmann  in  his  Allerhand  Sprachdummheiten,  p.  162, 
3rd  ed.,  remarks  with  regard  to  it,  the  resultant  impression  is  rather 
an  uncanny  one,  since  the  form  may  be  construed  as  a  present 
passive.     The  ambiguity  can  in  the  present  instance  be  removed 
by  using  the  quasi-passive  form  which  calls  attention  to  a  past  state 
of  things  :  bie  con  bent  fcetfiorfmen  Rentier  @cfy.  fceicofmt  gercefene  Jffiofymmg, 
&c.     In  order  to  call  attention  to  a  past  act,  a  perfect  passive  part, 
corresponding  to  the  regular  perf.  passive  indie,  is  occasionally 


185.A.  I.2.a.       THE   INFINITIVE  WITH   }u  273 

formed  by  adding  roorben  to  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb :  bie 
jicei  tterloren  gegangenen  ober  inelmetyr  ttergeffen  ttorcenen  93ater  (Raabe's 
Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  x). 

/  Participles  formed  from  the  modal  auxiliaries  are  now  occasion- 
ally found,  usually  in  connection  with  a  dependent  infin.  :  ber  fein 
foUenbe  2Bi£  the  utterance  that  was  intended  to  be  witty,  ba8  nicfyt 
enben  rcoflenbe  ©eladjter  the  laughter  that  did  not  seem  to  desire  to 
come  to  an  end. 

THE  INFINITIVE. 

185.  The  infinitive  was  in  an  earlier  period  inflected  as  a  noun 
and  at  the  same  time  preserved  its  verbal  nature  by  admitting  of 
a  direct  object.  The  remnant  of  this  older  usage  of  inflecting  the 
infinitive  is  the  so-called  infinitive  with  ^u.  This  form  of  the  infinitive 
is  in  fact  a  noun  in  the  dat.  governed  by  the  prep.  gu.  This  gu,  as 
can  still  be  seen  in  many  sentences,  originally  meant  towards  and 
pointed  to  that  towards  which  the  activity  of  the  principal  verb 
was  directed :  SOBir  jtrangen  tljn  gu  bienen  (jiint  2)ienft)  We  compelled 
him  to  serve.  (Sntfcfyliejje  bid)  ju  arfceiten  ($ur  9lrfceit)  Make  up  your 
mind  to  work.  3d)  ging  au§,  einen  Sreunb  ju  fcefudjen  I  went  out  to  call 
on  a  friend.  This  git,  however,  is  often  not  felt  as  a  prep,  but 
rather  as  a  part  of  the  infinitive  itself,  and  hence  this  prepositional 
infinitive  is  now  no  longer  confined  to  the  dat.  relation,  but  may 
also  indicate  the  nom.  and  ace.  relation,  where  formerly  the  simple 
infinitive  without  311  could  alone  be  used  :  Stad^uafynten  erniebrigt  einen 
SKann  Don  Jtopf.  @ie  flng  an  jit  iveinen.  But  in  M.H.G. :  der  helt  (<§elb) 
do  (fcann)  truren  (traitern)  began  (Nibelungenlied).  The  use  of  the 
infinitive  with  jii  has  greatly  gained  on  that  of  the  simple  infinitive, 
but  as  the  latter  is  still  in  certain  instances  used  in  the  nom.  and 
ace.  relation,  it  is  necessary  to  note  carefully  the  following  detailed 
statements  as  to  when  the  simple  infinitive  and  when  the  infinitive 
with  ju  is  used : 

A,   THE  INFINITIVE  WITH  311. 

I.  The  infinitive  with  ju  is  used : 

1.  In  the  following  independent  relations  : 

a.  As  the  subject  of  a  verb  :  3"  uberlegen  ifl  nidjt  bie  @ad)e  ber  Sugenb. 
<3id)  mitjuteUen  ift  jftatur  To  communicate  one's  thought  and  feeling 
is  the  impulse  of  nature.     Seine  ©djnlbtgfeit  getan  git  Ijabtn  ifl  etn  Xrof 
tm  Unglitrf.    The  infinitive  without  ju  is  also  used  here ;  see  B.  I.  i.  a. 

b.  In   the    predicate    after    certain   verbs    (see  ISO.  A.  a)  as   a 
gerundive  with  passive  force,  and  with  active  force  after  biinfeit  (in 
early  N.H.G.  without  jit;   see  Prov.  xxi.  2)  to  seem  and  fdjetnen 
to  appear :  (£3  ift  oiet  gu  tun  There  is  much  to  be  done.     (Sine  foldje 
SBefyanflung  tfl  nid;t  ju  ertragen  Such  treatment  is  not  to  be  borne. 
2)er  5ntt  bunft  mid;  biefer  jit  fein.     (Sr  fd;cint  ein  e^rlidjer  3)iann  $u  fein. 

2.  In  the  following  dependent  relations: 

a.  As  the  complement  of  a  noun  or  adjective,  representing  the 


274  THE  VERB  185.  A.  1.  2.  a. 

genitive  of  a  substantive  :  2)ie  Jtunfl  gu  fd?reiben  (=  beg  @d?retben8)  roar 
ten  $lgi}Vtern  befannt.  (5r  ijt  mitbe  tanger  $u  teben  (=  (£r  ifl  beS  £eben3  mi'ibe). 
A.  In  the  dat.  relation,  as  the  object  of  the  prep.  311,  after  verbs, 
verbal  nouns,  and  adjectives,  to  express,  in  accordance  with  the 
general  meaning  of  gu,  the  aim,  purpose,  direction  of  the  action  or 
quality  :  5>a  treibt'8  tljn,  ben  fdftltd?en  $ret3  gu  errcerben.  £)er  fteinD  grcingt 
itnS,  bie  Sejhmg  gu  fcerlaffen.  (£r  tjatte  ben  £ang,  fietS  ber  SSottfommentyeit 
feineS  eignen  SCBefenS  gugufireben.  (£r  ifi  geneigt  gu  iibertreiben. 


This  is  the  original  use  of  tu  with  the  infinitive.  Here  the  ju  is  not  the  mere 
sign  of  the  infinitive  as  in  1.  a.  and  o.  above,  but  a  real  prep,  used  in  its  usual  sense  of 
direction  towards. 

c.  In  the  ace.  relation,  as  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  :  2)aS  Jtinb 
beginnt  gu  reben,  rete  e8  anfyebt  gu  benfen.  2Barum  oerfaumte  man  mid?  ju 
erinnern  ?  For  exceptions  see  B.I.  2.  a,  b,  c,  d,  e. 

3.  As  explanatory  of  a  preceding  anticipative  subject  or  object, 
which  appears  in  the  form  of  the  indefinite  eS  or  a  pronominal 
adverb.     In  apposition  with  a  subject  :  (§3  gtemt  |  bem  ebeln  Sfiann,  ber 
graiten  9Bort  gu  ac^ten  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  5,  3).    In  the  relation  of 
subject  the  simple  infinitive  is  also  used  here;  see  B.  1.  1.  a,  below. 
In  apposition  with  the  object  of  a  verb  :  @r  irunfdjt  eg  fefynlid),  bid? 
nur  nodj  einmat  nriebergufeljen.     In  apposition  with  a  pronoun  which  is 
the  object  of  a  prep.,  but  which  has  in  German  only  the  form  of  an 
adverb  :  SBir  fmb  fceteit  bagu,  bid?  311  unterftitfceu.    Seber  muf  banad?  trad?ten, 
fetne  @eele  &om  936fen  rein  gu  er^alten. 

4.  Certain  complete  substantive  and  adverbial  clauses  (see  269. 
3;    271.  I.  c;   272.  A.  d,  C.  g,  D.  c;   276.  C.  b;   277.  2.  b;   281.  b) 
may  be  contracted  to  infinitive  clauses  with  gu,  anftatt  gu,  of)ne  gu, 
or  urn   gu.      For  examples  see  the  references  just  given.     The 
infinitive  clauses  can  usually  without  changing  the  meaning  be 
expanded  into  complete  subordinate  clauses,  and  complete  sub- 
ordinate clauses  can  be  contracted  to  the  infinitive  construction. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  in  case  of  the  verb  reiffen  there  is 
a  difference  of  meaning  between  the  two  constructions  :  (Sr  iretfj,  baj? 
er  feinen  2Btflen  burd?fe£t  He  knows  that  he  will  get  his  own  way,  but 
Gr  iretfj  feinen  SSMflen  burcfygufefcett  He  knows  how  to  get  his  own  way. 

5.  The  infinitive  with  or  without  gu  is  often  emplo3red  in  exclama- 
tions and  in  general  in  excited  or  vivid  language,  where  without 
precise  grammatical  relations  it  becomes  the  bearer  of  the  thought: 
3d?  modjt'  eud?  afle  uiit  etgner  «§anb  umftringen  !  SGBag,  fortlaufcit  !  @r  l?atte 
fetne  £anboott  Seute  mefyr  !  ^ortjiilaufeit,  wor  etnem  2)?ann  !  (Hauptmann 
in  Lager  scene  in  3rd  Act  of  Goethe's  Go'tz).    See  also  B.  1.  4,  below. 

6.  After  (an)treffen,  fcefommen,  er^alten,  ftnDen,  geben,  getyen  (180.  A.  a) 
to  be  possible,  fjaben,  fommen,  laffen  (=  iibrtg  laffen),  mad?en  (see  B.  I. 
2.  d.  toward  end),  fd?enfen,  fdjicfen,  fd?Iagen,  fe^en,  uberlaffen,  and  the 
imperspnals  e8  gtbt,  e§  gilt,  where  the  infinitive  with  gu  has  something 
of  the  'force  of  the  gerundive  (see  18O.  A),  expressing  necessity  or 
future  obligation  :  sStr  trnfen  fciete  Itnorbnimgen  tin  «§aufe  gu  befetttgen  nn 
We  found  on  our  arrival  much  disorder  that  had  to  be  removed. 
(£r  befam  oft  iiitgen  gu  ^cren  (=  er  mupte  tycren).    Gid  n?trb  fortan  nid?t§  mefyr 


185.  A.  II.  i.  a.       THE   INFINITIVE  WITH   ju  275 

ju  ladjen  gefcen  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  III,  p.  210)  From  now  on 
there  will  be  nothing  to  laugh  about.  2)a  fyat  bie  SWenge  rca§  JH  gaffen 
(Fulda's  Talisman,  2,  12).  «§afi  be  bod?  rcieber  iraS  gu  argent,  <£>ang  (Haupt- 
mann's  Einsame  Menschen,  Act  i).  (Sr  fyat  biel  jit  tun.  fatten  @ie  mid) 
nod?  rcofyin  $u  fdjiden  ?  3d)  f  omme  nod)  auf  u)n  ju  fyred)en  I  shall  have 
occasion  to  speak  about  him  later.  <2ie  fam  nefren  ifym  jit  ft£en  Chance 
brought  it  about  that  she  should  sit  near  him.  (£r  font  itnten  ju 
liegen.  2)a3  lafjt  nod)  triel  $tt  wunfdjen.  Qlnna  tyat  if)r  trtrftid;  nid)t  fctel 
jit  fdjaffen  gemad)t  (Hauptmann's  E.  M.,  Act  3)  (see  also  B.  1.  2.  rf. 
toward  end)  Anna  has  really  not  caused  her  much  trouble,  work. 
SBeil  bte  grofjeren  Jtofhjd'nger  beS  ^kflorS  tfyren  Sreunb  babei  mitunter  uoer* 
ftflen  itnb  i^m  ben  jtopf  jit  Blitten  fd)Iugen  (Storm's  Hans  und  Heinz 
Kirch,  p.  12). 

For  the  construction  after  eg  gilt  see  Note  2. 

Note  i.  Some  of  these  words  are  used  here  in  a  certain  measure  as  auxiliaries  and 
not  as  independent  verbs,  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  they  also  can  be  used  in 
the  latter  way  :  (§r  fyat  (has,  possesses)  alte  SRccfe  gu  Derfailfen. 

ffote  2.  The  impersonal  e3  0tlt  was  originally  construed  only  with  the  ace.  of 
a  noun  :  (§&  gilt  bein  ©turf,  beitten  S3e[tfe  Your  happiness,  your  possessions  are 
at  stake,  lit.  It  will  cost  your  happiness,  your  possessions.  The  simple  infinitive  has 
substantive  force,  and  was  used  as  an  ace.  here:  Jpte  gilt'6  tttt  SHttjhnt  Itnb  bltnjltttfl 
flfljen  (Luther,  v.  Abendm.,  1528).  In  early  N.H.G.  the  genitive  of  measure  could 
also  be  used  here  as  elsewhere  instead  of  the  ace.  of  measure  (see  223.  iv.  2.  A.  a}  : 
2)a  gilt'g  @d)U)eigen3  (Luther,  v.  AbenJm.,  1528).  Formerly  the  construction  with 
lint  was  also  used  :  Unb  fo((t'3  bent  £eilfel  lint  tin  Dfjt  geltcn  (Schiller's  Xauber,*,  3). 
Later  the  gen.  and  prep,  constructions  disappeared,  and  the  infinitive  with  in  replaced 
in  part  the  simple  infinitive  here  as  elsewhere,  so  that  to-day  both  the  infinitive  with 
and  less  frequently  without  gu  are  used  here  :  (§3  gift  im$  Ijeilt',  iu  TU^ren  beS  Jtontgd 
fteinern  £erj  (Uhland).  ^»ier,  too  (6  SBorte  funftlid)  feftcn  gilt  (Ludwig's  Makkabaer,  i). 
8llfo,  um  nns  won  all  bent  ©djredf  gu  erfiolen,  gilt  ts,  eine  antiifante  S3abefaifon  burd&# 
tttacfeen  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder  !  I,  p.  55).  <£>)}$  e3  gait  ba«  jtrvinuenbe  ©tlb 
(Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  xii). 


7.  Quite  rare  is  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with  the  in- 
finitive, as  found  in  Latin  and  in  part  also  in  English,  after  verbs 
of  reporting,  thinking,  knowing,  supposing,  wishing,  &c.  See  B. 
1.5,  below. 

II.  i.  Position  and  Repetition  of%\\.  The  ju  must  stand  immediately 
before  the  present  infinitive,  and  if  there  are  several,  must  be 
repeated  before  each  one:  (£r  fyofft  balb  gefunb  ju  iverben.  2>er  ^etjrer 
gab  un3  eiu  ©ebid)t  abjufdjreifcen  unb  augrrenbig  311  lernen.  If  there  are 
several  perfect  infinitives,  the  ju  is  used  but  once,  and  stands 
between  the  last  participle  and  the  auxiliary,  which  is  also  used 
but  once,  being  found  with  the  last  participle  and  understood  with 
the  others  :  2)er  Moroe,  fagt  Sidnenftein,  greift  cinen  3tl(enfd)eu  ober  ein  ^icr, 
ba8  nidjt  for  i^m  flie^t,  nie  an,  ofyne  fid)  former  tit  einer  (Jntfernung  Uon  jet;n 
bi§  jirolf  <Sd)ritten  niebcrgelcgt  IUID  feinen  (Sprung  gcmeffcn  j;n  ^aben. 

a.  In  case  there  are  a  number  of  present  infinitives  there  is 
a  tendency  to  drop  the  ju  after  it  has  been  used  once  or  twice, 
as  the  simple  infinitive  here  as  in  I.  5  naturally  becomes  the  bearer 
of  the  thought,  the  exact  grammatical  relations  having  faded  from 
the  mind  :  »-!Bir  ftnb  nttr  ba,  itber  bie  Snterefjen  itnfercr  refpeftioon  <8taateit 
unb  Styttaftten  ju  n;ad;en;  jeber  brot)enbfn  33erringerung  tfyrer  SDJa^tfleflung 

T   2 


276  THE  VERB  185.  A.  II.  i. a. 

entgegenguarfceiten  unb  jebe  moglidje  ©uprematie  gu  crringen  trad)  ten,  eifer* 
fudrtig  bie  (S^te  be§  Snnbeg  fyuten,  ung  ongetanen  (Sdn'mpf  rddjen  (Suttner's 
Die  Waff  en  nieder!  II,  p.  183). 

2.  Subject  of  the  Infinitive.  The  infinitive  is  less  used  in  German 
than  in  English,  especially  since  it  is  not  much  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  ace.  with  the  infinitive,  which  is  so  common  in 
Latin  and  English.  Thus  the  infinitive  construction  in  English 
must  often  be  rendered  in  German  by  a  complete  subordinate 
clause :  /  wish  him  to  come  3d;  nwnfdje,  frafj  er  fomme.  See  also  I.  7 
above,  and  B.  I.  5  below.  In  German  the  infinitive  can  only  be 
used : 

a.  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  identical  with  the  subject 
or  object  of  the  verb  in  the  principal  proposition  :  @r  uerfprtcfyt,  nod; 
f)eute  gu  fommen.    2)iirfte  id;  @te  bitten,  eS  gu  tun  ?    <£r  riet  mir  gu  gefyen. 

Note  I.  In  a  number  of  expressions  the  infinitive  has  a  subject  which  is  identical 
with  the  suppressed  object  of  the  principal  verb:  3d)  bitte  til  bebenfflt  I  beg  you  to 
consider.  3dj  rate  git  toavten  I  advise  you  to  -wait.  3d)  u>un|d;e  toobt  gerufyt  gu  baben 
/  hope  you  have  had  a  good  nighfs  rest. 

Note  2.  Infinitive  purpose  clauses  or  clauses  of  result  with  gu,  or  unt  gu  in  order  to, 
and  infinitive  clauses  of  manner  with  objte  without  usually  require  their  subject  to  be 
identical  with  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition.  If  such  is  not  the  case  the 
subjects  should  be  made  to  be  identical  by  changing  the  subject  in  the  principal 
proposition  or  in  the  infinitive  clause,  or  the  infinitive  clause  should  be  avoided  and 
replaced  by  a  complete  subordinate  clause,  or,  in  case  the  verb  in  the  purpose  clause 
is  not  modified  by  too  many  objects  or  adverbial  modifiers,  be  replaced  by  an  infinitive- 
substantive  or  a  verbal  noun:  not  5)ie  Ung(u(f(id)en  ftnb  fyter  itntergebrad)t,  cbne fur 
tfjre  $jlege  gu  forgen,  but  Sftan  bat  bie  Ungtucflicfjen  !)ter  untergebradjt,  ofyne  fur  i^re 
$jlege  gu  forgen ;  or  3)ie  Ungtud;(id)en  ftnb  Ijier  untergebradjt,  ofyne  ba§  fur  ibre 
$jlege  geforgt  tt>are.  (Sr  gab  tmr  ben  S3riff  gum  Slbfdjreiben  (not  ab^ufd)reiben).  @r 
fd)t(fte  feilt  ®ud)  einem  Sreunb  gur  Surcbjldjt.  This  rule  requiring  identical  subjects 
in  the  principal  proposition  and  the  infinitive  clause  is  not  always  strictly  followed, 
good  usage  occasionally  admitting  of  violations  :  25ie  2Kutter  rief  mid)  b.  inein,  um  i^r 
ju  Ijetfen. 

b.  The  infinitive  can  be  used  when  its  subject  is  a  general  or 
indefinite  one :  ©elegenfyeit,  ©uteS  ju  tun,  ftnbet  ftd;  imnier.     <£r  befall  ^u 
dffnen  He  ordered  somebody  to  open  the  door.     @r  tft  fetn  Kot^fdjilb 
imb  bie  ^auptmann§Vf«fto«   ifi  nid)t,  um  ftd)  einen  93terer^ug  bayon  ju 
^alten  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  LXI).     The  infinitive  must 
here  be  replaced  by  a  subordinate  clause,  if  its  subject  can  possibly 
be  construed  as  identical  with  the  subject  or  object  of  the  principal 
verb:   not  (£t  n>unfd)t   gu  offnen,  as   the  translation   of  He  wishes 
somebody  to  open  the  door,  but  @r  tcunfdjt,  ba§  geoffnet  vrerbe,  or  bap  man 
dffne,  for  the  infinitive  construction  might  mean  He  wishes  to  open 
the  door. 

c.  As  in  English,  an  absolute  infinitive  with  gu  is  often  used,  the 
subject  of  which  has  no  reference  to  the  subject  or  object  of  the 
principal  verb  :  £)ie  SBatyrfjeit  gu  fagen,  e8  flnb  ffyrecflicfye  Scute,  biefe  alien 
(StyeriiSfer.  (Klopstock). 

B.  THE  INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  gu. 

I.  The  infinitive  without  gu  is  used  in  the  following  constructions : 
i.  In  the  following  independent  and  dependent  relations  : 


185.B.I.I.J.    THE   INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  ju  277 

a.  As  subject  of  a  verb,  especially  in  short  pithy  sayings,  also  in 
general  used   here  quite  as  correctly  as  the   infinitive  with   ju, 
although  perhaps  not  so  frequently :  €>etnen  ^einben  oerjettyen  ift  ebel. 
8rei  atmeu  macfyt  bag  Sefcen  nicfyt  attein.     Ungeltefct  burcfyg  SeBen  gefjen,  ift 
mefjr  atg  STOifjgefcfyicf,  eg  ift  <S$ulb  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  UnsUhnbar, 
V).     Also  as  explanatory  of  the  preceding  anticipative  subject  eg 
or  bag :  llnb  fyerrltcfy  beud?t'  eg  mid?,  bie  §itrfh'n  fetn  |  an  eineg  fturften  <Seite 
(Schnitzler's  Der  Schleier  der  Beatrice,  p.  138).     Also  the  perfect 
infin. :  2)ag  tt>irb  mtr  ja  unfyeimlidj,  ftd?  brei§tg  Safyre — na,  6ig  jitm  breifjigften 
Safyre  alg  Commis  voyageur  in  bcr  gan^en  tceiten  9Q3ett  fjernmgetrie&en  fyafcen 
unb  bann  gar  nicfytg  metyr  yon  ityr  nnffen  njoflen  (Raabe's  Gutmanns  Reisen, 
chap.  ii).     The  infinitive  without  to  is  also  found  in  older  English  : 
To  know  my  deed,  't  were  best  not  know  myself  (Macbeth,  2,  2). 

b.  As  a  predicate,  or  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  predicate 
after  fcletBen  to  remain,  fafyren  to  drive  (intrans.),  getyen  to  go,  fyeifjen  to 
signify,  fontmen  to  come,  laufen  to  run,  legen  to  lay,  liegen  (rarely  with 
infinitive,  usually  with  pres.  participle)  to  lie,  retten  to  ride,  fein  to 
be,  fcfyicfen  to  send,  fcfyleicfyen  to  creep,  ftd)  fe|en  to  sit  down,  fyringen 
(see  ex.)  to  spring,  leap,  fiefyen  (rarely  with  infin.,  usually  with  pres. 
part.)  to  stand,  irant>eln  to  walk,  stroll,  and  the  auxiliary  irerben  in 
the  future,  future  perfect,  and  the  conditionals :  (Sr  Heifct  fi^en.     SBtir 
gtngeu  fpajieren.     9i5tr  fu^ren  fpa^ieren.     3Btr  rittcn  fyagieten.     ©enua  liegt 
fdjlafcn  (Schiller's  Fiesco,  2,  18).     @tc^  attein  lefcen  |et§t  gar  ntc^t  leben 
To  live  for  one's  self  is  the  same  as  not  to  live  at  all.     £interbrein 
i|l  gut  veben  It  is  easy  to  talk  after  it  is  all  over.    £)em  •Oimmet  ift  fceten 
itolten  auc^  fceten.    £>ie  Gutter  fdjtdt  bag  ^inb  frtjlafen.    2)fit  ben  Safaien  ^at 
man  micfy  fpajieren  gef^irft  (W.  Meyer- Forster's  Alt-Heidelberg,  3,  7). 
llnfceil&areg  €>ied)tum  bannte  il^n  an8  3inimer  unfi  gejlattete  i^m  ^oc^fteng, 
iet  fdjoner  SOBittcrung  etn  trenig  in  bem  fleinen  ©arten  f^a^teren  ju  fdjletdjen 
(H.  Seidel's  Der  Neuntoter).     3)te  Qttte  ^atte  ftdj  brinnen  in  ifyren  Se^n* 
ftu^)t  fctjlafen  gefefct  (Storm's  Auf  der  Universitat,  vol.  ii,  p.  132).     2)er 
ig  (for  ift)  fctjon  ^locf  (for  ©locf)  ftefcen  fpagteren  ge^angen.    5)ag  ^eipt : 
fpa^ieren  gefprungen,  in  up  man  eigentlic^  fagen  (Otto  Ernst's  Die  Gerech- 
tigkeit,  i,  Verwandlung  i).     2Bag  fte^t  it)r  fjorcfyfit?  (Schiller's  Die 
Piccolomini,  4,  5).     HnD  bie  SSa'ter  tcanbeln  rcurbeoott  in  bev  ndc^flen 
Umgegenb  faajteren  (H.  Seidel's  Die  Geschichle  eines  Tales).     (5*  ictrb 
loben.     @r  icurbe  ftngen,  icenn  er  ntcfyt  ^etfer  icare. 

Note,  gafjten,  gefjen,  fomtnen,  taufen,  tegcn,  retten,  fdjirfeu,  ft$  fefeen,  and  fpringen, 
cannot  be  freely  used  with  the  infinitive,  but  only  occur  in  certain  set  expressions : 
9lad>  etn  fcaar  2Bod)cn  fufyr  fie  fdjon  ioicber  cine  anbere  SBchnuug  fitd^en  (H.  Bahr's 
Theater,  p.  64).  @t  ge^t  fru^  fcfylafen  He  retires  early,  but  (Ir  gct)t  tagli^  etne 
©tltnte,  Itm  bcffer  Jll  fdjtafetl  He  takes  an  hour's  walk  every  day,  so  that  he  may  sktf 
better.  (Sr  geht  (fommt)  5Baffer  holen.  @r  gefjt  baben,  effen,  etnfaufen.  3^  gelje  bit 
<£timtmmg  beobai^ten  (Freytag's  Die  Journalisten,  2,  2).  @o  tvug  er  bad  unfeltge 
©i^rctben  in«  nacelle  ^pftfaft($en  unb  gtng  bann,  ftd^  au<sn?etncit,  jit  feincr  9Kagbalent 
(Ebner-Eschenbach's  Kittmeister  Brand,  chap.  v).  <£te  ift  ftdj  onfleitcn  gegangen 
(Schubin's  Refugium  peccaiorum,  III,  4).  @te  gtng  }u  etner  9ta$barin  f(^»a^en 
(Carl  liusse's  Die  schb'ne  Andrea).  9Kid&aet  fiintmerte  fief)  inenig  urn  mid)  —  bem 
mujHcft  bit  erfl  flar  «tad)cn  fommen,  bap  id)  aud)  u>er  bin  (Sudermann's  Es  lebe  das 
Leben,  p.  37).  3(;r  Ijabt  icofjt  fticber  fcie  gaitje  9tad)t  8td)t  gcbrannt  in  eurer  Jfamnter  ? 
Da^  id)  end)  nid)t  mat  bag  2td)t  tregueljmett  fomm' !  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  i).  .Jtomm 
fru^fiurfcn,  2Kama  (Berlepsch's  Fottunats  Roman,  p.  15).  Slber  ejfen  fannjl  bK  bed) 


278  THE  VERB  185.  B.  I.  i.  b. 

JU  unS  fommett  (Maria  Janitschek's  Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  XVIII).  !Det  2Binb  lauft 
fdjltlen  (L.G.  to  hide)  There  has  fallen  a  dead  calm.  <Ste  fyat  fid)  aitf  bent  Sofa 
fdjlafen  gelegt.  !Die  ^ufaren  finb  furagteten  geritten.  Examples  with  fcbirtVit  and  fid? 
fefeen  are  given  above.  Although  in  these  and  similar  examples  ju  can  sometimes  be 
found  the  simple  infinitive  is  still  quite  common.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  it  has  its  limits.  It  is  an  old  infinitive  of  purpose,  which  was  once  much 
more  widely  used,  but  is  now  replaced  in  most  part  by  the  infinitive  with  ju  or  unt 
jU.  Compare:  ni  qam  gatairan,  ak  usfulljan  (Wulfila,  Matth.  v.  17)  with  Luther's 
translation  of  the  same  passage.  The  simple  infinitive  is  also  found  here  in  older 
English  :  Go  fetch  me  them  (Gen,  xxvii.  13). 

In  other  expressions,  however,  the  infinitive  after  some  of  these  verbs  is  a  mutilated 
present  participle:  (ft  gef)t  faajieren  (for  fpajierenb).  3d)  badjte  oft  an  ben  alten, 
ottgineUen  SJJann,  bet  Ijalt  bod)  aud)  in  feinem  fieben  tinen  HJunft  fyatte,  ju  bent  in 
roetd&en  ©titnben  feme  -©efynfudjt  twanbern  ging  (Paul  Keller's  ^aid-winter,  XIV). 
This  is  always  true  in  case  of  bletbcn  and.hjetben  (see  190.  I.  G),  and  often  so  in  case 
of  farjten,  gefyen,  tetten,  fdjleidjen,  and  tocmbeln,  as  in  (ft  fdtjtt  or  tettet  fpajieren. 

After  Ijeifjen  and  fetn  the  infinitive  is  usually  a  true  infinitive  used  as  a  predicate 
noun  ;  see  examples  above.  In  several  cases,  however,  the  infinitive  after  fetn  may, 
possibly,  be  a  pres.  part.;  see  190.  i.  -G. 

c.  As  an  Imperative ;  see  177. 1.  B.  e. 

2.  The  simple  infinitive  is  used  in  a  number  of  dependent  and 
independent  relations  after  certain  very  common  auxiliaries  and 
auxiliary-like  verbs.  The  original  construction  is  little  felt  or 
completely  forgotten.  This  infinitive  stands : 

a.  As  object  after  the  modal  auxiliaries  burfen,  fonnen,  mogen, 
miijfen,  foflen,  ic often,  and  in  colloquial  speech  quite  frequently  fcraucfym 
to  need  to,  which  has  come  under  the  influence  of  this  group,  as  it 
has  assumed  one  of  the  older  meanings  of  frurfen  and  is  in  general 
by  its  new  meaning  related  to  these  words :    3cfy  nntt  gefyen.    £>u 
braiicfyft  fclofii  rcoften  (in  choice  language,  perhaps,  more  frequently  jit 
ro often),  Cannes  {H  auptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  Act  2).     Some  use 
the  simple  infinitive  after  fctaitcfyett  even  in  their  most  careful  pro- 
ductions :  3cfy  irei§,  id)  njeif  \  £>u  fcraucfyfi  i^r  Sob  nic^t  ftngen  (Ebner- 
Eschenbach's  Eine  Vision).     3cf>  tin  bie  flange  nid)t,  ba§  bu  »or 
metnem  Slicfe  braud^tefl  tefcen  (Hauptmann's  Der  artne  Heinrich,  5). 

Note.  SBetmogen  differing  from  tnogen  requires  jit ;  2)ie  betriibte  ©tobt  werntag  ft$ 
ntC^t  gu  troflen.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  gu  could  be  omitted  :  2)enn  et  Uermag  eil(^ 
nidjt  ertettcn  con  raetnet  §anb  (2  Kings  xviii.  39). 

b.  After  laffen  to  cause  (to  be  done),  have  (something  done),  lead 
to,  let,  allow:  3cfy  laffe  ein  >§au3  bauen  I  am  having  a  house  built. 
3fyr  SBeneljmen  Icipt  micl?  glaitben,  ba^  id)  i^)r  nid)t  gtetd^gultig  bin  Her 
conduct  leads  me  to  think  that  I  am  something  to  her.    £er  Dfrerft 
liep  bie  ©olnateu  jrrei  ©tunten  rufyen  The  colonel  let  the  men  rest  two 
hours.     (Sr.  Itijjt  fid)  betriigen  He  allows  himself  to  be  deceived. 

c.  After  bebeuten  to  mean,  blafcn  (see  ex.)  to  command  by  means  of 
the  bugle,  ^eipen  to  bid,  direct,  tell  (order),  command,  call,  fyelfen  to 
help,  Ict)ven  to  teach,  lernen  (but  cerlernen  to  unlearn  with  gn)  to  learn, 
nennen  to  call,  name,  and  sometimes  uergeffen  (usually  with  gu)  to 
forget:   5>ie  ^Ba^r^eit  jit  fagen,  ^atte  i^m  nid)t8  antereS  beteutet,  ol8 
SJernuttung  augframen,  nut  einem  eitlen  5lrgtro^n  ein  jutraulidj  aftabcbenljier,} 
oergiften  unb  feinen  beflen  grennb  ferleumben  (Hans  Hopfen's  Dcr  Stell- 
vertreter,  IV).     3d;  nrenbe  mid)  gn  ntetnem  ^orntfien :   rr9J3eber!  Qloancieren 
blafen ! "  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen,  Anno  1870,  Unter  flatternden 


185.B.I.2.rf.      THE  INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  jit  279 


Fahnen).  (£r  fyat  i^n  fd?ireigen  ^eif?en.  2ftan  tjief}  mid?  fommen  I  was 
directed  to  come.  2Ber  f)at  @te  benn  raud?en  Jjetflen?  Who  told  you 
to  smoke?  or  What  business  had  you  to  smoke?  @r  lel?rte  mid; 
lefen.  $)a§  nfnne  id?  fd?Iafen  That  is  what  I  call  a  good  sleep.  33ergi§ 
nur  nid?t,  ber  Qlbelfyeibd?en  guten  £ag  fagen,  ^inD  (Schulze-Smidt's  Denk' 
ich  an  Deutschland  in  der  Nacht,  II). 

Note.  After  lefyrcn  and  lernen,  and  sometimes  after  IjelfeR  and  Ijetfien,  JU  may  stand 
before  the  dependent  infin.,  especially  if  the  infinitive  is  modified  by  a  clause  or 
a  number  of  words  :  3d)  fyatte  ttnebet  gu  tadfoert  geternt  (Jensen's  Heimkunft,  II,  3). 
3d)  un(l  bit  fjelfen  jit  ternen,  bajj  tg  toeber  ttornefjm  nod)  tncratifd?  t|l,  mefyt  ®elb 
augjugeben  a(S  man  cat.  The  ju  stands  regularly  after  the  passive  here  ;  see  178.  2. 
B.</.  In  German  the  passive  is  in  general  little  used  in  connection  with  an  infinitive, 
except  as  described  in  178.  2.  B.  -d.  Hence  He  was  directed  to  go  is  usually  translated 
by  SKan  fytejj  ifyn  geljfn.  After  the  active  or  passive  form  of  to  tell  (  =  to  order)  the 
infinitive  with  to  may  be  employed  in  English,  while  in  German  the  infinitive  clause  is 
replaced  by  a  subordinate  clause  with  a  finite  verb:  I  told  him  or//?  was  told  to  go 
3d)  fagte  ifym  or  3f)tn  nwrbe  gefagt,  bafj  ev  geljeit  muffe. 

d.  After  the  following  :  verbs  of  perceiving  and  knowing,  olpnett 
to  forbode,  ftd?  benfeu  to  imagine  to  one's  self,  fid?  bunfen  to  seem,  finbeu 
(more  commonly  with  pres.  participle)  to  find,  fallen  (and  likewise 
(piiren  and  em^finben)  to  feel,  glnubm  to  believe,  fyoren  (and  likewise 
Oerne^men)  to  hear,  fe^cn  (and  likewise  bemerfen,  tuerfen,  erbltcten,  geica^ren, 
and  fd)auen)  to  see,  rudfjnen  to  believe,  fancy,  imagine,  icifjeit  to  know, 
but  with  ju  in  the  sense  to  be  able  to,  know  how  to  ;  also  after  fiifyren 
to  lead,  fya6m  to  have,  madden  to  make,  tragen  to  carry,  itiegett  to  rock, 
jetgeu  to  show:  2)cxan  benfe  ftd?  (dat.)  biefe  <§enen  in  btefcn  ^elfen  ^aufcn 
(Gregorovius's  Korsika,  i,  14).  3d)  bitnfte  mid?  bitrd?  bte  5}uft  fcl)ire6en 
(or  perhaps  more  commonly  fd)rce6enb)  or  gu  fd?roeben.  Also  the  dat. 
with  biinfen  :  3d?  an  ©retd?en§  ©eite  beud?te  mir  rcirfltd?  in  fenen  gliirf* 
Ud?en  ©eftlben  @li?ftum8  ^u  tcanbeln  (Goethe's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit, 
I,  5).  £>a  fanb  id?  fie  eincS  9)iorgfn8  nut  faum  nod?  umflorten  3litgen 
auf  i|ren  ^iffen  Itcgen  (Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alien  Doktors,  p.  99). 
@r  faf  nod?  tange,  bis  ber  93?onb  fd?on  unter  roar  unb  er  alleS  fd?lafen 
glauite  (Storm's  Ein  Doppelg&nger,  p,  213).  @r  f^urte  fetne  Qlugen 
feud?t  tterben  (Maria  Janitschek's  Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  VII).  2)cr  unten 
@te^enbe  gcica^rte  nun  enblid?  and?  ben  3ungen  icie  eine;  grope  fdnca^e  JHait^e 
urn  ben  93aum  ^erum^dngen  (Storm's  Wann  die  Apfel  reif  sind).  3d? 
fe^e  fie  tanjeit  I  see  her  dancing.  9Bo  er  ftd?  juieberum  nad?  ben  SBrunnen 
...ta^pen  rod^nte  (Volks-Zeitung,  26.  195.  A).  QBenn  id?  end?  ba  fl^en 
unb  friercn  iretf  (P.  Heyse's  Nov.,  150)  When  I  know  that  you  are 
sitting  there  freezing,  but  (£r  n>et§  fold?e  <3d)iuierigfeiten  gefdnrft  gn  lofen 
He  knows  how  to  solve  such  difficulties  adroitly.  @r  fi'ifjrte  tt;n  ant  Qlrnte 
fpajieren  He  took  him  out  walking,  holding  him  by  the  arm.  (5v 
fyat  ba3  ®elo  tnt  Jtaflen  liegen.  5)a8  mad?te  mid?  laut  auflad?en.  „  sJEo  warfl 
bu  benn?"  ,,aJieine  ©orgen  etreaS  fpajteren  tragen  "  (Maria  Janitschek's 
Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  IX).  ^ab'  id?  bod?  fd?on  mand?mal  ein  grofjeS  ^inb 
bamtt  fd?lafen  geiviegt  (Goethe's  Egmont,  Act  3).  3)?  an  jeigte  un8  ba3 
@d)(op  g^anoan  BHnfen  (id.).  For  other  examples  see  262.  III.  2.  C. 
We  sometimes  find  the  infinitive  with  311  after  t?aben  and  mad?en 
in  accordance  with  the  general  trend  from  the  simple  to  the 
prepositional  infinitive  :  25a3  mad?t  mid?  gn  Iad?en  (Goethe),  ©r  ^at  bag 
©elb  tut  ^ajlen  ju  Itegen.  The  infinitive  with  $u  is  no  longer  thus 


280  THE   VERB  185.  B.  1.  2.  d. 


found  in  the  literary  language  after  madden,  and  after  fyiBen  it  has 
never  been  used  here,  although  it  is  common  in  dialect.  In 
connection,  however,  with  a  dat.  of  the  person  interested,  madjeit 
usually  requires  flit  before  the  dependent  infinitive  according  to 
A.  1.6:  S)a3  macfyt  mir  311  fcfyaffen  that  gives  me  a  good  deal  of  work, 
keeps  me  busy.  Also  tyaben  may  be  similarly  used  with  ju; 
see  (2)  below. 

(1)  The  infinitive  after  the  verbs  in  the  above  list  is  in  many  cases  the 
mutilated  form  of  the  present  participle,  which  once  stood  here,  and  which 
is  still  in  case  of  madjen  preferred  in  certain  expressions,  and  in  case  of  fefyen  and 
erblicfen  is  still  occasionally  used,  and  in  case  of  bunfen,  finben,  glauben,  toaljnen, 
and  geigen  is  used  quite  freely  :  2)a3  mad)t  ifyn  rafenb.     (5r  madjt  fein  Sfttfy  an  bie 
.Krone  gcttenb  (formerly  also  getten,  as  in  Goethe's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit, 
II,  7)  He  urges  the  validity  of  his  claims  upon  the  throne.    25er  fyat  gu  $roto; 
M(  gegebcn,  bafi  er  ba$  9Jlabd?en  im  SOlonbfdjem  »on  ifyreS  23ater3  2>adi>  ftetternb  unb 
im  SOalbe  laufenb  gefefyen  tyabe  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome,  chap.  x).    2>oum  erbltcfte 
er  son  3eit  gu  Beit  ifyren  Slrm  einen  Setter  gured)t  fcfyiebenb  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von 
Geyer,  XX).    <2ie  ftanben  auf  ber  Sanbflrajje,  »o  ber  JDcftor  fetnen  (Sinfpanncr  beretts 
toartenb  fanb   (Raabe's  Zum  ivilden  Mann,  chap.  x).     (Sine  Srau  ...  bie  ben 
gefybefyanbfcfyul),  iweldjen  iljr  ba$  tyeutige  £eben  jeben  Xag  ttor  bie  ftufe  rtirft,  jebeg  9Kat 
ttacfet  aufnimmt,  unb  —  bag  93efiere  immer  brei  Jjanfet  ober  brei  ©afjen  tretterab  liegenb 
tta^nt  (id.,  Der  Lar,  p.  9).    93or  jenent  SBitbc^en  .  .  .  ba«  0?ubinei  im  ©arten  ntit 
feiner  f^onen  jungen  grau  an  etnem  Xulpenbeet  »orbeifpajierenb  j(etgt  (P.  Heyse's 
Im  Paradiese,  I,  chap.  v).     Sometimes  after  fttfjen  :  (ft  ging  fcttg  um  bad  ^)aug 
^erunt,  in  bent  er  {Ie  tanjenb  itu^te  (Ludwig's  Zwischen  Himmel  und  Erde,  II). 

In  English  there  is  a  distinct  shade  of  meaning  between  the  participle  and 
infinitive  here.  Compare  1  saw  him  COMING  up  the  road  and  1  saw  him 
COME.  The  participle  has  descriptive  force,  while  the  infinitive  calls  attention 
to  a  completed  action  or  a  statement  of  fact  In  German  no  such  distinction 
is  regularly  made  between  infinitive  and  participle,  for  in  some  cases  the 
participle  is  rarely  used  or  not  employed  at  all.  In  some  cases,  however, 
this  distinction  seems  to  be  observed:  .ftatfer  Dtto  III.  fanb  ben  evjien  beutfd)en 
Jt  aifer  auf  einem  fleinevncn  ©tufyl  fi^atb,  bie  .Krone  auf  bem  Jpaupt,  ben  {Hei$dapfel  in 
ber  Jpanb  (Moltke).  3m  Jlrtege  finbm  nnrben  Jtontg  jDpfer  tteNjiefyen  (Ranke).  In 
earlier  periods  the  infinitive  and  participle  were  both  found  with  a  number  of 
these  verbs.  As  a  fixed  differentiation  did  not  develop,  and  the  participle  in 
careless  pronunciation  lost  its  final  b  and  thus  became  identical  in  form  with 
the  infinitive,  the  latter  construction  in  most  cases  became  established  and  the 
possibility  of  making  a  beautiful  shade  of  meaning  was  lost. 

(2)  £aben  is  used  in  a  number  of  idiomatic  expressions,  of  which  some 
require  no  gu  before  the  infin.,  while  others  require  it  :    @r  fyat   gut  reben 
(construed  as  a  substantive  in  the  ace.)  It  is  easy  for  him  to  talk.     ISr  Jjat  gu 
reben  (gerundive)  He  has  to  make  a  speech,     ©r  Ijat  I)tet  ntd)t$  gn  befefylen  He 
has  no  right  to  give  commands  here.    Gt  fyat  mit  mir  gu  tun  He  has  to  do 
with  me.     See  A.  I.  6. 

(3)  This  use  of  the  infinitive  after  ttnffen  should  not  be  confounded  with 
the  case  where  an  infin.  in  an  elliptical  clause  apparently  follows  imffen,  but 
in  reality  is  dependent  upon  a  modal  auxiliary  understood  :    @ie  Itufjte  nidjt, 
toa3  [fte]  au3  ber  @ad)e  mad)en  [fodte]  She  did  not  know  what  to  make  out  of 
the  affair. 

(4)  In  English  the  simple  infinitive  is  used  after  a  number  of  these  verbs  in 
the  active,  while  the  infinitive  with  to  is  employed  after  the  passive  :  /  heard 
him  say,  I  made  him  come  ;  but  He  was  heard  to  say,  He  was  made  to  come. 
The  passive  construction  is  not  used  here  at  all  in  the  German. 

e.  After  tun:   (i)  In  the  common  expression  nicfytS  tun:    (£r  tut 


185.  B.  I.  4.     THE  INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  jit  281 

nicfytS  al3  ffagen  He  does  nothing  but  complain.  (2)  For  emphasis, 
when  instead  of  the  simple  finite  verb  the  infinitive  of  the  desired 
verb  is  used  dependent  upon  tun.  Emphatic  words  are  usually 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  clause  or  sentence,  but  a  finite  form  of 
the  verb  rarely.  If  the  verb  is  to  be  made  emphatic,  the  infinitive, 
which  alone  contains  the  verbal  meaning  and  hence  the  important 
part  of  the  verb,  now  usually  introduces  the  clause  and  is  then 
followed  by  a  finite  form  of  the  auxiliary  tun,  which  merely  marks 
the  verbal  function :  £ofcen  tat  fte  nicfyt  wel,  fte  fyielt'3  »ont  Ufcerflup  She 
rarely  praised  anybody,  as  she  thought  it  superfluous.  £un  tue  id; 
je£t  fetyr  vremg,  nur  benfen  unb  etnpfmben  I  am  acting  now  very  little, 
only  thinking  and  feeling.  Jtutfdjer  njitt  id;  rcofyl  feiit  unb  cutf  bem  23ocfe 
ft£en,  after  felbfl  $iel)en,  ba3  tuc  id;  nicfyt  To  be  sure  I  like  to  be  coachman 
and  sit  upon  the  box,  but  I  will  not  myself  help  to  draw  the  coach. 
In  dialect,  also  in  the  language  of  children  and  clumsy 
speakers  in  general,  tun  is  often  used  with  a  dependent  infinitive 
which  is  not  restricted  to  the  first  place  in  the  proposition.  This 
construction  differs  from  the  emphatic  form  described  above  in 
that  it  is  a  mere  periphrasis  for  the  simple  verb :  (£r  tat  mid? 
fennen,  oSrcofyl  id)  it)tt  ntcfyt  fennen  tat  =  dr  fannte  mid;,  obrco^I  id;  Hjn  nid;t 
fannte.  2) a  taten  fie  ftd>  trennen  =  5) a  trenuten  fte  fid;.  For  irregular 
past  tense  in  this  construction  see  21O.  a.  In  older  English  the 
do-form  was  thus  used  promiscuously  with  the  simple  form  of  the 
verb  without  a  difference  of  meaning,  but  later  a  differentiation 
took  place,  so  that  the  do-form  has  become  fixed  in  the  emphatic, 
negative,  and  interrogative  form  of  statement :  It  does  matter.  It 
doesn't  matter.  It  doesn't  matter.  Does  it  matter?  Does  it 
matter?  Doesn't  it  matter?  Doesn't  it  matter?  Notice  that 
in  English  the  do-form  is  always  accented  when  the  statement 
is  emphatic,  while  in  German  the  infinitive  receives  the  stress  and 
stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  proposition.  The  German  emphatic 
form  does  not  correspond  closely  to  the  English,  for  it  is  only  used 
to  emphasize  the  simple  verb,  not  to  emphasize  the  statement. 
(3)  In  dialect  the  past  subjunctive  of  tun  is  used  instead  of  icurbe  to 
form  the  conditional ;  see  190.  I.  E.  b. 

Note.     3u  stands  with  tltn  in  the  idiom  gu  tot  Ren  tint  to  announce,  acquaint  with, 
let  somebody  know,  make  known.     Compare  we  da  you  to  wit  (2  Cor.  viii.  i). 

3.  The  infinitive  without  gu  is  used  when  it  is  employed  to  repeat 
an  idea  contained  in  a  finite  verb  which  has  already  been  used,  no 
matter  what  its  construction  in  the  sentence  may  be  :  „  £efme  bid;  an 
meine  93rufl  unb  fdjlafe."     2)er  (Slfaffer  ermannte  ftd;  nrieber:   „  <Sd;lafen  ! 
baju  ictrb  feme  3«t*  ntefyr  fein ! "  (Rosegger). 

4.  The  simple  infinitive  is  often  used  in  questions  introduced  by 
some  interrogative  word,  where  the  infinitive  in  fact  depends  upon 
some  auxiliary  understood:    3a,  >va8  ba  tun,  (Sngelfe?    (Fontane's 
Stechlin,  chap,  i)  What  in  the  world  shall  I  do,  Engelke  ?     Some- 
times the  infinitive  with  jit  is  used  :  2Bag  nun  $u  tun  Y  (Grillparzer's 
Argonauten,  2).    As  the  original  construction  has  become  indistinct, 
the  simple  infinitive  is  now  used  very  freely,  and  in  excited  or 


282  THE  VERB  185. 8.1.4. 

vivid  language  without  precise  grammatical  relations  often  becomes 
the  bearer  of  the  thought :  Qlber  nne  Jllarfjeit  bariiber  gercinnen  ?  3t)r 
fdjreiben?  2Bie  ben  SBrief  in  ityre  «£dnbe  fyielen?  Itnb  bann  —  quatoofl 
Barren,  big  bic  Qlntnjort  fame,  t>iefletcfyt  fcergebtid)  Barren !  (Frances's  Der 
Gott  des  alien  Doktors,  p.  135).  Sftein  ganjeS  SSefen  bdumt  ftcfy  gegen  bie 
abfcfyeulicfae  $ta;ci3  auf,  bie  in  meinem  @ltern|aufe  fyerrfcfyt.  —  25e^al)Ien  — 
immet  bejafylen  —  (Styre,  0ted)t,  Siebe,  —  afleg  be$af)len  1  (Sudermann's  Die 
Ehre,  4,  4). 

5.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  as  in  Latin,  was  common  earlier  in  the 
period,  and  still  occurs  in  the  classics  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  it  has 
since  disappeared.  It  is  found  after  such  verbs  as  adjten,  benfen,  glauben, 
fettnen,  fagen,  &c.,  more  commonly  without  ju  earlier  in  the  period,  and  later 
with  gu :  id)  adjte  e3  bittid)  fein  (2  Pet.  i.  13),  but  in  revised  editions  id)  ad)te  e3 
bifHg  gu  fein.  ^>ier  mbet  SHartin  ^autermann,  tocnn  man  ben  rufyen  fagen  fann,  bet 
feinen  8ebtag  nidjt3  getan  (Weckherlin).  In  Lessing  it  is  especially  common  in 
relative  clauses :  2)tefer  9lfd)ine$,  ben  er  «tn  fo  elenbeg  Seben  gu  fii^ren  gtaubt. 
The  infinitive  is  now  replaced  by  some  other  construction,  especially  a  sub- 
ordinate clause :  £>iefer  &fd)ine3,  bet,  tote  er  gtaubt,  ein  fo  elenbeS  Ceben  fufjvt. 

II.  In  the  different  constructions  described  in  I,  above,  the 
infinitive  stands  uniformly  only  when  it  has  present  force.  In  case 
its  force  would  be  past, — 

a.  It   assumes   the   form   of  the   perf.   infin.    after  the    modal 
auxiliaries  and  the  auxiliary  rcerbeit :    (£r  nrifl  c3  gefefyen  tyafcen  He 
pretends  to  have  seen  it.     (£r  unrD  jegt  roo^I  gefcfyriefcen  l^afcen  He  ha( 
probably  written  by  this  time. 

Note.  The  perf.  infin.  depending  upon  these  modal  auxiliaries  should  not  be 
confounded  with  another  construction  having  exactly  the  same  form,  but  a  quite 
different  meaning — namely,  Ijaben  in  the  infinitive  depending  upon  a  modal  auxiliary, 
and  having  on  the  other  hand  a  perf.  part,  with  passive  force  depending  upon  itself : 
3d)  ttollte  afleg  fytftorifd)  ecftart  fyaben  I  wanted  to  have  everything  explained  from 
a  historical  standpoint.  More  frequent  and  forcible  than  Jjaben  is  h)t|1ett :  9hlttta 

toollte  feme  ©ottfyett  in  tttenfdjlidjer  obet  tierifdjer  ©eftatt  ttorgejhdt  hnffen  Numa 
did  not  want  to  have  any  god  represented  in  the  form  of  man  or  beast.  Also 
fd>en  is  thus  used :  @r  woflte  biefe  Srage  nttt  tyetterer  ©etafTen^eit  be^anbelt  fe^en 
He  wanted  to  have  this  question  discussed  with  cheerful  composedness.  This  con- 
struction with  Ijaben  (also  imffen  and  fetyeit)  falls  regularly  under  b,  and  is  only  given 
here  to  prevent  its  being  confounded  with  the  construction  in  a,  above. 

b.  Except  often  in  the  subject  relation  (see  i.  a,  above,  under  I), 
it  assumes  the  form  of  the  perf.  part,  in  all  the  other  constructions 
in  I,  even  after  the  verbs  marked  rare,  and  also  after  erfcfaeinen  to 
appear  and  fcfaetnen  to  seem :  llnoerfucfyt  (subject)  fcfymecf  t  ntcfyt  You 
cannot  tell  how  it  tastes  without  first  having  tried  it.     <§elbfterfalbrett 
(subject)  ifl  bag   ftcfyerfte    Personal  experience   is   the   surest   way. 
'iiufgefcfyoben  (subject)  i|l  ntcfot  oufgefyoben  (predicate)  Having  deferred 
a  matter  is  not  the  same  as  having  given  up  the  idea  altogether. 
£>ie  <Scl)Iad)t  ifl  oerloren  (predicate)  gegangen  The  battle  has  been  lost. 
Gr  fant  nttt  bent  3Keffer  in  ber  <§anb  fyer^ugelaiifen  (predicate  appositive). 
He  came  running  up  with  the  knife  in  his  hand.     Slact?  eintger  3?tt 
fain  aitcfy  eine  3i«K  neugierig  in  bie  ©tube  gegutft  (Paul  Keller's  Wald- 
winter,  XIV).     <£gmont  fam  nttt  eintgen  auf  ben  Slttarft  geritten.     «§euleni> 
fam  ber  @turm  geflogen.     In  the  five  preceding  sentences  gefyen  and 
fommen  have  perfective  force,  i.  e.  the  attention  is  called,  not  to 
an  activity  in  its  entirety,  but  to  its  close,  and  hence  the  perfect 


187.2.  THE  INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  ju  28S 

participle  is  used,  for  the  action  which  it  indicates  is  also  completed. 
The  following  sentence  from  Uhland  seems  to  be  constructed  after 
the  analogy  of  the  preceding  models,  but  the  parallelism  in  the 
thought  is  not  perfect :  5)ann  geljt'3  burd;  Sannenrealber  inS  grime  $at 
gefprengt.  £)a3  fjeifjt  fd)Ied;t  gercorfen  (predicate)  That  was  a  bad  throw. 
2)a3  f)etJ3t  gelogen  (predicate)  That  was  what  people  call  lying.  S)a3 
tyetfjt  red)t  ben  iftagel  auf  ben  ^opf  getroffen  (predicate).  2)ag  ifl  leic^t 
gefagt  (predicate),  ober  fdjicer  getan  (predicate)  That  is  easily  said,  but 
difficult  to  do.  £>ie8  ifl  naturlid)  jit  njett  gegangen  (predicate)  This  is 
of  course  going  too  far,  or  to  bring  out  the  force  of  the  perf.  part. 
Here  of  course  he  went  too  far,  2)aS  icar  benn  a6er  bod;  trot;!  ettraS  ju 
oiet  tterlangt  (predicate)  But  that  was  surely  asking  a  little  too  much. 
(Sin  2Sort  mad;t  afleg  ungefdje^en  (objective  pred.)  One  word  will  smooth 
over  the  unpleasant  feeling  (bring  it  about  that  all  will  be  as  if  the 
unpleasantness  had  not  happened).  5)a3  tyeifje  id;  gefcfylafcn  (objective 
pred.)  That  was  what  I  call  a  good  sleep.  (£r  fltl;lte  fid;  gefranft 
He  felt  hurt  about  it.  3d;  rcttl  U)n  fceflraft  fetyen  I  want  to  see  him 
punished.  6r  fd;eint  unentfd^toffen.  £)ie  Seute  erfd)einen  mir  Jegt  afle 
liefcensnntrbiger  geirorben  (Meinhardt), 

Note.  The  perf.  part,  here  is  in  some  cases,  as  after  the  verbs  in  I.  2.  d,  the  original 
construction,  while  in  other  cases  it  is  an  elliptical  perf.  infin. :  (Seine  2J?utter  fcfyeint 
friilj  geilorben  [gu  fetn]. 

186.  When  two  infinitives  connected  by  alS  depend  upon  one  of 
the  verbs  mentioned  above  as  not  requiring  ju  with  the  dependent 
infinitive,  they  both  are  usually  without  the  ju,  but  not  infrequently 
the  second  infinitive  takes  311  contrary  to  rule-:   2fttt  ber  QBelt  mu§ 
niemanb  lefcen,  alg  Jter  fte  fcraudjen  tuitt ;  ifl  er  BraudjBar  unb  flifl,  (oflf  er 
ftd;  liefcer  bem  Seufel  ergeben,  al§  ju  tun,  njaS  fie  icitt  (Goethe).     Com- 
pare:  I  had  rather  be  a  doorkeeper  in  the  house  of  my  God, 
than  to  dwell  in  the  tents  of  wickedness  (Psalm  Ixxxiv.  10).     When 
two  infinitives  used  as  subjects  are  in  the  same  manner  connected 
by  ol3,  they  usually  both  take  ju  or  both  are  without  it,  but  often 
contrary  to  rule  the  one  takes  311  while  the  other  is  without  it : 
•2l6er  SSrticfen  a^ufcredjen,  ifl  leister  a!3  auffcaiten  (Boy-Ed).     The  first 
infinitive  may  be  without  the  311  while  the  second  one  takes  it. 

187.  The  active  infin,  often  assumes  passive  meaning  in  the 
following  constructions : 

1.  After  tyeifjen,  fyoren,  laffen,  fefjen,  and  less  commonly  fitfylcn  :   9Sir 
fetyen  ben  (Stein  emporreinben  We  see  the  stone  being  drawn  up.     dhr 
Uep  ben  2(rjt  tyolen  We  had  the  doctor  sent  for.     $i$ir  nut jj ten  bte  $ur 
coin  (£d)loffer  offnen  laffen  We  had  to  have  the  door  opened  by  a 
locksmith.     3d;  laffe  mir  »on  bir  nidjtS  fccfe^Ien.     We  occasionally  find 
the  passive  form  instead  of  the  active :  Unb  ba  ftfceft  bit  nun  unb  ftefyfl 
ifyn  »on  bem  6raoen  germaniftifdjen  ^infel  Oon  QSater  unb  ber  ladjerlidjen  «&ere 
feiner  Gutter  imnter  me^r  tier^ogen  irerben  (Raabe's  Der  Lar,  p.  158). 

a.  Sometimes  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  infin.  is  active  or  passive :  3d? 
fyorte  tt)it  rttfen  means  /  heard  him  calling,  or  heard  him  called  by  some  one. 

b.  Formerly  also  madjen  belonged  to  this  list :  9)Jan  tat  a((e$,  tint  ftcfy  »on  Dem 
Jtonig  bemevfen  ju  mac^en  (Goethe's  Dichtungund  Wahrheit,  II,  7). 

2.  After  certain  other  verbs ;  see  180.  A.  a,  b,  c. 


284  THE  VERB  138. 


THE  INFINITIVE-SUBSTANTIVE.  A 

188.  Different  from  the  preceding  infinitives,  which  can  be  used 
substantively  either  as  subject  or  object,  is  the  abstract  neuter 
infinitive-substantive,  which  may  take  an  article  or  other  adj.  modi- 
fiers before  it  and  is  declined  as  any  noun  in  =en,  and  is  written 
with  a  capital  letter :  2>a8  unauff)6rltd?e  ffietnen  beg  Jtinbeg  the  constant 
weeping  of  the  child.  3d)  Bin  beg  Srei&eng  ntitbe.  £>er  ©rfcen  SBeinen  ift 
ein  fyeimlid?  Sadjen  (proverb).  Qtuf  £ad?en  folgt  SBetnen.  2ftit  SBarten  rctrb 
nid)tg  erreidjt.  It  is  the  presence  of  the  article  (or  other  modifying 
adj.)  that  distinguishes  this  substantive  from  the  verbal  infin.  used 
as  subject  or  object,  and  when  these  modifying  words  do  not  stand 
before  the  substantive  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
them  :  dr  lernt  fdireiben.  (Sr  lernt  md)t  nur  @d)reifcen  unb  i'efen,  fonbern 
oud)  ©eograpjjie  unb  ®efd)id)te.  In  the  first  sentence,  fcfyrei&en  expresses 
an  activity,  in  the  second,  <2>d)reifren  a  branch  of  study* 

a.  This  substantive  has  still  verbal  nature  in  it,  since  it  can  take 
an  ace.  object  and  adverbial  modifiers,  which,  however,  are  usually 
written  as  one  word  with  the  substantive  :  5)a8  SKafjfjalten  the  faculty 
of  keeping  in  bounds;  bag  £angfamgefjen  the  slow  movement.    Notice 
that  the  objective  and  adverbial  modifiers  of  these  verbal  substantives 
must  as  in  case  of  verbal  infinitives  always  precede.    However,  there 
is  no  regularity  in  the  method  of  writing  these  compounds :  bag  3u* 
£age=treten  (or  bag  ju  Sage  treten,  or  bag  3"tagetreten)  ber  lefcten  (Sreigniffe. 
See  also  c,  below,  and  Note  thereunder. 

b.  In  the  case  of  the  formation  of  such  substantives  from  reflexive 
verbs,  it  is  necessary  in  some  cases  to  use  the  reflexive,  as  in  bag 
immer  tiefere  (Stdjoerfenfen  in  bag  303ort  beg  4?errn  The  penetrating  ever 
deeper  into  God's  Word.     In  some  other  cases  it  is  still  usual,  in 
accordance  with  older  usage,  to  drop  the  reflexive :  bag  SSeftnben  health, 
bag  SBetragen  conduct,  bag  33efinneu  reflecting.    2) a  war  etu  &reuen,  roenn 
er  nrieber  fam.     2)od)  wag  gefd?afy  auf  bcr  erfteit  ,,9Reunion,"  bte  id)  befud;te? 
6in  gropeg,  flerWidjeg  3SerIiebm  (Suttner's  Die  Waff  en  nieder!  I,  p.  10). 

c.  It  is  not  always  necessary  for  the  object  to  be  compounded  with 
the  substantive,  for  it  can  often  be  placed  after  the  substantive  as 
a  dependent  objective  genitive,  and  thus  in  this  respect  the  infinitive- 
substantive  differs  from  the  verbal  infin.,  as  the  latter  requires  its 
object  to  precede  in  the  ace.  (in  the  dat.  or  gen.  of  course,  if  the 
finite  verb  would  require  it) :  £>ag  @ffm  unreifer  &riid?te  ifl  ungefunb,  but 
llnreife  Srudjte  jit  effen  ift  ungefunb. 

Note.  Sometimes  in  early  N.H.G.,  as  quite  commonly  in  earlier  periods,  the  infini- 
tive-substantive could,  like  the  verbal  infinitive,  take  an  object  in  the  ace. :  SBcKm 
tyabe  id)  hjot  |  3lber  colnbringen  bag  gute  (now  SSoflbrtngen  beg  ©uten)  ffnbe  id)  ntd)t 
(Rom.  vii.  18).  The  object  in  this  construction  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  object  of 
n  verbal  noun  and  also  that  of  a  verb.  It  stands  after  the  infinitive-substantive  just  as 
the  object  of  a  verbal  noun,  and  it  is  in  the  ace.  just  as  the  object  of  a  verb.  Thus  the 
infinitive-substantive  in  this  congtruction  shows  more  substantive  nature  than  the  one 
described  in  a.  The  object  of  the  infinitive-substantive  is  now  usually  in  the  gen., 
which  shows  that  the  infin.  is  now  felt  as  a  true  noun. 


190.  i.  A.  b.   FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  TENSES    285 

189.  The  infinitive-substantive,  which  has  much  the  same  force 
as  verbal  nouns  in  English  (as,  To  read  is  profitable,  or  Reading  is 
profitable),  has  an  abstract  meaning  bordering  upon  the  abstract 
verbal  nouns  ending  in  *ung  and  those  formed  from  the  past  tense 
of  strong  verbs.  The  relation  of  this  infinitive-substantive  to  the 
other  verbal  nouns  is  that  the  former  is  more  abstract  and  hence 
cannot  usually  take  a  plural,  while  more  of  the  concrete  enters  into 
the  latter,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  following  instructive  sentence : 
2)a§  Unterfd?eiben  ifi  nicfyt  letcfyt,  benit  ber  llnterfd}ieb  jreifcben  greet  2)ingen 
ift  oft  fo  tterfiecft,  bafj  bie  llnterfcbeibung  beg  eirten  oon  bem  anbern  faum 
ntdgltd?  if}.  This  close  distinction  cannot  always  be  detected  so 
clearly  as  in  the  preceding  sentence,  and  hence  they  are  often 
confounded,  and  we  find  the  infinitive-substantive  instead  of  one  of 
the  other  more  correct  verbal  nouns,  especially  as  the  infin.  is  a 
favorite  construction :  bag  Qlufgefjen  bet  (Sonne  instead  of  ber  Qlufgang 
ber  ©onrte  the  rise  of  the  sun  ;  bag  Qlnferttgen  beg  (SargeS  instead  of  bie 
5lnfertigung  be8  ©argeS  the  making  of  the  coffin. 


FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  TENSES. 

190.  i.  A.  The  present  perfect,  indicative  and  subjunctive,  of 
transitive  and  most  intransitive  verbs  is  formed  with  the  present 
indie,  or  subj.  of  fyaben  and  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  be 
conjugated,  but  some  intransitives  (see  191)  form  this  tense  with  the 
present  of  fein  and  the  perfect  participle:  (indie.) id;  fyabe  gelobt,  but 
icfy  Inn  gefaflen ;  (subj.)  id)  tyabe  gelobt,  but  id)  fei  gefaflen. 

The  imperative  in  this  tense  has  only  two  persons,  the  second 
and  third.  The  second  person  is  formed  with  the  present  imperative 
of  Albeit  or  fern  and  the  perfect  participle,  and  the  third  person  with 
the  present  subjunctive  of  feabm  or  fern  and  the  perfect  participle : 
«&abe  we  umfonfl  gdebt !  (Gutzkow).  3n  bie  Grfe,  SSefeit !  JBefett !  €>eit>'3 
gercefen  !  (Goethe's  Zauberlehrling)  Into  the  corner  with  you,  brooms! 
May  you  soon  have  ceased  to  be  water-carriers!  3n3  ($rab !  2)te 
(Sdjaufeln  fyer!  @r  fei  geivefeu  (Kleist's  Kdthchen,  2,  8)  Into  the  grave 
with  him  !  Bring  on  the  shovels  !  May  he  soon  have  ceased  to  be  ! 

a.  Another  form  of  the  pres.  perf.  indie,  and  subj.  is  now  common  even 
in  good  authors,  however,  with  a  shade  of  difference  in  meaning.     To  the 
regular  pres.  perf.  form,  gcfyabt  is  often  added  if  the  verb  is  trans.,  or  getvefcu 
if  the  verb  is  intrans.,  to  indicate  that  a  past  condition  or  state  of  things  is 
to  be  represented  rather  than  a  past  act:  lijdj  fyabe  ba$  3)u$Ianc)e  wcrloren  getyabt ; 
nun  Ijabe  idj  e3  umber  (D.  Sanders).    9Zi^t  auf  bir  laftet  bie  ©iinlb,  bu  fyajl  bcin 
Jpcrj  bet  ?icbe  nid;t  verf^lcffen  gc()abt  (Jensen's  Das  Bild  im   IVasser,  p.  433). 
2)cr  eintge  3Konate  ucrrcifi  geujefen  tvar  (P.  Heyse's  Im  Parodies,  2,  347)  who  had 
been  away  from  town  several  months. 

b.  The  auxiliaries  Ijabm  and  fein  in  this  tense  are  frequently  omitted  in  the 
subjunctive  and  indicative :  ( i)  In  subordinate  clauses :  3Ran  fragte,  HID  cr  gemefm 
[fei],  wa<5  er  getrieben  [^abe].    Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  and 
until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  this  dropping  of  the  auxiliary  was 
almost  the  rule.     It  still  occurs  not  infrequently  in  prose  except  in  sentences 
containing  a  participle  with  the  form  of  the  infinitive,  where  it  is  now  quite 
rare.    Often :  28cnn  er  biefen  SBrief  fclbft  gefdjrteben  [(;at],  fo  unit  idj  ifyn  anjhlten, 


286  THE  VERB  190.  i.  A.*. 

but  2Benn  cr  biefcn  S3rief  fetbft  fjat  fdjreiben  fonnen,  fa  hnK  id)  tyn  anfletten.  In  such 
sentences,  however,  as  the  last  Lessing  still  frequently  omits  the  auxiliary. 
This  omission  of  the  auxiliary  is  a  characteristic  of  the  literary  rather  than 
the  spoken  language.  It  is  by  some  severely  condemned.  Those  who 
favor  it  claim  that  the  auxiliaries  are  useless  grammatical  forms  without 
real  meaning.  This  tendency  to  use  the  participle  alone  as  the  bearer  of 
the  thought  is  also  elsewhere  manifest,  as  described  in  183.  I.  G.  This 
omission  is  most  common  in  the  past  perfect  tense  in  lively  narrative :  Slber 
ciu  weitaus  gtcfjerer  (Rufnn  ate  bee  alte  ©tammbaum,  fdjten  itym  bie  £atfad)t,  bap  fcine 
2U)nen,  bie  etnjl  jur  felben  3«t,  *>a  bie  £ateburger  artne  <£d)»eijet  Stynafien  Qctttcfen, 
breit  auf  il)ren  ©iitern  tm  Xraungau  (jefeffeit  unb  bairn  bfm  Jtaifer  OJubolf  bie  (§r* 
ttevbung  biefefl  ®au3  erleic&tcrt,  nun  fett  geljn  ©efd)(ed)tent,  feit  after  S3eftfc  sertan 
tear,  aKergetreuefie  SMener  if)rer  §erren  getoefeiv  ati  Jtrieger  ober  Seamte  (Franzos's 
Der  Gott  des  alien  Doctors,  p.  88).  In  poetry  fetn  is  sometimes  omitted  in 
the  subordinate  clause,  when  it  is  not  a  mere  auxiliary,  but  is  the  copula : 
2)te  tttir  bie  9tdd)ften,  fyaben  mid)  servaten  (Grillparzer's  Kbnig  Ottokar,  5). 
Occasionally  in  prose :  3)od)  er  trug,  nne'S  iibUd),  »om  Dfyr  gum  Dl)r  unter  bent 
rafierten  Jlinn  burd)  etuen  fc^malen,  grauen  33artfranj  (Jensen's  Heimkunft,  II,  3). 
(2)  In  principal  clauses,  in  the  crisp  style  of  telegrams  and  also  in  familiar 
style :  [idj  fyabe]  (Sben  telegtapfytfd)  bie  Slngelegenfyeit  gelofl  (from  a  telegram).  9lun, 
[^ajl  bu  btc^]  gut  antuftert,  ^inbc^en?  Also  in  vivid  language ;  see  183.  i.  G. 

B.  The  pastperf.  of  trans,  and  most  intrans.  verbs  is  formed  with 
the  past  tense  of  fyafren  and  the  perf.  part,  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated, 
but  some  intransitives  (see  191)  form  this  tense  with  the  past  tense 
of  fetn  and  the  perf.  part. :  (indie.)  id?  Ijatte  gelofct,  but  id?  irar  gefatlen; 
(subj.)  id?  tycitte  gelo&t,  but  id)  njare  gefaflen.. 

a.  As  in  certain  dialects  the  pres.  perf.  replaces  the  past  (see  165.  i.  b), 
the  past  perf.  is  replaced  by  a  special  form  made  by  adding  ge^abt  in  case  of 
transitives  and  gewefen  in  case  of  intransitives  to  the  regular  pres.  perf. :  93in  idj 
fdjulb,  bap  bet  fflaron  fid)  im  3intmer  bet  nttr  ^at  etngeft^Ud^en  (perf.  for  past)  ? ! 
3d)  Ijab'  ifyt  nidjt  ^inbefient  ge^abt !  (instead  of  Ijatte  IjinbefteUt)  (Halbe's  Das 
tausendjdhrige  Reich,  p.  31).    IDann  F>at  ftdj'3  (=  fte  fid))  ubet  bad  ^inb  g'worfen 
(perf.  for  past),  unb  fyat'3  fo  tang  niebergebrucft  (perf.  for  past)  in  bie  Jtifien  nttt 
intern  ganjen  2eib,  big  bad  3)trnb'I  (=  3JJdbd)en)  erftirft  ift  g'n?efen  (instead  of 
erfttcft  tt>ar)  unter  ber  £afl  (Telmann).    For  the  use  of  this  form  in  indirect 
discourse  see  171.  2.  B.  e. 

This  formation  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  literary  language  in  the 
infinitive  with  the  force  of  the  past  perfect,  although  grammarians  have  not 
generally  recognized  a  past  perfect  infinitive:  Subttng  fd)eint  fid)  entfernt  gu 
fyabcn  //  seems  that  L.  has  -withdrawn,  or  £.  fd)eint  ftd)  bamatd  entfernt  git  fyabeit 
//  seems  that  L,  withdrew  at  that  time,  but  fi.  fd)etnt  fid)  entfemt  gefyabt  ju  Ijaben 
(Wustmann's  Sprachdummheiten,  p.  no,  3rd  ed.)  //  seems  that  L.  had 
withdrawn. 

b.  A  past  perf.  form,  corresponding  to  the  pres.  perf.  described  in  A.  a, 
above,  is  now  common  in  good  authors.     The  participles  gefyafct  in  case  of 
transitives  and  gewefen  in  case  of  intransitives  are  added  to  the  regular  past 
perf.  to  form  a  past  perf.  with  a  slight  difference  of  meaning.     This  past 
perf.  differs  from  the  regular  one  in  that  it  expresses  a  state  or  condition  of 
things  instead  of  an  action :  3d?  fyatte  ben  S3rtef  fdjon  gefd)rieben  gefyabt,  als  id) 
beine  Slnfrage  befam.     There  is  quite  a  pronounced  tendency  in  the  colloquial 
speech  of  the  classical  period,  and  especially  that  of  our  own  time,  to  direct 
attention  in  this  manner  to  a  state  or  condition  of  things,  while  in  choice 
language  the  attention  is  directed  to  the  act,  and  hence   the  usual   past 
perfect  form  is  used  :  3d?  fyitte  ben  93orfa((  balb  hnebcr  »ergeficn  gefyabt  (H.  Hoff- 
mann).   @r  Ijdtte  jie  (biefe  ©ntbecfung)  gern  »ermieben  geljabt  (Byr)  He  would 


190. I.E. a.     FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  TENSES      287 

gladly  have  prevented  this  discovery  (would  gladly  have  kept  the  matter 
concealed).  Jtaum  war  jie  genefen  unb  fiatte  gelernt  gefiabt,  nneber  ein  bijjd?en  2Jlut 
jU  faffen,  al$  ba3  gvofje  Ungturf  gefdjaf)  (Boy-Ed).  There  is  also  a  tendency  to 
use  this  past  perfect  tense  form  instead  of  the  regular  one,  even  where  the 
reference  is  clearly  to  an  act  and  not  to  a  state  or  condition :  55a$  ,,9lbieu" 
fyatte  fie  genait  in  bent  namlid?en  Xon  fyerttcrgebvadjt,  ntit  bent  er  e$  bamate  an  bet 
©artenpfcrte  gefprod?en  unb  jte  brauf  eroibert  geijabt  (Jensen's  Das  Bild  im 
Wasser,  p.  307). 

c.  The  auxiliaries  tjaben  and  fein  are  often  dropped  in  subordinate  clauses 
as  in  the  case  of  the  pres.  perf. ;  see  A.  b.  (i). 

C.  a.   The  future,  indie,  and  subj.,  is  formed  with  the  pres.  indie, 
and  subj.  of  iverben  and  the  simple  infin. :  (indie.)  id?  irerbe  lofcen,  id? 
imfe  fatten ;  (subj.)  id;  icetbe  lo&en,  id;  irerbe  fatten. 

Note  i.  The  infin.  here  seems  to  be  a  corrupted  form  of  the  pres.  participle,  which 
was  used  in  earlier  periods,  as  in  the  following  sentence  from  the  fourteenth  century  : 
selic  (felig)  sint  die  da  reines  herzens  sint,  wan  (=  benn)  sie  werdent  (wevben)  got 
(@ott)  sehende.  See  G. 

Note  2.  In  M.H.G.  and  sometimes  in  early  N.H.G.  the  future  was  formed  by  means 
of  the  auxiliaries  ftoflen  and  foUen,  just  as  in  English  to-day.  The  present  German 
form  of  the  future  is  a  decided  improvement,  as  it  expresses  the  idea  of  futurity  pure  and 
simple,  while  tt)o(len  and  fcllett,  and  in  English  will  and  shall,  contain  a  certain  element 
of  modality,  implying  in  addition  to  the  idea  of  futurity  that  of  desire  and  authority. 
The  use  of  ftotlen  to  express  futurity  still  continues  in  the  infin. ;  see  b. 

b.  The  fut.  infin.  is  formed  with  the  infin.  of  rcotten  and  the 
infin.  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated :  d3  fd?etnt  tegnen  ju  vcotten  It 
seems  about  to  rain,  ©orbon  gab  itfcrigenS  bie  SSerftcfyrung,  eS  gndbig 
mad?en  ju  rooflen  (Fontane's  Ce'cile,  chap,  vi)  Gordon  assured  her, 
moreover,  that  he  would  not  be  too  severe.  SWan  trennte  ftd?  fritf), 
abet  bod)  ntit  ber  3»ftd?erung,  am  anbmt  Sage  fydteftenS  inn  jte&en  fceim 
5n"it)ftitd:  fein  ^u  woflen  (id.,  Die  Poggenpuhls,  chap,  xiv), 

D.  The  future  perfect,  indie,  and  subj.,  is  formed  with  the  present 
indie,  or  subj.  of  irerben  and  the  perfect  infinitive :  (indie.)  id?  rcetbe 
gelobt  fyaben,  id?  reerbe  gefaflen  fein ;  (subj.)  id?  rcerbe  gelobt  t;a6en,  id?  icerbe 
gefatten  fein. 

E.  The  present  conditional  is  formed  with  the  past  subj.  of  trerben 
and  the  simple  infinitive  :  id?  irttrbe  lofcen  I  should  praise,  id?  iriirbe 
fatten  I  should  fall. 

a.  The  infinitive  here  is  the  mutilated  form  of  the  present  participle ;  see 
G,  below.  The  conditional  is  in  fact  the  past  subjunctive  of  the  peculiar 
tense  form  described  in  G,  below,  consisting  of  the  present  tense  of  ttxrbm 
and  the  present  participle  or  infinitive  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated.  The 
indicative  of  this  past  tense  is  lost.  Before  it  disappeared  it  had  become 
a  mere  periphrasis  for  the  usual  simple  past  tense,  having  lost  its  original 
meaning:  MofcS  aber  toarb  jittern  (=  gitterte)— Acts  vii.  32.  55 a  ujart  id)  ju 
bent  Sllten  jeljett  (=  35a  fagte  id?  nu  bent  9Utcn)— H.  Sachs.  The  surviving  past 
subj.  of  this  formation  is  thus  a  periphrasis  for  the  simple  past  subj. 
Grammarians  would  limit  its  use  to  the  principal  proposition  of  conditional 
sentences  and  to  indirect  discourse,  but  in  accordance  with  its  origin  it  is 
used  more  widely  even  by  good  authors  as  a  periphrasis  for  the  simple 
subjunctive,  as  described  in  169.  i.  A.  a;  169.  i.U.a;  169.2.B.a;  169.2. 
C.  b,  and  E.  Note$.  On  account  of  the  lack  of  clear  subjunctive  forms  and 
the  general  dislike  for  the  simple  forms  of  this  mood  this  usage  is  spreading. 
The  best  usage,  however,  instead  of  thus  using  interchangeably  the  condi- 
tional and  the  simple  subjunctive,  inclines  to  differentiate  them,  so  that  the 


288  THE  VERB 

former  expresses  future  time  and  the  latter  present  time,  or  in  subordinate 
clauses  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  principal  verb  :  fflie  fte  taitfcn,  al3  ob  jie 
auS  3ucfer  ftdren  (present  time)  unb  bte  fdjtoeren,  frifd)en  9?egentrovfen  an  ifynen 
lecfen  unb  auflofen  toiirben  (future  time) !  (H.  Bohlau's  Adam  und  Eva,  chap.  i). 
®3  fyatte  ben  9lnfd)ein,  at$  l»urbe  (would]  ftd)  bie  ©pefutation  ntefyt  ber  ^eripfyerie 
ber  €>tabt  jutoenben  (future),  but  @3  fyatte  ben  9lnfd)ein,  al3  nxnbete  (-were  turning) 
fid)  bie  (SpeMation  mef)r  ber  ^ertpljevte  ber  <Stabt  gu  (contemporaneity). 

b.  In  dialect,  especially  S.G.  dialect,  the  conditional  is  often  formed  with 
tat  (past  subj.  of  tun),  both  in  the  active  and  passive  in  principal  and 
subordinate  propositions :  SMtebefl  and)  bu  bafyetm,  9la£l,  mora,en  tdt'3  bir  gennfj 
nid)t  leib  fein  (Rosegger)  If  you,  Natzl,  also  would  remain  at  home,  it  would 
certainly  be  better  for  you  to-morrow.  „  Unb  ber  fteben  <Sd)U>erter  ivegen  n>o((te 
id)  nod)  fagen,"  ntetute  bag  ©rairf)auj?t,  ,,tt>enn  fte  I)a(t  taten  uergolbet  nxrbcn"  (id.) 
'  As  to  the  seven  swords,  I  also  wanted  to  say,'  remarked  the  old  man,  '  it 
would  be  better  if  they  should  be  gilded.' 

F.  The  perfect  conditional  is  formed  with  the  past  subj.  of 
rcerfcen  and   the  perfect  infinitive:    icE>  ttiirbe  gelo&t  l)aben,  id;  iriirbe 
gefatten  fein. 

G.  In  early  N.H.G.  compound  tense  forms  consisting  of  the 
present  or  past  tense  of  irerbeit  in  connection  with  the  pres.  part, 
of  the  verb  were  used  to  indicate  the  commencement  of  an  action 
in  the  present  or  past :  (£r  icirb  laufenb  He  is  beginning  to  run. 
@r  icarb  laufenb  He  began  to  run.     In  the  same  way  the  present  and 
past  tense  of  fein  were  used  with  the  present  participle  to  indicate 
the  continuance  of  an  action,  just  as  the  progressive  form  of  the 
verb  in  English :  (£8  itarett  aber  Si'iben  gu  Seritfalem  ironenD  (Acts  ii.  5). 
The  present  participle  in  these  constructions  often  goes  over  into 
the  infinitive  form :  <£r  irarb  laufen,  er  tear  rooljnen.    This  change  of 
form  was  rendered  easy  and  natural  on  one  hand  by  the  fact  that 
the  present  participle  had  in  careless  speech  become  identical  with 
the  infinitive  in  form,  on  the  other  hand  by  the  analogy  of  other 
similar  constructions  which   require  an   infinitive  after  auxiliary 
verbs.     The  participial  and  infinitive  forms  in  connection  with  fein 
have  lingered  on  even  up  to  our  own  day  in  the  case  of  the  verb 
cermuten  :  3d?  roar  mir  <2ie  in  bent  SSorjtmmer  ntdjt  ttermutenb  (Lessing's 
Emilia  Galotti,  2,  7).    Sffiag  gilt'3,  bag  rcarft  bu  nid?t  bermnten  (id.,  Nathan, 
2,  i).     <So  etrcag  rear  id)  fcennuten  (Milliner's  Die  Schuld,  4,  i).     (S3  gtbt 
o'iele  OlebenSarten  fur  bie  Setaufmng,  bie  ben  SOienf^en  iiberfommt,  trenn 
ifym  etiva§  tegecjnet,  beffen  er  ftd)  iwrd)au8  nid^t  sermutenb  ivar  (Raabe's 
Hastenbeck,  chap.  xiii).     The  construction  of  irerben  with  the  in- 
finitive has  become  obsolete  except  in  two  very  common  cases, 
where  it  has  taken  on  a  slightly  different  meaning,   serving  as 
the  regular  tense  form  of  the  future  (see  C.  a.  Note  i,  above)  and 
the  conditional  (see  E.  a).     In  some  dialects,  however,  as  in  Austria, 
the  present  participle  survives  here  with  its  original  force  :  <£o  oft  bie 
Oieb'  auf'n  ©el&tjofbauer  fommt,  tnirs  bei  ifym'g  9Rabel  laufenD  unb  bo  tyafyelt 
er  bie  ganje  alte  ©efcfyicbt'  after  (Anzengruber's  Kreuzelschreiber,  i,  i). 

The  construction  of  fein  with  pres.  part,  may  be  surviving  in  a  few 
colloquial  expressions :  @r  ifi  jtf$en  He  is  a-fishing.  ©r  rcirb  n?o^t 
ftfd^en  fein,  meinte  er  (Kinkel).  3^  I;a6e  @ie  u6era«  gefucf;t :  e§  ^te§,  6ie 
feien  f^ajieren  (Sophie  Junghans  in  Zwei  BrUder,  vol.  I.  p.  80).  @r 


191. 1.  THE  USE  OF  Ijabctt  AND  fein  289 

til  init  fciner  2J?ama  fyajteren  gewcfcn  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Allen  und  die 
Jungen,.  p.  55).  38  nit  batyoam  V  SBciuriu  ?  Answer :  9ta,  fte  is  6eid?ten 
(Anzengruber's  Kreuzelschreiber,  2,  i).  As  these  forms  are  con- 
strued as  infinitives  ju  is  also  found  before  them :  33ifj  jit  ritljen 
(=  fei  rufyenb,  rit^ig)  (Wickram's  Rollwagenbiichlein,  103,  3).  Unb  alg 
er  ideber  jit  ftfd?en  tear,  |  ba  lie§  id?  einen  @d?a£  ifyn  ftnben  (Schiller's 
Macbeth,  i,  4).  The  jit  in  these  forms  has  disappeared. 

The  present  participle  is  still  often  found  in  connection  with  both 
irerben  and  fein,  but  it  now  has  here  only  the  force  of  an  adj. :  @r  ifl 
Sjermijgenb  He  is  rich.  ®efct  jebm  3^eifel  auf,  (Suer  -JKann  ifl  flerknb 
(in  a  dying  condition)  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Maslans  Frau\  3f)re 
(£timme  ifl  erftet6enb,t>erfyaud?enb(Hauptmann's  VersunkencGlocke,Kct  5). 

2.  These  compound  tenses  are  often  abbreviated  by  suppressing 
the  non-personal  part,  i.  e.  participle  and  infinitive,  when  the  sup- 
pressed words  can  easily  be  supplied  from  the  context.  This  ab- 
breviation may  assume  two  forms  : 

a.  The  personal  part  of  the  verb,  i.  e.  the  auxiliary,  may  alone 
remain,  accompanied  by  one  of  the  pronouns  ba§,  e3,  irag,  which 
represent  the  suppressed  non-personal  part  of  the  preceding  verb 
with  all  its  modifiers,  and  thus  stand  for  the  whole  thought  ex- 
pressed in  the  preceding  sentence :  5)u  nwrbejl  fie  ja  ntcfyt  gejnnmcien 
fyabeu  ?  Stein,  baS  fcatte  id?  ntcfyt,  or  9tein,  bag  luiirbe  id)  ntd?t  You,  certainly, 
would  not  have  forced  her,  would  you  ?     No,  I  would  not.    <Sie  fyat 
gefci'tfjt,  ivafyrlid?  fte  l;at  e3  She  has  atoned  for  it,  indeed,  she  has.     @r 
^at  ftubiert,  iraS  id?  ntd?t  fyafce. 

b.  The  personal  part  of  the  verb  may  alone  remain,  unaccom- 
panied by  a  pronoun,  the  suppressed  words  easily  being  supplied 
from  the  context,    -^dtteft  bu  i|n  nefjmen  ntijgen,  <§elma?     OJeirif?  ^dtt' 
id?  [i^)it  nefymen  mogcn]   Would   you   have  wanted  to  accept  him, 
Selma?     Certainly,  I  would.     S55art!    eud?  iverb'  id?  [furanjen]  Just 
wait,  boys  1    I'll  give  you  a  good  sound  thrashing.     3d?  iretf?,  rcaS  id? 
[tun]  twbe !    3d?  6ffnc  bte  ^iir  unb  irerfe  fte.    Otto  :  91Hr  fatten  ©trauperg 
and?  ot)ne  tfjn  fcefommen!  Barbara:  QBarum ^att  3i)r  ntd?t?  (Wildenbruch's 
Die  Quitzows,  2,  4). 

THE  USE  OF  tyafcen  AND  fein. 

191.  The  use  of  tyafccn  and  fein  as  auxiliaries  of  tense  presents 
peculiar  difficulties  to  the  English-speaking  student,  as  the  German 
has  two  auxiliaries  for  the  one  to  have  in  English. 

The  following  distinctions  between  the  use  of  fjafcen  and  fein  are 
to  be  observed : 

I.  «£a6en  is  used  with  transitives :  3d?  f?a6e  ben  QBrief  a,efd?rie&en 
I  have  written  the  letter,  lit.  I  have  the  letter  in  a  written 
condition. 

Durative  intransitives,  i.  e.  such  as  represent  an  act  as  con- 
tinuing, form  their  compound  tenses  after  the  manner  of  transitives 
with  tyaixn :  3d?  tyafce  gearfeeitet,  fte  tyat  gefungen,  icir  fyaben  gdad?t.  (£8  fyat 
gmgnet. 

On  the  other  hand,  intransitives  which  do  not  represent  an  act 

u 


290  THE  VERB  191.1. 

as  continuing,  but  indicate  the  final  point — perfectives — or  the 
beginning  of  an  act— inchoatives — are  conjugated  with  fein.  The 
full  treatment  of  perfectives  and  inchoatives  is  given  in  1 1,  below. 
The  boundary  lines  of  usage  between  fjafcen  and  fein  are  not  at 
every  place  clearly  drawn.  Earlier  in  the  period  fyafcen  was  more 
widely  used  than  to-day,  as  can  be  seen  in  II.  B.  e;  C.  i.  a  and  2.  a ; 
D,  E,  below.  It  has,  however,  made  small  gains  in  the  one  group 
described  in  II.  A.  Note.  In  English  the  development  has  been  in 
the  opposite  direction,  for  to  be  has  been  entirely  replaced  here  by 
to  have,  except  in  certain  cases,  where  to  be  may  still  be  used  to 
express  the  idea  of  a  state  or  result :  The  melancholy  days  are 
come  (Bryant).  When  he  awoke,  the  boys  of  the  village  were 
gathered  round  him. 

Note.  The  transitives  attfofjren  ta  speak  harshly  to,  rebuke,  angetjen  to  ask,  solicit, 
concern,  cuttaufen  to  touch  (call)  at  (a  port),  anttxmbetn  to  come  over,  burd)fa()'ren  to 
drive  through,  bltrd)gd)'ctt  to  go  through  or  over,  bltrd)lau'fen  to  run  through  or  over, 
burdjlvan'bern  to  walk  through,  burd)jiefj'en  to  travel  through,  eingeljen  to  enter  into 
(a  contract,  &c.),  Vaffterett  to  pass  (as  a  verb  of  motion),  uberfcm'ttten  to  come  over, 
seize,  are  not  only  conjugated  with  fyaben,  but  also  not  infrequently  with  fein,  as  the 
force  of  the  simple  verb,  which  is  primarily  an  intransitive  conjugated  with  fein,  asserts 
itself:  SMnid)  U)it  atigefafyren :  5Bag  er  babeim  §erb  jutunfyatt'?  (Rosegger's  Martin 
derMann,  p.  76).  Sa§  er  bort  cben  auf  bent  Serge  and)  bent  Slumenmaler  *JMb  SBille 
einen  ^>(afc  im  SWatcrfaal  gab,  fyatte  er  nut  werantworteu  fcnnen,  ftenn  cr  vcrfjer  bie 
^afiorin  son  23offjen  urn  ifyre  ^Mining  unb  ifyren  9Jat  angegangen  roare  (Raabe's 
Hastenbeck,  chap.  iv).  @ie  fatten  fd&on  imtner  aHerljanb  im  .£>albfd)laf  gefyort: 
£iiren  \vierfen,  bie  laute  Scnnerftimme  beg  Sktevg ;  abet  eg  tear  fte  nid)tg  angegangen 
(concerned)  (H.  Bohlau's  Adam  und  Eva,  chap.  ii).  Sag  ganje  !Dorf  ivar  id)  fdjcit 
buvd)»anbevt  «ou  einent  (Snbe  jum  anbevu  (Paul  Keller's  Waldwinter,  IV).  3d)  bin 
bie  3#arf  [S3canbcnbnvg]  buv^^ogcn  unb  tyabe  ite  rcidjec  gefunben,  a(g  id)  ju  I)offen 
gelt»agt  t)atte  (Fontane's  Wanderungen^  i,  Preface).  Sec  SMfdjcf  SSebefinb  beveute 
nid)t  fetten  gar  fet)r  ben  ^anbel,  i»eld)en  er  ntit  bem  Slbt  Jpeinrtd)  gu  Sulba  einge; 
gangen  Jt»ar  (Raabe's  Die  fJdmelschen  Kinder,  chap.  iii).  ^annocet  (ship)  ijt  geftcrn 
Jtap  ^enrt)  !paffiert  {Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  30.  Mai,  1901 ;  five  times  with  fein 
on  one  page),  Sag  inftinftbe  (Sefuljl  enter  nnabtoenbbaren  fiber  9tadjt  Ijereinbredjenben 
©efal)r,  bag  it»n  an  jeiiem  Xage  $um  erften  2Kale  iibcrfommfn  i»ar,  atg  er  »cn  Urbang 
flatten  erfltfyr  (M.  Kretzer's  Meister  Timpe,  chap.  ix).  @ie  tt)U§te  felbji  nid)t,  »ag  fte 
itberfominen  War  (Storm's  Zur  Wald-  und  Wasserfreude,  p.  188). 

Slnfontttten  to  seize,  come  (hard,  easy,  &c.)  for  (one),  and  verbs  of  motion,  as  geljen, 
fommen,  tanfen,  reiten,  in  composition  with  »criiber  or  vcrbei  (see  also  259.  36),  are 
ustially  conjugated  with  fein,  as  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself:  Setttt 
eg  ftar  jn  ein  fdjrecfen  anfomnten  (Luke  v.  9).  (Saner  ifl'g  ntid)  gcnug  angefommen 
CAnzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap.  vii).  ^ein  ®efd)C^f  bijl  bu  ttotbeigegangen  (Herder). 
2Btr  finb  fein  SBirtsljang  vorubergegangen,  p()ite  cin^ufeliren  (Blatz). 

The  transitives  einfd)Iagen  to  take  (a  way,  road),  iibergel)'en  to  pass  over,  umfofy'rctt 
to  drive  around,  utttgel)'en  to  walk  around,  are  occasionally  found  with  fein  earlier  in  the 
period,  but  are  now  usually  conjugated  with  (jaben. 

Verbs  that  take  a  cognate  accusative  (see  257.  2.  A)  are  not  real  transitives,  and 
hence  usually  take  fein  where  the  simple  verb  is  conjugated  with  fein  :  3d)  bin  fo  iange 
(Sifenbaljn  gefatjren,  bap  mid)  afle  Jtonbuftenre  fannten.  <£>aben  is  sometimes  used  here 
to  give  expression  to  the  durative  idea :  3d)  IjStte  (perhaps  under  the  influence  of_/W 
couru  le  risque)  Oefafyr  aetaiifen,  mid)  ju  »erfd^na^en  (Lessing).  Sie  ©clbaten 
I)aben  gtoeimal  ©turnt  gelaufett  ittiber  bie  9Rauer  (Sanders'  WorterfacK).  Present 
usage,  however,  inclines  also  here  toward  fein  in  accordance  with  the  general  trend  of 
mtransitives  toward  fein :  3d)  bin  (^abe)  grc§e  ©efa^r  getaufen  (Blatz).  In  many  other 
cases  the  ace.  is  an  adverbial  ace.  and  the  verb  is  to  be  regarded  as  intransitive :  3d) 
bin  biefen  SBeg  nod)  nic  geritten.  @r  ijt  bie  Simmer  al(e  bnrdjgegangen. 

II.  £;?m  is  only  used  with  intransitives  : 

i.  When  the  subject  is  thought  of,  not  as  acting,  but  as  resting 


191.II.A.  THE   USE  OF  Iwbctt  AND  feitt  291 

in  a  state  or  condition  produced  by  the  action,  or  as  reposing  at 
some  goal  or  destination  that  has  been  reached  by  means  of  the 
activity  indicated  in  the  verb.  Examples  in  B  and  C. 

2.  As  the  resultant  condition  and  the  attained  goal  are  not  only 
the  outcome  of  an  activity  but  also  often  the  commencement  of 
something  new,  feiu  often  has  inchoative  force  and  points  to  the 
beginning  of  a  state  or  activity:  <5ctn  <§erj  ijl  flu  i(jr  in  HMefce  cntfcrannt 
His  heart  has  become  inflamed  with  love  for  her.     Gr  ift  aircraft 
He  has  started  on  a  journey.     Other  examples  are  given  in  A,  B, 
an4C,  below.    In  the  category  explained  in  A  and  Note  thereunder 
South  Germans  prefer  fetn  to  tjafceu  in  order  that  they  may  give 
expression  to  the  inchoative  idea. 

3.  <Seiu  is  often  used  with   certain  verbs  of  motion  pure  and 
simple  without  mention  of  a  goal  or  destination,  for  the  reason  that, 
being  so   often    used   with    these   words    when   a   destination   is 
expressed,  it  has  become  associated  with  them  and  remains  even 
when  there  is  no  reference  to  a  goal.      Examples  are  given  in 
C.  2.  a  and  b,  and  D. 

These  are  the  general  principles  which  may  serve  as  a  general 
guide.     The  detailed  treatment  follows  : 
<£etn  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  of  tense  : 

A.  With  two  verbs  of  rest,  fcin  to  be  and  bteiben  to  remain  :  £>a3  ©elb  ijl  in 
ber  gamitte  gcblieben. 

Note.  The  list  was  once  larger.  In  early  N.H.G.,  in  the  classical  period  and  even 
later,  befjarren  to  insist  upon,  bcrufien  to  rest  upon,  bcjleljen  to  insist  upon,  bangen  to. 
hang,  Uegcn  to  lie,  jtfcen  to  sit,  jlecfett  to  stick  (intrans.),  remain,  fdjtocbcit  to  hover, 
ftefyen  to  stand,  are  still  found  with  fein,  more  frequently  earlier  in  the  period,  and  later 
gradually  disappearing  in  the  language  of  the  North  :  2Bie  eft  bin  id)  Ittcfct  baranf 
bejlanben?  (Lessing's  Freigeist,  i,  i).  @o  jtnfc  nnr  al(e  in  bent  Unjlat  gejlecft  (Luther). 
SBcnn  id}  fo  bei  iljr  gefefjen  bin  (Goethe).  2Benn  ifyc  nidjt  Soities  9lrmant>  im  ©inn 
gelegen  tvare  (Gutzkow).  Occasionally  in  our  own  time  as  a  survival  of  this  older 
usage,  even  in  the  North  :  2Bdf)rcnb  ber  Sungere  Stebling  be3  3nfcnnatcr<3  gcujcfcn  unb 
and)  nod)  nad)  ben  Sefyrjhmben  in  iftrer  M ammet  uber  ben  93ud)ent  flcfcjfen  ift,  I>at  ber 
3Utere  algbalb  ben  S3auern  unb  Jlncd)ten  braupen  bet  ber  Slrbett  jugefebcn  (Storm's  Zur 
Chronik  von  Grieshuus,  p.  92).  §ibet  ba^  Jpaud  felbjl  irar  am  9iad)mittage,  als  id> 
bcvt  locrbcigcgangen,  in  feinet  getooljnten  unwberlidjen  (Sinfamfcit  bageflanbcn  (id., 
John  J\iew'}.  Thus  in  general  the  point  of  view  has  shifted  somewhat  within  the 
present  period.  Luther  in  the  sentence  given  above  emphasized  the  beginning  of  the 
act,  the  getting  into  the  filth,  while  the  North  and  Middle  Germans  ol  our  time  call 
attention  to  the  continuation  in  the  resultant  condition  or  assumed  position,  and  hence 
use  tyaben.  The  literary  language  of  the  South  still  preserves  the  older  usage  :  Set 
jnnge  s^viefht  tt»ar  auf  ber  dntfermmg  ber  SMlber  befoarrt  (Marriot's  Dcr  geistliche 
Tod,  chap.  iv).  £>u  »cet§t,  bap  id)  »en  jefyct  cinent  ibcalen  3uge  nadjge^angen  bin 
(G.  Keller).  33iele  SWonatc  war  er  im  @pital  gelcgen  (Rosegger).  3d)  itnbe  bid> 
anberg,  al^  bu  mir  in  ber  Grinnerung  vergefdjnxbt  bifl  (Marriot's  Seine  Gottheit, 
chap,  xxviii).  3d)  bin  ntd)t  immer  im  Scben  gefiecft,  irie  ber  33ar  in  feinem  gel( 
(Ebner-Eschenbach).  5lm  Jtird)()of  bort  bin  id)  gejknben  (Lenau).  To  the  above  list 
may  be  added  for  the  South :  fycrfeit  to  sit  continually  in  one  place,  pore  over,  fnten  to 
kneel,  flebeit  to  stick. 

©cttt  is  also  used  in  the  North  with  these  verbs,  if  the  inchoative  idea  becomes 
prominent,  or  if  there  is  any  idea  of  change  of  place  or  condition  :  Sad  2)tng  ijl  brtn 
int  Jj3a{)n  gefejfen  (Storm's  Im  Brauer-Hause,  p.  103)  The  thing  got  fastened  in  the 
faucet.  31(3  ev  anf  ben  glut  juviicfgefe&vt  trar,  ijl  er  »cr  ber  Xrcpve  jlifl  gejlanben 
(stopped),  ate  ntufle  er  and)  l)ier  bie  ©tiegen  ncd)  hinauf  (Storm's  Eekenhof,  p.  72).  @in 
bufeenbmal  bin  id)  fd)on  anf  bent  $  unite  gejlanben,_il)m  bie  ganje  ©cfd)idite  »or  bie  Sujie 
511  ttcrfcn  unb  ifjn  fetnca  aBcges  adein  gehen  jn  lanen  (Spielhagen's  Stlbstgerecht,  p.  80). 

U  2 


292  .  THE  VERB  191. II. A. 

£>ann  finb  ju  ben  dnten  bie  ©anfe  geftanben  (=  Sann  Ijabcn  fid)  —  begeben)  unb  af(e 
Ijaben  bie  ^idlfe  nad)  mir  geredt  (Raabe's  Schtidderump,  chap.  xiv).  (go  circas  (i.  e.  baa 
lange  .flleib)  Ijatte  man  bei  unei  im  93ufdj  nidjt  braud)en  fcnnen,  ba  frare  man  balb  auf 
ber  9tafe  gelcgen  (Jensen's  Heimkunft,  VI).  (@t  ftefyt  auf,  recft  ficfy.)  3d)  bin  roieber 
gang  fteif  gefeffeit  (Fulda's  Die  -wilde  Jagd,  3,  2)  I  have  again  become  quite  stiff 
from  sitting.  The  inchoative  idea  becomes  most  prominent  in  compounds,  where 
fein  is  quite  common  even  in  the  North:  3(jr  eitt  ©tufcer  jU  fein  in  bem  (scfjuffat, 
bent  fie  untevlegen  War  (F.  Lewald).  Here,  however,  as  often  elsewhere,  as  for 
instance -in  C.  2.  b,  below,  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself  and  conjugation 
with  Ijaben  follows :  !Die  Sftepubliiamfdje  Cartel  Ijatre  im  SSorparlament  untevtegen 
(Karl  Biedermann's  Dreifsig JaJire  deulscher  Geschichte,  I.  p.  270).  Of  course  Ijaben 
should  be  used  if  the  durative  idea  is  prominent :  33et  ben  rein  pteufjifdjeit  (livik 
biplcmaten,  toetdje  ber  SBirfung  ntilitarifdjer  2>i3jiplin  gar  nidjt  ober  unjitrei'djenb 
unterlegeit  fatten,  Ijabe  id)  in  bet  Olegel  eine  gu  ftarfe  9leigung  jur  Jtritif  gefunben 
(Bismarck).  In  S.G.  we  often  find  fein  in  compounds  even  where  we  would  naturally 
expect  Ijaben,  as  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself:  Sie  33ud)en  toaren  bed) 
bent  3erbredjen  nnberfianben  (Stifter's  Studien,  2,  92). 

It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  the  real  controlling  factor  in  the  use  of  Ijaben  and 
fein.  In  the  following  sentence  from  the  N.G.  Hebbel,  it  cannot  be  determined  with 
absolute  definiteness  whether  fein  is  used  because  the  drama  plays  in  the  year  1426,  or 
because  the  scene  lies  in  the  South,  or  .because  the  author  being  in  the  South  is 
influenced  by  his  surroundings,  or  because  older  usage  has  survived  here  in  the 
author's  own  northern  dialect  as  in  case  of  the  sentences  of  Storm  given  above  : 
Slug  nteinen  gtypen  Ij^tt'  id)  $ern  ben  SSerbanb  gemadjt,  luenn  ber  SSater  nidjt  babei 
geftanben  tnarc  (slgties  Bernauer,  i,,  2). 

Earlier  in  the  period  fein  was  also  conjugated  with  Ijaben  in  N.G.  and  M.G. :  2)arumb 
Ijett  nie  fein  fyetylge  fjo  fune  geiueft  (Luther,  Weim.  Ausg.,  I,  220). 

B.  With  verbs  which  represent  the  subject  as  resting  in  a  new  state  or 
condition  as  the  result  of  a  change  brought  about  by  the  action  of  the  verb. 
The  idea  of  rest  is  contained  in  the  auxiliary,  that  of  action  is  contained  in 
the  verb,  and  that  of  change  from  or  into  may  lie : 

a.  In  some  prefix  of  the  verb  such  as  em  away,  from,  transition  into,  er 
out  of,  into  a  state  of,  v>er  to  the  end  of,  change  into,  jer  dissolution,  violent 
separation,  a   breaking  to   pieces,  a  scattering,  anf  up,  ein  into,  &c. :  35a3 
3JJabd)en  ift  errotet  The  girl  has  blushed  (literally,  has  reddened  out}.     2Me  Oicfe 
tft  erbliifyt  The  rose  has  come  out  into  blossom.     S)ic  Oiofe  ift  »crb(uf)t  The 
blooming  of  the  rose  has  come  to  an  end.     (Sr  ift  geftern  9lbenb  entfd)(ummert 
He  passed  away  in  death  quietly  last  evening,    ©aburd)  ift  inet  (gtreit  entftanben 
Through  that  much  strife  has  arisen.     (Sr  ift  verarmt  He  has  become  poor. 
i!)ag  <Eei(  ift  jerriffen  The  rope  has  broken.    .£>ang  ifl  aufgewacr/t.    £>an3  ift  tint 
gefd)(afen.     ©eftern  abenb  ift  einer  tnt  5^UP  ertrunfen. 

b.  In  some  prepositional  phrase  or  in  a  predicate  adjective :  5)er  3Jlcft  ift ' 
ju  (Sffig  gegoren.     iDer  2Bein  ifl  ftar  gegoren.      (Sr  ift  gan$  b(au  gefroren.     The 
meaning  has  such  a  power  over  the  form  of  conjugation  that  some  verbs 
which  usually  take  fyaben  are  conjugated  with  fein  when  they  indicate  a  change 
of  condition :   ©(),  ba  ntufjte  ber  3unge  bod)  ganj  au$  ber  9lrt  gcfd)lagen  fein  \ 
(Raabe's  Finkenrode,  chap.  xvi). 

c.  In  the  meaning  of  the  verb  itself  in  the  following  verbs  when  used 
intransitively :  attern  (also  with  I)aben)  to  grow  old ;  arten  (nad))  to  take  after, 
resemble,  berften  to  burst,  bleid)en  (also  with  fyaben)  to  turn  pale,  white  ;  bred>en 
to  break  ;  gebeifjen  to  thrive ;  geliiigen  to  be  successful,  and  its  opposite  nttjj; 
tingen  ;  gcnefen  to  recover  from  sickness  ;  geraten  to  turn  out  (to  be  so-and-so), 
stray  into,  and  ntipraten  to  fail,  turn  out  badly,  prove  a,  failure',  gerinnen  to 
coagulate,  congeal ;    gefd)ef;en  to  come  to  pass,  happen ;  glucfen  to  prosper, 
succeed,  and  its   opposite   ntijsglMett ;    frepieren    to   burst,   explode,   die   (of 
animals,  and  in  coarse  language  also  of  men) ;  paffieren  to  happen,  occur ; 
platen  to  explode;   tjuetten  to  swell  (of  wood,  &c.) ;    reifjen  to  break,  tear; 
roftcn  (also  with  Ijaben)  to  grow  rusty  ;  fdjeitern  to  be  shipwrecked  ;  fdnnel^eit  to 
melt ;  fd;»c((en  to  swell  up ;  fpriejjcn  to  sprout  up ;  fterben  to  die ;  i»ad;fen  to 


191.  II. c.  i.fl.     THE   USE  OF  $aben  AND  fcitt  293 

grow  ;  toclfen  to  wither,  fade  away  ;  icerben  to  become  ;  ttntrjeln  (sometimes  w. 
fyaben)  to  take  root :  SDer  Xopf  ift  geborjlcn  The  pot  has  burst.  25 te  Sttabel  ijl 
gebrodjen  The  needle  broke.  25a3  @d)iff  ifl  gefd^citert.  35te  2J?ild)  tjl  geronnen. 
<&$  ijl  ifym  gelungen,  ben  SJerfolgern  tit  cntfommen  He  has  been  successful  in 
escaping  his  pursuers.  25ie  23acfen  ftnb  uber  9lad)t  gefdjtodlen.  35a3  £olj  tjl  »on 
ber  9laffe  gequoKen, 

Earlier  in  the  period  fyaben  was  used  with  a  number  of  these  verbs  and  is 
still  found  occasionally:  25te  arabifd)e  (Religion  unb  'Jtationalfuttur  fyafite  btefe 
JBlumen  (bcr  25id)tung),  »te(leid)t  fatten  fie  in  Ghtrepa  ber  Stittn  and)  nod)  nid)t 
gebethet  (now  gebiefyen)  (Herder),  (S3  fyitt'  if)m  and)  geglucft,  tt?enn  nid)t,  £c. 
(Wieland).  2Bte  toeit  if)t'$  gelungen  Ijat  (Schiller).  25 te  uerbcrgencn.  Attppett,  an 
benen  bte  flclje  SSermmft  fdjon  gefdjeitert  f>at  (id.).  55a^  biefe  ^Jflanje  brd  nationalen 
(Ruifentum^  nur  aitf  9Ko3fauer  aioben  gu  gebetfycn  »ermag  wnb  and)  nut  gebtehen  ^at 
(Gegenwart,  1887,  No.  34). 

SUtern  and  bletd)cn  are  still  conjugated  with  fyaben  when  it  is  desired  to 
emphasize  the  durative  idea  rather  than  that  of  a  resultant  state :  Dnfel 
^>arre  namtid)  fyatte  in  bet  le$ten  Beit  fo  nterfltd)  gealtcrt,  ba§  f«S  felbfi  fur  itnS,  bic 
»rtt  iljn  faft  tdgltd)  fa^en,.  auffallig  ivar  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxi). 
But  to  call  attention  to  a  result :  Cbgteicfy  fie  furd)tbar  gcaltert  tt»ar  (Gutzkow's 
R.,  9,  452).  3f)re  Secle  ttat  nid)t  mtt  gealtevt  (SchuUe-Simidt's  DtnV  ich  an 
Deutschland  in  der  Nacht,  II). 

Note  I .  In  using  the  above  words,  care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  between  the 
idea  of  transitive  and  intransitive,  as  only  the  latter  use  requires  fein  in  the  compound 
tenses  ;  see  257.  i.  b. 

Note  2.  The  meaning  has  such  power  over  the  form  of  conjugation  that  some  verbs 
which  usually  take  fyaben  are  often  conjugated  with  fcitt  in  those  meanings  which  are 
similar  to  those  oi  the  verbs  in  the  above  list.  This  is  especially  true  of  einfd)lageit 
(after  the  analogy  of  geraten)  to  turn  out  (to  be  so-and-so),  succeed,  and  fcl)lfd)lagen 
(after  the  analogy  of  nti§Ungen)  to  turn  out  unsuccessful:  @ine  ^oltttfdje  ©pefltlation 
tent  alten  preufjifdjen  grtfe  gegenuber  til  and)  ntd)t  fo  eingefd)(agen,  line  ntan'$  hmnfdjte 
nnb  v»erf)offte  (Raabe's  A.  71,  chap.  xiii).  Slud)  bte  45erfud)e  felbft  bte  lateintfdjen 
Sevmini  (terms)  jit  »erbeutfd?en  ftnb  immer  webcr  fcl)(gefd)lag:n  (H.  Wunderlich). 
Here  as  elsewhere,  however,  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself,  and  hence  we 
sometimes  also  find  Ijaben;  ?Ule  feine,  Jpeffttimgen  ftnb  oberaud)  haben  ifynt  fel)lgefd)tagen 
(J.  Grimm). 

C.  With  all  intransitive  verbs  of  motion  from  place  to  place,  when  the 
subject  is  thought  of  as  resting  at  some  goal,  or  as  starting  from  some  point 
of  departure  or  towards  some  end  or  destination. 

i.  The  idea  of  rest  or  the  beginning;  of  the  activity  is  in  fein,  that  of  action 
is  contained  in  the  verb,  and  that  of  a  destination,  arrival,  departure  may  lie : 

a.  In  some  prefix  such  as  cr  out  of,  ent  away  from,  or  in  those  denoting 
away,  arrival,  up,  out  of,  thither,  hither,  into.,  upward,  forth,  towards,  down, 
&c.  (ab,  an,  auf,  atte*,  fu'n  or  bahin',  her  or  bafycr',  etn,  empcr',  fort,  gu,  nn'cter,  &c.) : 
9luf  nteine  Stage  ijl  feine  Slnhoort  erfolgt  No  answer  has  come  to  my  question 
(lit.  has  followed  out  of  it,  i.  e.  the  question).  @r  ijl  bent  ©cfdngnitf  entfvnmgen 
He  has  escaped  from  prison.  33ei  @rf)nubt$  ijl  etn  £cd)terd)cn  angcfommen 
A  wee  daughter  has  arrived  at  Schmidt's.  (Sr  ijl  bie  £repve  l)tnnntergcgangcn. 
2)er  SBtt^  ijl  f)crabgcflammt.  @r  ijl  bnrd)  Unglu(f«falle  ganj  ^eruntergefommen  Mis- 
fortunes have  ruined  him  (lit.  He  has  come  down  on  account  of  misfor- 
tunes). 

Earlier  in  the  period  fyabcn  could  also  be  used  here :  (fr  l)at  niber  gcfniet  | 
vnb  ftd)  gelagert  une  etn  i'ese  (Gen.  xlix.  9).  Thus  earlier  in  the  period  the 
durative  force  of  the  simple  verb  may  assert  itself  in  a  compound  more  than 
the  local  force  of  the  prefix,  while  to-day  attention  is  uniformly  directed  to 
the  point  of  arrival  or  departure. 

The  intrans.  ittnfdilagen  to  upset  (intrans.),  capsize^  change  suddenly  is 
usually  conjugated  with  fein  on  account  of  the  idea  of  change  of  location  or 
state  contained  in  the  prefix,  although  the  simple  verb  is  a  trans,  conjugated 


294  THE  VERB  191.  II.  c.  i.  a. 

with  tyabcn:  ?p(i?fctid)  tat  nut  cut  tauter,  tiaJjct  Slitffdjm  funb,  bag  ttermutlid)  bad 
gefafjrbcte  23oet  untgefd)fagen  fci  (Jensen's  Heimkunft^  II.  6).  £>ie  wunbcrooKm 
SKuftonen  ttaren  fd)tte((  in  i()v  ©egenteit  nmgcfdjlagen  (Raabe's  A.  T.,  chap.  v).  We 
often,  however,  find  fyaben  here,  as  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts  itself: 
$)er  2Bagen  Ijatte  untgcfd)(agen  (Schiller).  3n  beu  a3olfefd?id)ten  fyatte  bie  ©tmtntung 
grimblid)  utngefdjfagm  (Rosegger's  Martin  der  Mann,  p.  43).  In  the  same 
manner  other  verbs  fluctuate  between  fyaben  and  fein  :  2luf  bent  !Mcfn>ege  ...  bin 
id?  bei  ntcinem  33tubcr  eingefprccfyen  (Lessing's  Gefang.,  3,  z).  3d)  fyabe  bei  ifym 
eingefprod)en  (M.  Heyne). 

b.  In  a  prepositional  phrase  or  in  an  adverb :  S5a3  Ieid)te  ©efafjrt  iwar  ntit 
SBatct  nnb  £od)tcr  von  batmen  gevcttt.  @y  itf  fiber  ben  ftlitfj  gefd)toommen.  Set 
Otafen  tear  unlb  in  bie  §c(je  gefdjoffen.  3Bir  finb  an  ben  OJanb  bc3  2Balbe3  gefangt. 
£>ie  £olnifd)en  Slfpivaticnen  i»ad)fen  intf  ttfcrtofe,  fcbatb  nnr  bie  3RcgIidjfeit  nafje  gcritrft 
ift,  baft  bie  SJegievung  fie  evfuften  h)t((.  3n  ^efTen  ift  befonber^  bee  S'lotftanb  511  £age 
getreten.  (S^  ijl  ba^  erfte  2J?a(,  bap  id)  anf  em  berarttgeS  2>Jtp»evfle^en  gefio§en  bin. 

2.  These  same  intransitive  verbs  of  motion  are  conjugated  with  Ijaben,  and 
not  fein : 

a.  When  the  idea  of  duration  is  prominent  and  no  goal  is  designated  by 
prefix,  prepositional  phrase,  or  otherwise  :  Sffiir  tyaben  ben  ganjen  Slbenb  getan^t, 
but  2Btr  jtnb  att3  einer  @tube  in  bie  anbere  getanjt.    @o  I)abe  id)  nie  geritten,  nie  fo 
to((  gejagt  (Goethe).    3n  feiner  3ugenb  ^at  cv  gut  geritten,  but  (St  ift  fortgeritten. 
2)ie  galtnen,  bie  auf  bem  §injuge  fo  tuftig  im  SBtnbe  geflogen  fatten,  but  !Der  93ogel 
ifl  in^  SfJefl  geficgen.    S)er  3Ba(b  Ijat  geraufdjt  The  forest  has  murmured,  but  !Der 
©front  ifi  fcaljin  geraufd)t  The  river  flowed  on  munmiring.    Even  if  the  goal  is 
mentioned,  Ijaben  may  be  used  if  the  idea  of  duration  is  more  prominent 
than  that  of  the  goal :  @o  fyat  cr  tange  Satjre  neben  feinem  -ipunbefu^vnjcrf  burd) 
bie  fDcvfer  getrabt  (Frenssen'sy<»«  Uhl,  chap.  xi). 

Usage  has  in  part  become  unsettled  here.  Such  verbs  as  reiten,  fasten, 
rafen  to  rush  along,  fd)wimmen,  &c.,  which  are  usually  used  in  connection  with 
a  goal,  and  hence  are  often  conjugated  with  fein,  have  become  so  thoroughly 
associated  with  this  auxiliary  that  they  are  often  conjugated  with  it  when  no 
goal  is  mentioned,  and  even  where  the  idea  of  duration  is  present :  SLUt  finb 
geritten  o()tte  Unterlajj  —  benn  bie  S3erfolget  tt>aren  fd)ne((  (Wildenbruch's  Kaiser 
Heinrich,  3,  9).  ©eine  uberrafd)enbe  Jlenntnte  fettener  itnb  foftfpietiger  (Speifen 
cvflarte  ftd)  barau^,  ba^  cr  cine  3eit  tang  a(5  @d)if^fud)cnjunge  gefafyren  itar  (Hoff- 
mann's Rohleders  hohe  Minne).  2)er  ifl  gerafl  luie  bo((  (N.G.  =  toll)  (Halbe's 
Hans  Rosenhagen,  2,  p.  94).  ^ettte  ftnb  h)ir  tuditig  ntavfd)ievt.  Also  in  figura- 
tive use  :  3d)  fyabe  ntid)  nie  nm  ben  9J?orgen  gefuntmert  imb  bin  f^et^  gut  babet  gefafyren 
(Raabe's  Pechlin,  chap.  x).  Hence  these  words  are  gravitating  towards  the 
group  U  below,  ^afyven  is  often  used  with  fyabcn,  not,  however,  as  a  verb 
denoting  motion,  but  in  the  sense  to  perform  the  duties  of  a  coachman,  be 
a  coachman,  have  charge  of  the  driving,  or  with  reference  to  the  comfort- 
ableness of  the  vehicle :  ©r  Ijatte  in  SBien  gcfyn  Saftre  gefafyren  (Lessing's  Minna, 
3,  z).  2Bir  finb  nad)  ber  ©tabt  gcfafjren.  2Bcr  ftat  gefat)ren  ?  We  rode  to  town. 
Who  drove?  35er  Bug  Ijat  fycute  fd)led)t  gefafyven. 

Earlier  in  the  period  I)abcn  was  common  with  pure  verbs  of  motion :  23m 
id)  nid)t  bein  ©feltn  |  barauff  bu  geritten  (;ajl  gu  beiner  3eit  (Num.  xxii.  30). 

b.  In  a  few  cases  when  the  verbs  are  used  figuratively :  (£t  J)at  fortgefal)ren 
ju  lefcn  He  continued  to  read,  but  (It  ift  fortgefafjren  He  has  driven  away. 
©fin  is  also  used  in  figurative  use,  as  the  force  of  the  simple  verb  asserts 
itself:  @r  i|l  in  bet  (Sqdfyhtng  fortgefafyren  (M.  Heyne).    3d)  I)abe  in  ifyn  gebruttgen 
/  have  rirged  him,  but  with  fein  where  the  local  idea  is  more  distinct,  as  in 
0?r  ift  nod)  nid)t  in  bag  ©cfycimnis  gebruttgen  He  has  not  yet  penetrated  into  the 
secret.     We  occasionally  find  fein  in  the  former  case,  as  the  literal  force  of 
the  verb  asserts  itself:  [®te  fagte,]  Sag  feien  mtfclefe  2kutmu)igungen,  iveSfjalb  fie 
bettn  aud)  in  tfyn  getrungcn  fet,  »cn  fotdyen  93cred)nungen  ?lb)lanb  ju  nel)men  (Fon- 
tane's  Stechlin,  VII.  p.  107).     @r  ^at  ftd),  cfjne  ba§  id;  eigentlid;  in  Ujn  gebrungen 


191.  II.  D.  a.       THE   USE  OF  fcabctt  AND  fettt  295 

nure,  mit  greyer  Cffenfjeit  fiber  feine  cfoncmifdje  (Situation  auSgefyrodjen  (Spielhagen's 
Selbstgcrecht,  p.  75).  In  tfcrfafyren  to  proceed,  deal  with,  treat,  act,  the 
original  idea  of  going  is  so  little  felt  that  the  auxiliary  Ijaben  is  often  used : 
SKan  I)at  mit  nnerfycrten  ©refutionen  uerfafyren  (Goethe's  Gotz,  5,  9).  @ie  fyaben 
gegen  mid)  line  gegcn  eincn  (£jn'£buben  verfaljrcn  (Gutzkow).  Sera  toufjte  bic£, 
fonfi  rtnnrbe  fie  cbett  anbcrS  ucrfafyren  Ijaben  (Junghans).  On  the  other  hand,  fein 
is  also  used  here,  and  is  now  more  frequent,  as  the  force  of  the  very  common 
simple  verb  asserts  itself:  Sad  ®cfd)icf  ifi  nid)t  fanft  tnit  mir  »crfaljrcn  (Goethe). 
SSir  finb  \veljl  af(e  nid)t  fo  gang  ttodfommen  etjrlid)  unb  anfrirf)tig  gcgen  <Ste  vcrfafjrcn, 
un'e  un'r  nad)  flrcngen  ©ittenlcfyrcn  cigentlid)  fodten  (H.  Hoffmann). 

c.  Xrctcn  is  conjugated  with  fcin  to  denote  a  change  of  position,  but  takes 
Ijaben  to  denote  mere  contact,  a  clashing  together,  treading  upon  :  (5r  ift  auf 
ben  Jpcf  gctreten,  but  G?t  fyat  i()tn  anf  tie  £uf)ncvaugeu  getrctcn  (H.  Paul)  and  (§r 
I)at  auf  cine  Otauvc  gettctcn  (id.).  Instead  of  fyabcn,  however,  we  often  find  fein 
here  :  2)u  btft  mit  auf  mcin  Jllcib  gctrcten  (Y\\\da.'sjugendfrettnde,  2,  4). 

D.  With  the  following  growing  list  of  intransitives,  in  most  part  simple 
verbs  of  motion,  fein  is  used  even  where  the  destination  is  not  expressed,  also 
where  the  idea  of  duration  is  present:  begcgnen  (see  a,  below)  to  meet, 
bcfcmmcn  (sometimes  with  fyaben)  to  suit,  agree  with,  turn  out  (well  or  bad)  for 
one,  befcrticrcn  to  desert  the  army,  fatten  to  fall,  fliegen  (except  in  the  one  case 
in  C.  2.  a)  to  fly,  fltcfyen  to  flee,  fUefjen  (see  a,  below)  to  flow,  fctgcn  (see  a,  below) 
to  follow,  gcfycn  to  go,  gtcitcn  to  glide,  slip,  faucvn  to  crouch,  fentern  to  upset  (of  a 
boat),  fcmmcn  to  come,  friccfyen  (see  a)  to  crawl,  creep,  lanbcn  to  land,  (aufcn  to 
run,  vromenicren  to  take  a  walk,  reifen  to  travel,  rctiricren  to  retreat,  rinncn  to  run, 
flow,  fd)ctbcn  to  depart,  separate,  fcfytcicfycn  to  sneak,  fcfevettcn  to  step,  stride, 
fdjwinben  to  disappear,  fcgcht  to  sail,  futfen  to  sink,  fteigen  to  rise,  ftranbcn  to  run 
ashore,  ftraucfyeln  (see  a)  to  stumble  and  fall,  ftiirjen  fall,  tumble,  ivanbetu  walk, 
ivanbern  to  travel,  journey,  lceid)en  to  yield,  giefjcn  to  proceed,  move  (intrans.) : 
($r  ifi  mir  ()cute  bcgeguet.  2Bte  iji  Stjncn  ba3  geftrige  geft  befommcn  (agreed  with)  ? 
SBeffen  lU)r  ifi  nun  rict)ttg  gcgangcn?  (Raabe's  Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  viii). 
@ie  (i.e.  tic  Uf)r)  ifi  nie  cvfcentltd)  gcgaugen  (Heer's  Der  Konig  der Bernina,  III). 
3m  Scrfc  tear  Slrtillerie  werquartiert  getoefen,  unb  er  irar  tangc,  lange  »cr  ben  Jtanonen 
gefaucrt,  bie  auf  bent  ©entciubeanger  aufgefat)ven  ttjarcn,  unb  fyatte  fie  mit  fd}cuem 
©taunen  betrad)tet  (Beyerlein's/^wa  cdcr  Sedan?,  I).  3d)  bin  ben  gan^en  !£ag 
gclaufen.  3wet  Suede .  .  .  fdncncn  cin  rafdics?  (£td)nal)evn  an  fein  Sdnmbigfetteibeal 
gu  »erburgern  unb  fatten  ebenfcgut  ftie  SKcnbeliitiJ  £a(ente  \\\  gropcn  Jpoffnungen 
bercd)ttgcn  biirfen,  iucnn  nid)t  ba<?  ©cfjjenfl  bcr  GntlafTnng  njegcn  bcftanbig  antt?ad)fenbcr 
8d)itlbcn  immer  nebcnf)er  gcfcfrrittcn  toare  (Fontane's  Poggenpuhls,  chap.  i).  Seine 
treue  I'iebe  ifi  nid)t  gcfd)Untnben. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  fyaben  was  much  more  common  here  earlier 
in  the  period :  mcin  5ufj  fyat  gcflraud)clt  (Ps.  xciv.  18).  9hir  etnem  S'raurtgen 
Ijab'  id)  bcgcgnct  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  3,4).  Survivals  of  this  former  usage 
can  still  be  found  :  3d)  f;abe  fyeute  fritt)  Softer  2J?cttner  begegnet  (Schnitzler's  Das 
Vermiichtnis,  p.  112).  It  is  possible  that  begcgncn  in  this  last  sentence  is  used 
with  tyabcu  because  it  is  felt  as  a  transitive,  ior  it  is  occasionally  so  employed : 
(Sr  begcgnete  auf  bcr  Strafje  bie  Scfyrer  vein  W\)mnaftum  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  -von 
Geyer,  XXII).  The  earlier  use  of  I)aben  with  begcgncn  has  given  rise  to  the 
transitive  idea. 

a.  A  few  of  the  above  list  may  take  I)abcn  when  the  local  idea  disappears, 
and  they  become  figurative,  especially  bcgegncn,  in  the  sense  to  meet  "with 
(a  difficulty),  meet  (an  emergency),  confront,  coincide  with,  and  often  in  the 
meaning  to  treat  (friendly,  &c.) ;  fjicpcn  and  lattfcn  in  case  of  a  metonymic 
subject ;  folgen  in  the  sense  to  obey, follow  ;  fricd)cn  to  crawl,  cringe ;  flraud)c(n 
to  stumble  (in  a  moral  sense) :  ODcflcrn  bin  id)  mcincm  SManntcn  begegnet,  but 
Ser  i'cfjrcr  fiat  ben  Unarten  ber  ©cbulcr  nad?briuflid)  begegnet  and  Unb  in  einem 
anbcnt  ihtnfte  fatten  $ol)enloljrt  unb  93i^marf(J  ^olittf^c  ©ebanfen  fid)  fd)cn  fru^cr 
Ijarmonifd)  begrgnct  (Kolnische  Zeitung).  ©r  til  or  (laying  the  emphasis  upon 


296 


THE  VERB 


191.  II.  D.fl. 


the  idea  of  a  conscious  agent  acting  with  intention)  Ijat  ntir  fyatt  begegnct  (met 
or  treated).  £>cr  ©ter  ift  au$  bet  2i*unbe  geflojfen,  but  3>ie  Slngen  l)aben  gefleffen. 
2)er  SBein  tfl  auS  bent  gag  gelaufen,  but  Sag  5*5  fyatte  fdjon  cinige  Beit  gelaiifen 
(=  gelerft),  el)e  id)  cS  bemerfte.  3>r  ©ofjn  Ijat  bent  Sater  or  bcm  tRat  be3  USaterg 
gefolgt.  Jbatt'  id)  nur  gWd)  mcincm  3nftinft  gefclgt!  (£r  tyat  uor  ihm  gefrodjen. 
i®r  ift  geflraudjelt,  but  (Sr  fyat  geflvaud)elt  (morally).  On  the  other  hand,  except 
in  the  case  of  a  metonymic  subject,  we  perhaps  more  frequently  find  ffin  with 
the  above  verbs  also  in  figurative  use,  as  the  force  of  the  verb  in  its  literal 
meaning  asserts  itself:  Serb  inanb  VII  tout  »or  ber  raufjen  2ftad)t  91apoleon3 
gefrodjen  (v.  Sybel).  Untec  biefeu  Slnge^origen  h?ar  aud)  ein  dlterer  Sruber  »on  ifym, 
bet  i^m  ti^  ba^itt  gattj  befonbevS  untiebfam  begegnet  lt»ar  (Fontane's  Der  Tunnel 
uber  der  Spree,  V). 

b.  We  find  Ijaben  with  these  verbs  in  certain  set  expressions  where  the 
original  local  meaning  disappears  and  durative  force  becomes  prominent : 
3»ifd)m  iin^  Ijat'g  fcfycn  mancfyinal  auf  £ieb  itnb  @tid)  gegaitgcu  (Otto  Ernst's 
Jugendvon  heute,  i,  15)  =  28ir  Ijaben  auf  §ieb  unb  <Stid?  gefod^ten. 

General  Note.  Of  course  verbs  that  are  usually  intrans.  and  take  fein  are  conjugated 
with  fjabeit  when  they  become  trans.:  3d)  bin  ttadj  §aufe  getailfen  I  have  run  home, 
but  3d)  fyabe  ntid)  auger  Sltem  gclaufen  /  have  run  until  I  am  out  of  breath.  ($r  ifi 
»om  55ad)  flcjlurjt  uub  Ijat  babet  ein  ^inb  tot  gefaUen. 

E.  Intransitives  that  denote  a  beginning  or  cessation  of  activity  pure  and 
simple  without  reference  to  a  change  of  place  or  condition  are  usually  con- 
jugated with  Ijaben :  !DaS  (Spiel  fyat  eben  angefangen.  2)et  Siegen  fyat  aufge(;cvt. 
iDer  @turm  fyat  au^getobt  The  storm  has  spent  its  fury. 

On  account  of  the  pronounced  inchoative  force  or  the  idea  of  an  end  or  result 
contained  in  some  of  these  verbs  there  is  a  tendency  to  employ  fein  instead 
of  fyaben  :  Slber  bag  SBort  „  (Salifornien"  flang  bod)  we  ©olb  unb  3lbenteuer,  unb  e3 
war  guerjl  for  feinent  D^c  geftungen,  ba  et  ana  jenem  ®rtefe  feineS  SSaterS  bejfen 
bvofjenbe  sCeravntung  ^eratKjnlefra  ntetnte  (Storm's  Bbtjer  Basch,  p.  30).  31)m  trav 
eS  gefhtngen  {had  sounded,  i.  e.  the  impression  had  resulted),  tajj  jie  tnetne,  feine 
^etterfeit  ftamme  »on  intent  fuc  em3Wdbd)enfonberbaven  Vlnjug  (Jensen' sHetmhtnff, 
II.  4).  I£>u  ^ajl  naturlid)  nid)t  baran  gebac^t,  ba^  gejiern  bie  ^ftngftfevicn  angefangen 
finb  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  chap.  ii).  3d)  tin  Don  cben  angefangen,  Don 
ber  fyoijen  Uf)l  Fjer,  I)od^  toon  oben,  unb  bin  gefunfen  . . .  gefunfen  . . .  93on  unten  an; 
fangen,  ba3  tfl  a((e3  (id.,  Jam  Uhl,  chap.  xxvi).  Ser  le^te  Sdjlag  iuar  fdion  funf 
5Rinuten  auggefliingen  (Borne).  (Seitt  afd)enfavbene3  ©ejtd)t  —  ein  ©ranatjh'tcf  f)at 
bie  93ruft  ;;errif|en  —  tfl,  fed  id)  fo  fagen,  ru^tg  attggeHnngen.  @t  ^at  feine  @d;merjen 
gefu^lt  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen,  Anno  1870,  Umzingelt). 


192.  PARADIGM  OF  THE  COMPOUND  TENSES  OF  lofcen  AND  fatten. 
Present  Perfect  Tense. 


gelobt 


I  have  praised,  &c. 
Indie.  Subj. 

id)  fyabe    \  id) 

bu  fyafl  bu 

er  tyat       1  ^  er 

tttr  tyaben  F^  reir  f)aben 

i^r  ^afct  i^r  l;abet 

fte  ^aben  J  fte 


I  have  fallen  (see  191.  II.  D). 


Indie. 

id)  bin 
buftfl 
er  tfl 
ivir  ftnb 
iftr  feib 
fte  ftnb 


Subj. 
id)  fet 
bu  fei(e)fl 
er  fet 
reir  feien 
i^r  feiet 
fie  feten 


Perfect  Infinitive. 


gefatlen  (jti)  fein 


192.       COMPOUND  TENSES  OF  loben  AND  fallen        297 

Perfect  Imperative. 

and  per.  tyafce  geloBt,  f)afc(e)t  gelobt  fei  gefaflen,  feib  gefaflen 

3rd  per.  er  tyabe  gelobt  er  fei  gefaflen,  fte  feien  gefaflen 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 


I  had  praised,  &c.                            I  had  fallen,  &c. 

Indie.                      Subj.                                 Indie.                         Subj. 

id?  ^atte 
bu  l;attefl 
er  Ijatte 
irir  fatten 
ifyr  tyattet  ' 
fte  fatten  J 

id?  t)dtre    ' 
bu  tydtt(e)fl 
_••§      er  fydtte 
"<£,     reir  l)dtten 
iljr  fydttet 
fie  fatten  J 

id?  rear 
bu  rearfl 
^            er  rear 
"»tj            reir  rearen 
ifyr  reart^ 
fie  rearen  , 

id?  irare 
e      bu  irdr(e)fi 
^     er  redre 
•^     irir  rearen 
ifyr  redr(e)t 
fie  rearen  - 

Future  Tense. 

I  shall  praise,  £c.                              I  shall  fall,  &c. 

Indie.                        Subj.                                 Indie.                        Subj. 

id?  irerbe    > 
bit  irirfl 
er  irirb 

id?  irerbe 
bu  reerbeft 
,  S     er  irerbe 

id?  irerbe 
bu  reirfi 
^  S            er  irirb 

id?  irerbe    ' 
bu  irerbejl 
£     er  reerbe 

irir  irerben 

2     irir  irerben 

irir  reerben 

§_     reir  irerben 

itjr  irerbet 
fte  irerben  . 

ifyr  irerbet 
fie  irerben  J 

ifyr  reerbct 
fie  irerben 

if)r  reerbe  t 
fie  reerben  , 

ro 


Future  Infinitive. 


lofcen  u  irotteu 


fatten  311  trofleu 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 
I  shall  have  praised,  £c,  I  shall  have  fallen,  &c. 


Indie. 

Subj. 

Indie. 

Subj. 

id?  irerbe    ' 
bu  irirfl 
er  irirb 

| 

id?  reerbe    ^ 
bu  irerbefl 
er  irerbe 

1 

id?  reerbe    "i 
bu  reirjl 
er  irirb 

O 

id?  irerbe    ' 
bu  irerbefl 
er  reerbe 

2- 

irir  irerben 
ifjr  irerbet 
fie  reerben  . 

o 

reir  irerben 
iijr  irerbet 
fte  reerben  , 

o 

irir.  irerben 
ifyr  irerbet 
fie  reerben  , 

Si 

irir  irerbcn 
i^r  irerDet 
fie  reerben  J 

"  o 

o 
•t- 

C5 

Conditional 

Mood. 

Pres.  I  should 
fall, 

(would)  praise, 
&c. 

Perf.  I  should  (would)  have 
praised,  fallen,  &c. 

Present. 

Perfect 

Present. 

Perfect. 

id?  iriirbe 
bu  reitrbefl 
cr  irurbe 
irir  iriirben 
it)r  irurbet 
fte  iriirben 

"s» 
^0 

id?  irurbe 
bu  iriirbejl 
er  irurbe 
irir  iriirbeu 
if)r  iriirbet 
fte  iriirben 

-1 

id?  re  it  r  be    > 
bu  iriirbefl 
er  irurbe 
irir  iriirben 
il)r  irurbet 
fie  iriirben  , 

^ 

id?  irurbe    ' 
bu  iriirbefl 
er  irurbe 
reir  reiirben 
ifcr  reitrbet 
fie  iriirben  j 

e 

S. 
& 

298 


THE  VERB 


193. 


193.  PARADIGM  OF  THE  COMPOUND  TENSES  OF  fein  AND  reerben. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


I  have  been,  &c. 


I  have  become,  &c. 


Indie. 

id)  tin 
bu  fcifl 
er  ifl 
reir  ftnb 
itjr  feib 
fte  jlnb 


Subj. 
id)  fei 
bu  fei(e)ft 
er  fei 
reir  feien 
tt)r  feiet 
fte  feien 


Indie, 
id;  tin 
bu  fcifl 
er  ifl 
reir  ftnb 
iljr  fetb 
fie  ftnb 


su 


Snbj. 

id)  fei 
bit  fei(e)fl 
er  fei 
reir  feien 
ifyr  feiet 
fte  feien 


Perfect  Infinitive, 
gereefen  (ju)  fein  gereorben  (ju)  fein. 

Perfect  Imperative. 

2nd  per.  fei  gereefen,  feib  gereefen  fei  gereorben,  feib  gereorben. 

3rd  per.  er  fei  gereefen,  fte  feien  gereefen       er  fei  gereorben,  fte  feien  gereorben. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
I  had  been,  &c.  I  had  become,  &c. 

Subj. 


Indie.                        Subj. 

id)  rear     ^ 
bu  rearfl 
er  rear 

id)  reare    ^ 
bu  rea'r(e)fl 
^£.      er  reare 

reir  rearen 

2       reir  rearen 

Ujr  reart 
fie  rearen  > 

fte  rearen  . 

Indie. 

id;  rear 
bu  rearfl 
er  rear 
reir  rearen 
iljr  reart 
fie  rearen 


|u 


td)  reare 
bu  redr(e)fl 
er  reare 
reir  rearen 
ifyr  redr(e)t 
j!e  rearen 


,00 
t> 


Future  Tense. 


I  shall  be,  &c. 


I  shall  become,  &c. 


Indie. 

i^  reerbe 
bu  reirfl 
er  retrb 
reir  reerben 
i()r  reerbet 
fte  reerben 


Subj. 

icfj  reerbe 
bu  reerbeft 
er  reerbe 
reir  reerben 
tfyr  reertet 
fte  irerben 


Indie. 

id)  reerbe 
bu  reirfl 
er  reirb 
reir  reerben 
if)r  reerbet 
fte  reerben 


Subj. 

id)  reerbe 
bu  reerbefl 
er  reerbe 
reir  reerben 
ifyr  reerbet 
fie  reerben 


Future  Infinitive, 
reerben  ju  reoflen. 


194.  I.E. 


THE  PASSIVE  VOICE 


299 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 
I  shall  have  been,  &c.  I  shall  have  become,  &c. 

Subj. 

id;  irerbe 
bit  irerbefi 


Indie. 

id;  rcerbe 
bit  irirft 
er  irirb 
irir  ircrben 
iljr  irerbet 
fte  irerben 


Subj. 

id;  irerbe 
bu  irerbefi 
er  irerbe 
irir  irerben 
ifyr  irerbet 
fte  irerben 


Indie. 

id;  irerbe 
bit  irirft 
er  irirb 
irir  irerben 
ifyt  irerbet 
fte  irerben 


-CJ 


^••f1    . 

o  00 


er  irerbc     \ 
irir  irerbcn  f 
if)r  irerbet 
fte  irerben  J 


^U 

I « 

Z  OD 


Conditional  Mood. 


Pres.  I  should  (would)  be, 
become,  £c. 

Present. 

id;  iriirbe 
bit  iritrbeft 
er  iritrbe 
irit  irurben 
ii;r  irittbet 
fte  witrben 


Perfk  I  should  (would)  have  been, 
become,  £c. 


Perfect. 

Present.                        Perfect. 

id;  iriirbe    \ 
bu  iriirbefl    ^_ 
er  iritrbe     1  ^T 
irir  iritrben  f  ^ 

id;  wi'trbe    ' 
bu  iriirbefi 
et  iriirbe 
irir  irurben 

id)  iritrbe    ' 
bu  irittbefl 
^       er  irurbe 
«       irir  irurben 

Z.   N 
^-J=>     . 
'£  00 

i^r  iritrbet     c 
fte  iriirben  J 

ityr  iritrbet 
fte  wi'trben  ; 

if)r  iritrbet 
fte  irurben  ) 

-^d' 

THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

194.  The  passive  voice  denotes  that  the  subject  receives  the 
action.  The  passive  in  German  has,  as  in  English,  no  special  tense 
or  mood  forms  of  its  own,  but  is  made  up  by  combining  the  perfect 
participle  with  different  auxiliary  verbs.  The  following  forms  are 
used  in  German : 

i.  A.  The  usual  passive  is  formed  by  combining  the  various 
moods  and  tenses  of  irerben  to  become  with  the  perfect  participle  of 
the  verb  to  be  conjugated,  which  remains  uninflected  throughout : 
(pres.  indie.)  id;  irerbe  flelott  /  am  being  praised,  bit  irirft  gelobt,  &c. ; 
(past  indie.)  id?  irurbe  gelofct ;  (pres.  perf.  indie.)  id;  tin  gelofrt  irorben ; 
(past  perf.  indie.)  id;  irar  gelott  irorben;  (future  indie.)  id;  irerbe  gelorjt 
irerben,  &c. ;  (pres.  subjunctive)  id)  irerbe  gelofct,  bit  irerbeft  gelofct, 
&c.  The  only  irregularity  in  the  conjugation  is  that  the  perf. 
part,  of  irerben  is  here  uniformly  without  the  ge :  irorben,  not  geirorben. 
No  passive  idea  lies  in  irerben,  as  it  also,  when  combined  with  the 
present  infinitive,  forms  the  future  active  (id)  irerbe  lofcen),  and  the 
future  perfect  active  when  used  with  the  perfect  infinitive  (id;  irerbe 
gelofct  fyafoen).  UBerben  retains  in  the  passive  its  original  meaning  of 
/o  become,  and  thus  denotes  here  a  passing  into  a  state  which  is 
indicated  by  the  perfect  participle  :  id;  irerbe  gerettet  I  am  being 
rescued,  lit.  I  am  becoming  or  am  going  over  into  the  state  of 
being  rescued. 

B.  However,  irerben  is  not  the  only  auxiliary  employed  in  the 
passive,  but  fein  is  still,  according  to  a  usage  prevailing  in  earlier 
periods,  frequently  used,  replacing  irerben  often  in  the  pres.  perfect, 


300  THE  VERB  194.  i.  B. 

past  perfect,  future  perfect,  perfect  conditional,  and  even  regularly 
replacing  it  in  the  imperative,  and  often  in  the  present  infinitive. 

a.  In  M.H.G.  the  pres.  perfect  was  formed  by  combining  the 
pres.  of  fetn  with  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated  : 
(indie.)  ich  bin  gelobet.    The  past  perfect  was  formed  by  combining 
the  past  of  fein  and  the  participle  :  ich  war  gelobet.     This  former 
usage  still  lingers  on,  though  no  longer  recognized  by  grammarians : 
liter  ben  sSegrtff  bet  ^ilologie  if*  »iel  tyerumgeftritten  (H.  Paul,  Paul's 
Grundriss,  p.  i,  ist  ed.).    2)ie§  SfaufHiud)  con  Dr.  3of)amt  Sauft  ifl  im 
3a^re  1587  in  Sranffutt  a.  3ft.  tei  (&pte§  gebrucft  (Baumgart's  Goethes 
Faust,  p.  20).     This  older  usage  is  quite  common  with  geMren :  3dj 
tin  am  23.  2)Jai  1844  gefcoren  (Wustmann's  Sprachdummheiten,  p.  107, 
3rd  ed.). 

Note.  In  those  dialects  which  use  the  pres.  perfect  for  the  past  in  narrative 
a  peculiar  form  is  used  for  the  past  perfect.  The  perfect  part.  getoefen  is  added  to  the 
old  pres.  perf.  tense  form:  S)ie  ift  abet  tticfct  auSgcfttegm,  fonbern  Ijat  immerju  nacf) 
ben  Smjiern  sen  tinfere  SSorjttung  raufgefef}en,  »o  eben  Sidjt  angefhcft  gewefen  ijl 
(Therese  in  Sudennann's  Die  Heitnat,  I,  10). 

b.  The  regular  future  perfect  and  perfect  conditional  forms  are 
still  avoided  on  account  of  their  clumsinesst  their  place  being  often 
supplied  by  combining  the  future  or  first  conditional  of  fein  with 
the  perfect  part. :  idj  tcerbe  gelott  fein  instead  of  icfy  rcerbe  gelott  ivorben 
fein ;  ic^  reurbe  gelo6t  fein  instead  of  ic^  reitrbe  gelofct  irorben  fein. 

c.  In  an  earlier  period  of  the  language,  fein  was  the  passive 
auxiliary  in  the  infinitive  and  imperative,  and  it  has  tenaciously 
defended  these  positions  against  irerben,  as  it  is  still  frequently 
found  in  the  infinitive  where  we  might  naturally  expect  rcerben,  and 
is  used  as  a  rule  in  the  imperative,  both  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  person, 
although  in  the  latter  also  imben  is  found.     In  the  infinitive,  fein 
seems  to  be  especially  common  after  the  modal  auxiliaries,  par- 
ticularly rcoflen :  SOBenn  er  im  £ager  emerging,  rcollte  er  nicfyt  gegritpt  fein 
(Ranke).    @r  nrifl  t>on  niemanb  getabelt  fein.    5)ie  ©efdn'cfyte  nrifl  erjtifylt  fein 
(Rosegger).     2)ie  ©tunben  njoflen  ^tngefcrac^t  fein  6i§  j?um  nacbfien  2)iorgen 
(Junghans)  We  must  in  some  way  pass  the  time  till  morning. 
QBer  barin  Itefi,  inoge  gefegnet  fein  fcon  meinem  ^etligen  SBitten  (Anselm 
Heine's  Etne  Gabe,  Brockendorf  im  Lehrerhauschen).     3Rur  Don  bit 
moc^te  tct)  gut  genannt  fein,  icag  bte  SBelt  oon  mir  fprtc^t,  ifl  mir  eing  (Heer's 
Der  Konig  der  Bernina,  XVIII).     QllS  eine  2)Jerfrcurbigfeit  mag  eritd^nt 
fein,  bap,  &c.  (Wustmann's  Sprachdummheiten,  p.  55,  3rd  ed.j.    3ftujjt' 
eg  fo  rafc^  gel;orcfyt  fein  ?  (Schiller's  Wallensttins  Tod,  5,  1 1).    2) a  rcir 
aber  noc^  nic^t  fo  sjertraut  ntit  einanber  ftnb,  um  nn3  fc^lic^tireg  fceim  0iamen 
ju  nennen  unb  e§  alfo  bureaus  getitelt  fein  muf? :  fo  fagen  @te  einfireeilen 
^err  ^rdftbent  ju  mir  (F,  von  Saar's  Der  '  Exzellenzherr ').     iDiefe 
[(Sntfcfyulbigung]   tent^t  ouf  ber  Sefurc^tung,  bap  icfy  beletbigt  fein  muffe, 
an   mein  filter  erinnert  ju  irerben  (Suttner's  Im  Berghause,  p.  93). 
©eltett  rcerben   unb  nici^t  rcieber  Iteben  fonnen  —  au^  bag,  Dnfef,  mup 
burc^gefdm^ft  fein  (Heer's  Der  Konig  der  Bernina,   X).     @3  muptc 
gebrocijen  fetn,  ober  er  ging  an  biefer  £tebe  gu  @runbe  (Ertl's  Walpurgd], 
Unb  nun  fefcen  reir  un§,  bie   ©acfye  fott  gleic^   afcgetan  fein  (Goethe's 
Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  I,  3).     £>amtt  fotl  nic^t  gefagt  fein,  bap  man 


194.2.  THE   PASSIVE  VOICE  301 

nid)t  aitd)  anberc  liefcen  fann  (Bartel's  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Literatur, 

II,  p.  424).    <Sofl  ntirS  benn  nicfyt  gegeben  fein,  ben  (Sdjatten  ju  t»erfd?eud?en  ? 
(Schubin's  Refugium  peccatorum,  III,  4).     D  laffen  <£te  U)n  bort  be= 
graben  fein!   (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  5,  12).     These  examples 
can  easily  be  multiplied,  as  the  construction  is  still  quite  frequent, 
but  the  use  of  rcerben  here  is  perhaps  more  common  :  (5r  n?oflte  ntd)t 
baran  erinnert  tcerten  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Allen  und  diejungen,  p.  65). 
Gs  ntnf  ja  einmal  gefagt  rcerben  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  2,  n).     In  the 
perfect  infinitive,  however,  the  older  construction  with  fein  may 
possibly  be  the  preferred  one :  £)ann  erjdfilte  er,  bafj  ber  junge  2fienfd? 
feiner  ©efimbr)ett  forcte  feinem  93eutel  irofyl  ju  »iet  jugemutet  fiaben  unb  son 
ben  (Seinen  in  bie  33erbanmtng  gefdn'cft  fein  mod)te  (Schubin's  Refugium 
peccatorum,  V),  instead  of  the  clumsy  gefcfyicft  trorben  fein  ntodjte. 

The  grammarians  often  give  imbett  as  the  auxiliary  with  the 
passive  imperative;  usage,  however,  seems  almost  wholly  upon 
the  side  of  fein  in  the  2nd  person  and  usually  also  in  the  3rd 
person,  which,  however,  is  in  fact  the  3rd  person  of  the  pres. 
subjunctive  :  @eien  Sie  gefegnet  fi'tr  afleg  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  4, 12). 
O  gndfcigfter  ©ebieter,  fet  geprtefen  |  fi'tr  fo  »iel  ^ulc  (Fulda's  Talisman, 
2,  12).  4?tet  fet  e§  iemerft  Here  may  it  be  permitted  me  to  remark. 
@ott  fet  c§  gebanft!  Thank  God  for  it!  3Cer  Dfterretctjer  ift,  ber  fet 
geroarnt !  (Grillparzer's  Konig  Ottokar,  2).  ©cvriefen  fei  ber,  rcefcfyer  utit 
itirflic^ent  ©enmw  ben  fuvjen  *2tugent)Uct  be8  9Se^agen6  auS  ber  unte^agltdien 
SJdngc  beS  £age§  ^er»orjut;eben  oerfte^t !  (Raabe's  Dcr  Dra'umling,  xxii). 
©efegnet  fet  bein  ^ingang,  IteteS  Jlinb!  (id.,  Die  Leute  aus  dcm  Walde, 

III.  chap.  xi).      2)em  >§immel  fei' 3  geflagt  (Fulda's  Talisman,  2,  4). 
Qhtf  etnen  ivtct^tigen  4^unft  fei  fyter  nod)  bie  Qlufmerffatttfeit  gelenft  (Brug- 
mann's  Kurze  verglcichende  Grammatik,  p.  289).     (Scin  is  also  used 
in  a  subordinate  clause  after  a  verb  expressing  will,  command'. 
»§errin;  etn  niter  3?ranrt?  |  autl,  bap  reenn  Dftern  fam  tnS  Sanb,  |  ivenn  leife 
griutt  ber  ^ornenftrand)  |  .  .  .  .  ba§  bann  bie  erfte  9M(monbnad;t  |  fltegenb 
unt>  tvicgenb  fet  burd)ivad)t  (Sudermann's  Die  drei Reiherfedern,  3,  2). 

In  the  following  rather  rare  examples  ivcrben  is  used  as  auxiliary 
in  the  3rd  person :  ©ejjetligt  nrcvbe  bein  9Jame  (Luther).  3^r  feit)  »on 
mir  gefrtiteben  —  iverb'  and)  mir,  |  >jon  eitd>  $n  fd)ett>en,  J^raft  unb  9)htt 
Derlie^cit !  (Goethe's  Tasso,  4,  2).  Gicig  iverbe  bein  gebad^t  (Schiller's 
Sicgcsfest).  5)ie  iBelt  \viil  betrogen  iterben,  fo  irerbe  fte  benn  betrogen 
(Ubcr  Land  und  Mcer). 

The  2nd  pers.  imperative  may  be  replaced  by  the  imperative  of 
Id jf en  and  a  dependent  infinitive  :  Icijj  ttd)  iibembm  (familiar  form) 
be  persuaded,  or  allow  yourself  to  be  persuaded ;  Iaf;t  end;  uberreben  (pi. 
of  familiar  form);  laffw  £te  ftd)  itberreten  (polite  form). 

2.  A  peculiar  passive  construction  is  often  found,  which  deserves 
attention.  It  is  formed  by  placing  the  noun  which  denotes  the 
objective  point  of  the  activity  in  the  ace.  as  the  object  of  the  verb 
betommcn,  erKilten,  or  frtegen  (in  popular  language),  and  then  making 
the  real  verb  of  the  sentence  an  objective  predicate  in  the  form  of 
a  perfect  participle :  Gr  fynt  e3  gefagt  befomnten  =  (?3  tfl  ifym  gefagt 
voorfen.  Sebermann  erfyielt  15  SBatronen  ^uge^d^lt  Fifteen  cartridges  were 
dealt  out  to  each  man,  3d;  friege  metne  JVtii^e  refcltd;  bejii^tt  I  am  well 


302  THE  VERB  194.2. 

paid  for  my  trouble.  The  passive  idea  here  lies  in  the  perf.  part. 
The  object  may  be  suppressed,  and  the  verb  befonuuen  remains 
almost  with  the  force  of  the  passive  auxiliary  rcerben  :  9lber  nicfyt  bod;  — 
fcafiir  befomme  id;  ja  t>on  Srrditlein  $foiliwri  be^lt  (Wildenbruch's  Die 
Waidfrau)  Don't  pay  me  —  I  shall  be  paid  by  Miss  P.  (£Uen  fyatte 
and;  befd;ert  befommen  (Storm's  Unterdem  Tannenbaum,vo\.  I.  p.  180). 
<£eit  jrcei  Safyren  war  febod;  ein  ncuer  Snfpeftot  ba,  unb  weil  cr  tierfyciratet 
rear,  befamen  er  uub  fetne  8rau  unb  .ftinbet  jicar  mit  befd;ert,  30301  fid?  aber 
bami  gnrurf,  in  ber  etgenen  SSofwuna,  fid?  attein  nod;  einntal  ein  fleineg  (QBeif;* 
nad;t8*)  93aumd?en  anjujunben  (G.  Ompteda's  Eysen,  chap.  vi).  Compare 
the  colloquial  English  construction  He  got  paid  for  his  trouble. 

A  similar  construction  is  found  after  fiifyren,  bringen,  and  nefymen : 
33ian  fiifyrte  ityn  an  einem  Qtrm  gefaft  He  was  led  along  held  by  one 
arm.  2)?abd?en  Bringcn  ben  >§ut  auf  einer  <S>tange  getrctgen  (Schiller's  Tell, 
1.  2915).  2)ie  Sienfiboten  brad^ten  fletne  SBa'lber  in  bie  Dfen  gefd^Ie^t  (Maria 
Janitscheck's  Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  IX).  3ftan  nat)in  t^n  gefangen. 

3.  Another  passive  construction  is  not  infrequently  found  which 
is  worthy  of  attention  by  reason  of  its  pithy  terseness.     Instead  of 
muffen  ought  (a  necessity  which  lies  in  the  nature  of  things)  with 
a  dependent  passive  infinitive  a  simple  tense  of  gefyorcn  to  belong, 
be  fit  is  used  followed  by  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  be 
conjugated,  which  serves  as  a  predicate  complement :  ©in  cntlaufen 
@d?af  gel;6rt  in  feinen  <Stafl  geliefert  (Scheffel's  Ekkehard,  chap,  xxi) 
A  runaway  sheep  ought  to  be  brought  back  to  its  fold.  Gerstenberger 
(tritt  herein,   schtittelt  den   Regen  von  sich  ab,  schwenkt  seine 
Mutze):  $lber  and?  burcfy  unb  burd)!  J?etn  $aben  trotfen!  9ftein  jum  $lu$* 
nmngen !    Vogt :   3) a  gefyort  ein  ©rogd^en  braufgefe^t !   (Halbe's  Das 
tausendjdhrige  Reich,  p.  121).    3)ergletd)en  ge^ort  mit  (Salgen  fcefiraft 
(Lienhard's  Till  Eulenspiegel,  Der  Fremde). 

4.  Different  from  the   above  passive  forms  is  a   quasi-passive 
which  does  not  denote  an  action  at  all,  but  only  a  state.     It  is 
formed  by  combining  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  to  be  con- 
jugated with  the  different  moods  and  tenses  of  the  auxiliary  fein. 
The  difference  between  this  quasi-passive  and  the  real  passive  is 
indicated  by  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  two  auxiliaries 
employed.     The  forms  with  icerben  denote  an  action  going  on,  while 
the  forms  with  fein  denote  a  state  that  has  resulted  from  previous 
action  :  2)a8  <§aug  ttnrb  gebaitt  The  house  is  being  built,  but  S)a§  «§au§  ifl 
gebaut   The  house  is  built.     2>ie  Siir  nnrb  jefen  Slbenb  uut  fed?3  Utyr 
gefd)toffen  The  door  is  shut  (i.  e.  some  one  shuts  the  door)  every  evening 
at  six,  but  5)te  $i"tr  ift  gefcfyloffen  The  door  is  shut.     2)ie  <Sd?tffbrud)igen 
ftnb  mit  grofjer  ©efafyr  ber  93ranbung  entriffen  njorben,  je^t  ftnb  fte  gercttct. 

This  quasi-passive  forms  a  complete  conjugation  in  all  the  moods 
and  tenses :  (pres.  indie.)  id)  bin  erfdjopft  I  am  exhausted ;  (past 
indie.)  id?  nnir  erfd?ityft  I  was  exhausted ;  (pres.  perf.)  id?  bin  erfd?6pft 
gercefen  I  have  been  in  an  exhausted  condition ;  (past  perf.)  id;  war 
etfd;6pft  gewefen  I  had  been  in  an  exhausted  condition  (at  a  time 
before  a  certain  event  in  the  past);  (future)  id;  tcerbe  erfdjo^ft  fein 
There  will  be  a  time  when  I  shall  be  exhausted ;  (pres.  subjunctive) 
id;  fet  erfcb,fy?ft;  (past  subj.)  id;  ware  erfd;ityftj  &c. 


196. 1.        SUBSTITUTES  FOR  THE   PASSIVE  303 

In  case  of  verbs  which  govern  a  case  other  than  the  ace.  the 
construction  must  be  impersonal,  the  gen.  or  dat.  being  retained  in 
the  passive :  2)Jeine  2)hitter  fyat  oft  gefagt,  fie  icotte  in  bag  Staffer  gefjen,  ba 
fei  il;r  attetn  gefyolfen.  SfieSfyalb  J)abt  if)r  fie  bcint  in  bie  @rbe  gegtaben,  icenn 
ifyr  iut  SSaffer  getyolfen  rear?  (Raabe's  Schudderump,  chap.  xiv). 


195,  SYNOPSIS  OF  loben  IN  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Indicative,  Subjunctive. 

Pres.  I  am  praised,  am  being  praised,  &c. 

id)  rcerbe  gctobt  id;  reerbe  gclobt 

Past.  I  was  praised,  was  being  praised,  &c. 

id)  nnttbc  (or  irarb)  gelobt  id;  itiirbe  gelobt 

Pres,  Perfect.    I  have  been  praised,  &c. 
id;  bin  gelobt  trorben  id;  fei  gelobt  irorben 

Past  Perfect.  I  had  been  praised,  &c. 
id)  rcar  gelobt  worben  id;  ivcire  gelobt  iccrben 

Future.  I  shall  be  praised,  &c. 
id;  irerbe  gelobt  iverben  id)  rcerbe  gelobt  rcerben 

Future  Perfect.  I  shall  have  been  praised,  &c. 
id)  reerbe  gelobt  icorben  fein  id;  icerbe  gelobt  ivorben  fein 

Pres.  Conditional,   id;  ivftrbe   gelobt  rcerben  I  should  (would)  be 
praised. 

Perf.  Conditional,  id;  icurbe  gelobt  rcorben  fein  I  should  (would)  have 
been  praised. 

Imperative. 

and  sg.  fei  gelobt  (see  194,  i.B.c)  be  praised. 

3rd  sg.  cr  fei  gelobt,  or  er  icem  gelobt  let  him  be  praised. 

ist  pi.  feien  wit  gelobt  let  us  be  praised. 

2nd  pi.  fetb  gelobt,  feien  <£ie  gelobt  be  praised. 

3rd  pi.  fte  foflen  gelobt  rcerben  (or  fein)  they  shall  be  praised. 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  gelobt  (511)  rcerben  (or  fein ;  see  194.  i.B.c)  to  be  praised. 
Perf.  gelobt  icown  (ju)  fein  to  have  been  praised. 

Participles. 
Used  as  a  Verb,  Adjective,  or  Substantive. 

Pres.  wanting,  but  often  supplied  by  the  perfect  gelobt  (see  183. 3). 
Perf.  gelobt,  or  more  rarely  gelobt  icorben  (see  184.  e). 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  THE  PASSIVE. 

196. 1.  In  German  more  strictly  than  in  English  we  are  confined 
to  the  rule  that  (lie  passive  is  only  used  when  it  is  desired  to  especially 
represent  the  subject  as  the  objective  point  of  an  activity.  Often  where 
in  English  the  passive  form  is  common  or  required,  some  other 


304  THE  VERB  196.1. 

construction  is  used  in  German.     The  most  common  substitutes 
for  the  passive  are  the  following : 

1.  Very  frequently  man  with  an  active  verb :  9Bei  nn§  fcfyltefjt  man 
tie  £itten  lint  10  Utyt  With  us  the  doors  are  shut  at  10  o'clock. 

2.  The  simple  reflexive  construction  described  in  218.  3.  A.  a. 

3.  The  use  of  laffen  reflexively  with  a  dependent  infinitive ;  see 
218.  3.  A.  b. 

Note.  There  is  a  difference  of  meaning  between  these  various  passive  constructions. 
The  passive  proper  represents  the  subject  as  the  objective  point  of  an  activity.  Set 
©attett  untb  son  bem  jefeigen  23efifcer  erweitert  The  garden  is  being  enlarged  by  its 
present  owner.  The  construction  with  man  (see  i,  above)  and  the  active  represents 
an  indefinite  agent  at  work  upon  something :  2ftan  ernmtert  ben  ©arteit.  The  con- 
struction with  laffen  used  reflexively  with  a  dependent  infinitive  (see  3,  above)  indicates 
the  possibility  of  a  successful  action:  2)er  (Sarten  ld{it  fid)  ctluettern  The  garden  can 
be  enlarged.  The  simple  reflexive  construction  (see  2,  above)  represents  the  subject 
as  self-acting,  either  under  the  impulse  of  natural  forces  or  some  hidden  force,  so  that 
it  seems  to  act  of  itself  :  SKeill  Jperj  erfceitert  ftdj  My  heart  is  being  enlarged  (under 
the  natural  influence  of  sympathy).  2)a  offnet  fid)  befietlb  eilt  JftettcS  £or  Then 
a  second  door  is  quickly  thrown  open  (it  seemed  to  open  of  itself).  j)a3  dttfcert  fid) 
fcalb  That  will  soon  be  changed,  circumstances  will  soon  alter  this  condition  of  things. 
Sometimes  this  reflexive  construction  can  be  translated  by  an  intrans.  as  in  the  first  two 
sentences :  My  heart  is  growing  broader,  larger.  Then  a  second  door  quickly  flies  open. 

4.  Also  in  a  number  of  other  cases  active  forms  in  the  German 
are  rendered  by  passives  in  English  : 

a.  The  auxiliary  fotten  is  often  rendered  by  is  said  to,  ts  expected 
to,  is  supposed  to :  @r  fott  fefyr  reicfy  fein  He  is  said  to  be  very  rich. 
2>te  Jlontcjin  fott  fjeute  fommen  The  queen  is  expected  to  arrive  to-day. 
Siefeg  ®emalbe  fott  (is  supposed)  Don  9Ru6en3  fein. 

b.  The  auxiliary  biivfen  is  often  rendered  by  to  be  allowed :  (Sr  barf 
nicfyt  flefyen  He  is  not  allowed  to  go. 

c.  The  active  infinitive  very  often  has  passive  force ;  see  187.  i. 

d.  The  Gerundive  (see  180.  A.  a,  b,  c,  and  B),  though  active  in 
form,  is  passive  in  force. 

e.  An  impersonal  idiom  is  sometimes  rendered  by  a  passive  : 
(5:3  fcebarf  feiner  «£tlfe  No  help  is  needed. 

f.  The  German  intrans.  ertrtnfcn  (of  human  beings)  and  erfanfen 
(of  animals)  are  translated  by  to  be  drowned:  £>er  Jtnabe  ertranf.    2)ie 
Jtafce  trfojf. 

g.  In  its  intransitive  use  fyetfjen  is  usually  rendered  passively  in 
English,  to  be  called:  «§erobot  ^etfjt  ber  3Sater  m  ©efdn'cfyte  Herodotus 
is  called  the  father  of  history.     SBte  tyeifjt  bag  Jtinb?  What  is  the 
child  called,  or  what  is  the  child's  name? 

h.  The  intrans.  erfcfyrecfen  is  translated  by  to  be  frightened :  ©rfdmrf 
nur  nicfjt !  Don't  be  frightened  ! 

/.  In  German  the  passive  is  in  general  very  little  used  in  con- 
nection with  an  infinitive  :  He  was  known  to  be  honest  3)fan  renptc, 
bafj  er  e^rlidj  rear.  For  fuller  statement  see  185.  B.  I.  -2.  d.  (4).  With 
letyren  and  i)eifjen,  however,  the  passive  may  be  used  here ;  see  178. 
2.  B.  d.  See  also  185.  B.  1. 2.  c.  Note. 

II.  On  the  other  hand,  in  its  impersonal  form,  the  passive  is 
often  used  where  there  is  no  person  or  thing  represented  as  being 
acted  on  ;  see  219.  5.  B. 


197.A.«.    GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB    305 


GRADATION   (ABLAUT)  CLASSES   OF  THE 
STRONG  VERB. 

VOWEL  AND  CONSONANT  CHANGES. 

197.  A.  Gradation.  The  conjugation  of  the  weak  verb  is  very 
uniform,  and  all  can  in  general  be  conjugated  after  the  model  of 
lobert,  but  the  strong  verb  forms  its  simple  tenses  and  perf.  participle 
by  a  change  of  vowel  in  the  stem  instead  of  adding  suffixes  to  the 
stem.  This  change  of  vowel  in  the  different  tenses  is  the  result  of 
a  different  accent  which  obtained  in  an  earlier  period,  but  is  now 
used  to  make  more  clear  certain  grammatical  distinctions  such  as 
tense  and  number.  Strong  verbs  do  not  all  show  the  same 
changes  of  vowel,  but  subdivide  into  classes  and  groups.  Each 
class  usually  observes  within  itself  a  uniform  change  of  vowel  in 
the  past  tense.  The  pres.  and  past  tenses  cannot  have  the  same 
vowel.  The  vowel  of  the  perf.  part,  is  in  some  groups  the  same  as 
in  the  present,  in  others  the  same  as  in  the  past,  or  again  it  may 
have  a  different  vowel  from  either.  This  change  of  the  stem-vowel 
in  the  simple  tenses  and  the  perf.  part,  is  called  gradation.  Each 
class  has  usually  subdivisions,  differing  from  each  other  in  the 
quantity  of  the  vowel  or  otherwise. 

a.  The  nouns  and  adjectives  made  from  strong  verbs  have  also  a  relation 
to  this  gradation.  Many  masculine  monosyllables  and  feminine  disyllabics, 
also  masculine  derivatives  in  =cr  denoting  agents,  and  neuter  verbal  nouns 
in  ;tn  and  feminine  verbal  nouns  in  itng,  often  corresponding  to  our  nouns 
in  -ing,  have  the  same  vowel  as  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  from  which  they 
are  formed  ;  other  nouns  have  the  same  vowel  as  the  past,  which  are  usually 
masculine  if  monosyllabic  and  feminine  if  disyllabic,  and  still  other  nouns 
are  made  upon  the  vowel  of  the  perfect  participle  :  jieigett  to  mount,  ascend, 
past  fticg,  perf.  part,  gefhegen ;  ber  ©tetcj  path,  bie  <£tcige  path,  staircase,  bee 
(fcteigcr  climber,  bet  ©teigenbe  the  one  who  is  now  ascending,  ta3  <£teigen 
ascending,  bie  2)ej}etgung  bes  23crge<3  the  ascending  of  the  mountain  ;  bet  @tieg 
ascent,  bie  (Stege  (see  198,2.  Division,^/)  staircase  ;  bet  Jpinaufgcftiegene  the  one 
who  has  ascended.  Nouns  denoting  agents,  verbal  and  participial  nouns, 
are  made,  as  those  given  above,  quite  regularly  upon  the  appropriate  grada- 
tion form ;  but  many  other  nouns,  as  bie  ^tege  (see  reference  given  above),  are 
seemingly  irregularly  formed,  as  they  have  retained  in  many  cases  the 
gradation  form  of  the  verb  as  found  in  earlier  periods,  or  have  undergone 
peculiar  phonetic  changes.  On  account  of  these  irregularities  these  nouns 
are  especially  treated  under  the  different  classes,  while  those  regularly  formed 
will  not  require  especial  treatment. 

Adjectives  are  not  always  so  easily  brought  into  relation  with  the  present 
gradation  classes  as  nouns,  since  they  often  have  retained  old  gradation 
forms  which  the  verb  has  exchanged  for  newer  formations  :  jafym  fame,  from 
the  past  tense  of  the  M.H.G.  zemen  (now  jiemen,  wk.)  to  be  becoming^  past 
zam  (pi.  zamen),  part,  gezomen,  &c. 

Note.  The  exact  relation  of  nouns,  adjectives,  &c.  to  the  gradation  of  the  verb 
cannot  always  be  definitely  determined.  Some  nouns  are  taken  directly  from  a  gradation 
form  of  the  verb  and  share  its  verbal  force  :  (ber)  23d(fet  baker  =  one  -who  bakes,  thus 
pres.  and  active  in  force.  Other  nouns,  especially  those  showing  the  vowel  of  the  past 

X 


306  GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB  197.  A.  a. 

tense,  although  they  have  the  same  vowel  as  a  gradation  form  of  the  verb,  do  not  have 
the  same  verbal  force :  ba3  S3anb  tie,  fetter  —  that  -which  ties,  fetters,  thus  pres.  in 
force,  although  the  word  shows  the  vowel  of  the  past  tense  of  the  verb.  It  is  probable 
that  this  class  of  nouns  were  not  formed  from  verbs,  but  that  each  noun  was  made 
directly  from  the  stem  from  which  also  the  verb  was  made.  Similar  phonetic  condi- 
tions developed  the  same  vowel  in  verb  and  noun.  As  the  original  stem  of  such 
words  does  not  now  appear  anywhere  in  the  language,  it  is  profitable  to  associate 
eVery  noun  and  adj.,  where  it  is  possible,  with  the  same  gradation  form  of  the  verb,  as 
this  is  the  oldest  related  form  to  which  it  can  be  traced  and  from  which  light  can  be 
obtained  as  to  its  real  meaning.  Thus  when  (bet)  S^ufj  river  is  brought  into  relation  to 
flujfett  (earlier  form  of  the  pi.  of  the  past  tense  of  jite§m  to  flow)  its  real  meaning 
becomes  apparent.  Although  originally  such  nouns  and  adjectives  were  not  formed 
directly  from  the  gradation  forms  of  the  verb,  but  developed  a  similar  form  under  the 
force  of  similar  conditions,  they  nevertheless,  from  long  association  with  the  verbal 
gradation  forms,  have  come  to  be'  felt  as  directly  derived  from  them.  This  is  especially 
seen  in  a  number  of  abstract  nouns,  such  as  Jlniff,  ^fiff,  SBudjg,  -ipiefc,  &c.,  which  have 
been  formed  within  the  present  period  directly  from  the  gradation  forms  of  the  verb 
after  the  analogy  of  other  nouns  which  seemed  to  be  derived  directly  from  the  verb. 
It  has  become  especially  common  to  form  such  abstract  nouns  directly  from  the 
present  tense  of  both  strong  and  weak  derivative  and  compound  verbs :  SSerbetb, 
23etret3,  93eleg,  Utadjtoeis,  &c. 

b.  The  gradation  classes  are  very  old,  and  in  course  of  centuries  changes 
of  gradation  in  individual  words  within  a  group  or  throughout  a  group,  and 
shifting  of  words  from  one  group  to  another,  have  taken  place,  and  traces  of 
these  former  gradation   conditions   can  still  be  clearly  seen,  and  will  be 
noted  under  the  individual  groups.     Verbs  that  are  followed  by  Roman 
numbers  used  to  belong  to  the  classes  indicated  by  the  Roman  characters. 
In   dialect  the  groups   do  not  always  correspond  to  those  of  the  written 
language,  as  many  words  have  abandoned  their  group  for  a  more  popular  one. 

c.  In  several  groups  the  Middle  High  German  form  is  given  below  the 
New  High  German.     In  this  case  two  vowels  are  given  in  the  past  tense,  as 
the  past  tense  had  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  the  pi.,  as  can  still  be 
seen  in  old  sayings,  where  sometimes  a  rhyme  has  preserved  the  older  form 
of  the  pi. :  SfBie  bie  Sltten  fungen  (now  elsewhere  fangen),  fo  jttntfdjern  bie  Sunken. 
In  Luther's  language  this  difference  of  vowel  is  still  very  common,  but  to-day 
it  has  disappeared  except  in  past  present  verbs  (see  212.  i)  and  in  the  past 
tense  of  icerben :  id)  toatb  (or  ttuvbe),  frit  ttwrben.    Wherever  the  vowel  of  the 
past  tense  was  different  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  the  subjunctive  had  throughout 
the  sing,  and  pi.  the  mutated  vowel  of  the  indie,  pi.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in 
past  present  verbs,  the  past  of  iccrbcn  (past  indie,  id)  ttxirb,  pi.  nnr  ivitrben,  subj. 
tdj  Uwrbe,  pi.  ft>ir  itwvben),  and  other  cases  mentioned  under  the  different 
classes. 

Also  nouns  often  show  even  to  this  day  the  old  pi.  vowel  of  the  past  tense. 
Thus  (bcr)  93unb  still  shows  the  vowel  of  the  pi.  of  the  past  tense  of  binben, 
which  was  still  in  early  N.H.G.  loir  bunben. 

d.  Factitive  verbs  (which  show  that  the  subject  makes  something  do  or 
become  something,  as  the  woodman  fells,  i.  e.  makes  fall,  the  tree)  are  formed 
from  strong  verbs  by  mutating  the  vowel  of  the  past  tense,  the  consonants 
remaining  unchanged  except  the  final  {5  of  the  stem,  which  usually  becomes  j. 
The  mutation  of  a  is  usually  written  f,  but  in  some  verbs  d.     Mutation  does 
not  always  appear  in  M.H.G.,  especially  before  labials,  but  later  through  the 
influence  of  Luther  and   M.G.  writers  became  more  general:     (M.H.G.) 
ersoufen,  erfaufen.    These  factitive  verbs  being  derivatives  are  of  course  weak. 
Ex. :  crfd)re<fen  to  be  afraid,  to  start  with  fright,  erfd)taf,  erfdjrorfen,  but  crfcfyrccfen, 
new  infin.  from  the  mutated  stem  of  the  past,  to  make  start  with  fright,  to 

frighten,  past  erfdjrecfte,  perf.  part.  erfd)recft ;  liegcn  to  lie,  lag,  gftegen,  but  legcn  to 
lay  (to  make  lie),  legte,  gelegt ;  ft£en  to  sit,  fajj,  gefefien,  but  fe$en  to  set,  fefcte,  gefe£t. 
In  older  periods  when  the  past  tense  had  a  different  vowel  in  sing,  and  pi.  the 
factitive  had  the  same  vowel  as  the  singular. 


197.  F.      VOWEL  AND  CONSONANT  CHANGES          307 

B.  A-Mutation.      This   is  a  change  of  vowel  in  the  stem   under  the 
influence  of  a  following  vowel.     If  in  earlier  periods  «,  e,  o  followed  in  the 
next  syllable,  the  stem-vowel  u  was  changed  to  o,  except  before  a  nasal  + 
consonant  or  before/.    Thus  the  perf.  participle  geljolfen  (O.H.G.  giholfan)  has 
the  mutated  o,  while  in  gebunben,  perf.  part,  of  btnbcn,  a  verb  belonging  to  the 
same  gradation  class,  mutation  did  not  take  place,  as  it  was  hindered  by  the 
nb  following  the  stem-vowel.    This  force  of  ^-mutation  can  be  seen  only  in 
its  effects.     It  can  be  better  studied  in  O.H.G.  by  reason  of  its  preservation 
of  the  vowels  of  the  unaccented  syllable ;  see  26.  B.     One  result  of  this  force 
has  been  that  the  third  gradation  class  has  been  split  into  different  sub- 
divisions. 

C.  a.  Mutation  of  the  back  vowels.     In  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing,  of 
the  present  indie,  and  throughout  the  subj.  of  the  past  tense  mutation  is  the 
rule  wherever  the  stem  vowel  is  capable  of  it ;  see  26.  A.    The  i  of  earlier 
periods  which  has  often  here  been  the  cause  of  the  mutation  has  either 
entirely  disappeared  or  has  been  reduced  to  the  form  of  e :  (2nd  pers.  sing. 
of  fafyven)  O.H.G.  du  ferist,  N.H.G.  bu  fdfyvji ;    (ist  pers.  sing,  of  the  past 
subj.  of  mfymen)  O.H.G.  nami,  N.H.G.  ndfyme.    In  early  S.G.,  mutation  in  the 
2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  indie,  was  not  an  absolute  requirement  even  in  the 
literary  language.     In  some  cases  the  vowel  remained   here  unchanged, 
especially  ait  before  a  labial,  in  other  cases  usage  fluctuated.    In  S.G.  dialect 
and  colloquial  language  of  our  time  usage  is  trending  toward  non-mutation  : 
2>u  faljrft  fort?  (Schonherr's  Sonnwendtag,  p.  45).  Mutation  became  established 
in  the  literary  language  under  the  influence  of  M.G.  writers,  especially  Luther. 
In  early  M.G.  mutation  had  not  yet  become  firmly  fixed,  but  it  gradually 
became  in  most  cases  an  absolute  requirement.     In  certain  words  where 
mutation  is  not  observed  in  the  Midland  and  North  the  cause  is  usually 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  the  verb  in  question  has  also  weak  forms 
which  have  at  this  point  influenced  the  conjugation. 

b.  Mutation  of  e  to  i.  This  change  of  e  to  i  (see  26.  C)  brought  about  in 
several  classes  a  difference  of  vowel  between  the  singular  and  plural  of  the 
pres.  indie.,  and  also  was  the  cause  of  splitting  the  third  gradation  class  into 
different  subdivisions :  (pres.  tense  indie,  of  Jjelfm  in  O.H.G.)  hilfu,  hilfis, 
hilfit,  pi.  helfames,  he'lfet,  helfant ;  but  btnbcn  in  the  same  class  takes  in 
O.H.G.  (also  in  N.H.G.)  i  throughout,  as  it  always  stands  before  n  4-  t  or  d : 
bintu,  bintis,  bintit,  pi.  bintames,  bintet,  bintant.  The  1st  person  sing,  of 
Ijetfcn  is  now  id)  fyclfe,  as  the  pi.  vowel  has  entered  the  ist  pers.  sing,  as  the 
result  of  levelling  (see  D).  The  older  unlevelled  form  with  i  in  the  ist  pers. 
sing,  is  still  common  in  S.G.  dialect  and  colloquial  language :  3d)  toeijj  ja,  baf 
id)  nod)  nit  ftitb !  (Schonherr's  Sonnwendtag,  p.  63). 

D.  Levelling.    Another  force  at  work  among  str.  verbs  is  levelling.    This 
is  the  natural  tendency  to  level  out  the  little  irregularities  in  the  conjugation 
and  make  it  regular.    This  force  has  long  been  at  work  and  is  still  con- 
tinuing, as  is  illustrated  below  in  200,  2.  Division,  a. 

E.  Verner"s  Law  (see  40. 2.  a).    The  effects  of  a  force  which  was  at  work 
in  an  earlier  period  upon  the  consonants  of  str.  verbs — the  so-called  Verner's 
Law — can  still  here  and  there  be  seen.     Owing  to  a  difference  in  accent  in 
different  conjugational  forms  of  the  same  word,  there  arose  a  difference  in 
the  consonants  :  flieljen,  ^ofl,  ge^cgcn  ;  Ictben,  litt,  gctitten  ;   n?ar,  gntcfen.   Thus 
in  the  following  classes  there  is  occasionally  a  change  in  the  same  word  or  in 
related  words  of  b  to  t,  I)  (now  a  silent  letter)  to  g,  and  f  to  r,  as  is  indicated 
in  each  case  below. 

F.  Differentiation  of  Forms.    There  is  a  tendency  toward  the  wk.  conjuga- 
tion, and  a  number  of  str.  verbs  have  wk.  forms  alongside  of  the  regular  str. 
ones.     Sometimes  the  wk.  and  str.  forms  have  the  same  meaning,  sometimes 
an  economic   instinct   has  led  to  a  differentiation  of  meaning.      The  wk. 
forms  may  be  used  more    in  familiar  conversation,  the  str.  ones  may  be 

X  2 


308    GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB    197.  F. 

choicer  or  have  a  slightly  different  application.  Thus  in  familiar  conversa- 
tion ft  fcfyeltct  can  be  heard,  while  in  choice  language  the  form  is  ec  fcfyilt.  In 
the  literal  meaning  gdren  to  ferment  is  str.,  while  in  figurative  language  it  is 
wk. :  3>t  SSein  fyat  gcgorett,  but  (§3  gdrte  in  ifynt.  There  are  also  double  str. 
forms.  Here  the  older  form  is  often  used  in  old  saws,  poetry  or  elevated 
prose,  while  in  common  conversation  the  newer  form  is  used.  Thus  fiub  is 
often  used  in  poetry,  while  in  prose  it  is  usually  replaced  by  hob. 

198.  I.  Class.     Gradation  : 

Pres.       ei  Past  t  and  ie  Perf.  Part,  t  and  ie. 

M.H.G.  I  ei  or  e-1  (197.  A.  c)  1. 

This  class  falls  into  two  divisions  strictly  on  the  basis  of  the 
closing  consonant  of  the  stem.  If  the  stem  terminates  in  d),  f,  jj,  t 
(which  includes  leiben  and  fdmeiben  by  virtue  of  their  past  Ittt,  fcfynitt 
and  perf.  part,  gelitten,  gefdwitten),  the  vowel  of  its  past  tense  and 
perf.  part,  is  short  i,  while  it  is  in  all  other  cases  long  i  (written  ie). 

Historical  Note.  The  explanation  of  this  division  lies  in  an  earlier  condition  of 
things.  Formerly  the  vowel  of  the  perf.  part,  and  the  plural  of  the  past  tense 
was  uniformly  short  i.  At  the  beginning  of  the  modern  German  period  all  short 
vowels  became  long  in  open  syllables ;  hence,  as  (fy,  f,  $,  t  at  the  close  of  a  stem 
formed  a  closed  syllable,  words  containing  such  final  consonants  in  their  stems  could 
not  participate  in  that  movement  which  made  the  stem  vowels  of  words  long  in 
all  open  syllables.  Thus  verbs  of  this  class  fell  into  two  groups  in  the  perf.  part, 
and  the  plural  of  the  past  tense,  one  with  the  new  vowel  gradation  I  (written  ie), 
the  other  with  the  old  short  i.  Formerly  the  singular  of  the  past  tense  of  verbs  in  this 
class  had  a  double  vowel  gradation,  ei  in  some  cases,  i?  in  others.  These  gradations 
have  disappeared  in  the  verbal  conjugation,  as  the  vowel  form,  i  or  ie,  which  each 
verb  had  in  the  plural  has  spread  to  the  singular  in  accordance  with  the  modern 
tendency  to  make  the  vowel  uniform  throughout  the  same  inflectional  system.  The 
derivatives,  however,  still  preserve  in  a  number  of  cases  the  old  singular  vowel  of 
the  past  tense ;  see  c  under  i.  Division,  and  b,  c,  d  under  2.  Division. 

i.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres.       ei  Past  t  Perf.  Part.  t. 

M.H.G.  I  ei-1  (197.  A.  c)  I. 

Examples :  teijj  en,  fcif ,  gefrffen ;  fdjteifen,  fd)Iiff,  gefdjliffen ;  letben,  litt, 
gelitten  •  reiten,  ritt,  gerttten. 

The  following  belong  here :  iei^en  to  bite ;  f!d)  fceftetfien  to  apply 
oneself  to,  but  fid;  fcefieifjigen  with  the  same  meaning  is  wk. ;  HeidVn 
(modern  representative  of  the  two  M.H.G.  verbs  blichen,  str., 
and  bleichen  [from  adj.  Heidj],  wk.)  to  turn  pale,  white,  bleach 
(intrans.),  grow  wan,  sometimes  str.,  usually  wk.  in  the  first  three 
meanings,  bujt  str.  in  the  last  one,  as  in  33on  Sag  311  Sag,  son  (Stitnbe 
jit  <£tunte  falj  bie  fd)5ne  SBraut  ifyn  tJIetdxr  rcerben  itnb  Hid?  il)m  nad? 
(Ludwig's  Zwischen  H.  und  E.,  XIX);  erbleidjen  (modern  repre- 
sentative of  the  two  M.H.G.  verbs  erblichen,  str.,  and  erbleichen, 
wk.)  to  turn  pale,  turn,  fade,  die,  wk.  in  the  first  meaning,  str.  in  the 
last,  str.  or  wk.  in  the  others,  wk.  especially  in  the  past  tense  and 
str.  in  the  perf.  part. ;  t»erfcletd)en  (modern  representative  of  the  two 
M.H.G.  verbs  verbllchen,  str.,  and  verbleichen,  wk.)  to  turn  pale 
(now  little  used  in  this  meaning),  to  grow  wan,  fade,  die,  str.  in  the 
last  meaning  and  str.  or  less  commonly  wk.  in  the  others;  the 


198.  I.  CLASS,  2.  DIVISION  309 

factitive  Heicfyen  (from  adj.  Meld?)  to  bleach,  turn  white  is  always 
wk. ;  gleicfyen  to  resemble,  smooth,  level,  make  equal,  intrans.  with  dat. 
in  the  first  meaning,  trans,  with  the  ace.  in  the  other  meanings  and  in 
all  compounds,  in  early  N.H.G.  wk.,  and  still  so  in  all  the  meanings 
except  the  first,  where  it  is  now  always  str.,  also  usually  str.  in 
compounds  ;  gleiten  to  glide,  slide,  sometimes  wk.,  and  always  so  in 
fcegleiten  (from  fcegeleiten,  and  thus  not  related  to  gteiten)  to  accompany, 
but  rarely  so  in  the  compound  auSgleiten  to  slip ;  grcifen  to  seize  ;  fdfen 
(rather  coarse  word)  to  chide,  'jaw,'  str.  in  the  language  of  Goethe 
and  some  other  writers,  but  now  commonly  wk.  as  originally ;  fneifen 
(rarely  wk.)  to  pinch ;  leiben  to  suffer,  but  the  factitive  tterleibeti  (from 
adj.  Icit)  to  render  unpleasant,  spoil,  set  against,  wk. ;  fcfeifen  to  whistle; 
reijfjen  to  tear,  pull,  break  away  from ;  reiten  to  ride  on  horseback ; 
fdjletcftcn  to  sneak;  fcfyleifen  in  M.H.G.  to  slide,  glide,  and  still  with 
this  meaning  in  Austria,  as  in  QII3  ber  <Scfylttten  ttoritfcetfcfyltff  (Rosegger's 
Der  Adlerwirt,  p.  37),  and  also  elsewhere  in  the  narrowed  meanings 
to  shuffle  with  the  feet  and  to  slide  on  the  ice  (in  these  two  meanings 
also  wk.),  and  from  the  idea  of  sliding  back  and  forth  on  a  surface 
come  the  common  meanings  to  polish,  grind',  fcfyleifjen  (now  rare; 
see  factitive  in  c)  to  split  (intrans.),  wear  out  by  use  (intrans.); 
fdjmeifjm  to  fling,  slam ;  fcfynetbeu  to  cut ;  fcfyteiten  to  stride ;  jireicfyen 
to  stroke,  cross  out ;  flretten  to  contend ;  njekfyen  to  yield,  but  the 
factitive  iretcfyen  to  soften,  soak,  from  the  adj.  ft'eid?  soft,  is  always  wk. ; 
also  other  verbs  belong  here,  but  only  rarely,  and  hence  are  not 
given ;  see  205. 

a.  As  the  past  tense  and  perf.  part,  contain  a  short  vowel,  a  single  final 
consonant  must  in  these  forms  be  doubled  to  show  that  the  vowel  is  short 
and  a  final  b  is  changed  to  t  (197.  E)  and  then  doubled :  rotten,  ritt,  govitton ; 
fcfyneibon,  fdjnitt,  gefcfynitten.     For  change  from  f  to  flf  see  4.  2.  D,  p.  17. 

b.  Luther  still  used  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  past  tense 
as  in  M.H.G. :  id)  roit,  fait  ritton.     See  Historical  Note,  above. 

c.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  in  this  division  have  still  the  vowels  of  the 
M.H.G.  period  when  the  past  sing,  contained  an  ei :  boi$on  to  make  bite  into, 
said  of  liquids  in  the  mechanical  arts,  as  to  stain  (wood),   soak   (wood), 
corrode,  &c. ;  letten  to  lead,  lit.  to  make  go,  thus  preserving  an  older  meaning 
of  Ictbcn  (formerly  to  go, pass  through,  now  only  used  in  the  derived  meanings 
to  experience,  suffer)  ;  reijon  to  provoke,  lit.  to  cause  to  break  away  from  one's 
self-control ;  fcfylcifeu  lit.  to  make  slide,  hence  to  drag,  trail,  raze  (a  fortress) ; 
fcfyleijjcn  to  split,  to  cause  to  wear  out,  wear  out  (trans.),  often  confounded 
with  the  intrans.  str.  fcfyletfjcn  to  spLt,  wear  out,  hence  the  trans,  is  wk.  or 
more  commonly  str. 

d.  A  number  of  monosyllabic  and  disyllabic  nouns  show  the  vowel  of 
the  past  tense  :   bet  Q3ifj  bite,  bor  ©cfynitt  cut,  bor  ^fiff  whistle  (sound)  ;  bie 
©cfenitte  slice,  &c. 

55a3  SMedj  (from  Hcid)en  in  its  older  meaning  to  shine,  glitter)  sheet-metal 
shows  the  mutated  (a-mutation  ;  see  26.  B)  form  of  this  vowel. 

Some  nouns  have  the  vowel  of  the  present  tense  :  bet  <£trott  contention,  bie 
(Scfyneibo  edge  (of  a  knife,  sword),  &c. 

2.  Division.     Gradation : 

Pres.       ei  Past  ie  Perf.  Part.  te. 

M.H.G.  I  ei  or  e-I  (197.  A.  c)  I. 

Examples :  Wetfcen,  Htefc,  geMteten :  wfcen,  rieB,  gerieten. 


310        GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB      198. 

Here  belong:  tefleifcen  (simple  Heifren  now  entirely  lost)  to  take 
root,  stand  firmly  rooted,  now  rare  and  confined  to  poetry;  Mei&en 
to  remain  ;  gebetfyen  (see  e]  to  thrive,  earlier  in  the  period  occasionally 
wk. ;  flei^en  (N.G.,  sometimes  wk.)  to  put  in  order,  arrange,  fold ; 
lettyen  to  borrow,  lend ;  meifcen  to  avoid ;  pretfen  to  praise,  earlier 
in  the  period  wk.,  now  str.,  but  the  compound  lofc'pretfen  to  praise  in 
song,  str.  or  wk.,  lofc'jmeg  or  Io6pretf(e)te,  gelofcprtefen,  lobgepriefen,  or 
gelobpretft;  reifcen  to  rub;  fdjetfcen  VII  to  separate,  in  early  N.H.G. 
(see  Gen.  xiii.  14)  still  in  Class  VII,  i.  Division,  which  former 
inflection  still  survives  in  the  one  adjective  participle  befcfyetben  (see 
204,  i.  Division,  a),  but  in  transitive  use  sometimes  wk.,  as  in 
Gen.  i.  4 ;  fcfyeincn  to  shine,  seem ;  fd)mt>en  to  write ;  fcfyreien  to 
scream;  fcfyrcetgen  to  be  silent;  fpeten  to  spew,  vomit  (fire,  &c.), 
spit  (formerly  common  in  this  meaning,  now  restricted  to  SSIut 
fyeten,  ?yeuer  unb  ^Icmimen  fpeien,  &c.),  earlier  in  the  period  also  wk., 
and  still  wk.  in  biblical  and  popular  language ;  ftetgen  to  mount ; 
treifcm  to  drive,  impel ;  rceifen  to  point  out,  show,  in  early  N.H.G. 
also  wk.,  now  str.;  jeifjen  to  accuse,  sometimes  wk. 

a.  Luther  still  used  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  past  tense, 
as  in  M.H.G. :  id)  fd)reib,  tmt  fdjvieben. 

b.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are :  fleiben  to  make  stick,  paste,  now  little 
used,  largely  replaced  by  fteben  (see  c) ;   fdjtpeigen  (early  N.H.G.  and  later, 
now  little  used  in  the  literary  language)  to  silence,  hush,  perhaps  a  little 
more  common  is  the  derivative  gefcfyrceigen  to  silence  :  S)u  toeifjt,  tie  Sautter  tying 
eft  ein  Xud)  iiber,  itm  ifjn  (i.  e.  ben  £anfltng)  gu  gefdjweigen,  toenn  cr  fo  redjt  aits 
jltaften  fang  (Storm's  Immensee). 

c.  The  vowel  i  of  the  old  plural  of  the  past  tense  still  appears  in  deriva- 
tives :    O.H.G.  kllban  to  stick  (intrans.),  which  formerly  belonged  to  this 
class  and  is  still  represented  here  by  the  poetic  compound  befletben  given 
in  the  list   above,   is   the   source  of  two   derivatives:    flimmen    (O.H.G. 
klimban  III)  II  to  climb  (lit.  to  stick),  which  shows  the  gradation  i  of  the  old 
plural  of  the  past  tense  of  kllban  and  an  insertion  of  a  nasal  (m)  between 
the  stem  vowel  and  the  consonantal   termination,  which,   however,  later 
became  assimilated  to  the  nasal ;  the  wk.  Heben  (O.H.G.  kleben)  to  stick,  at 
first  intrans.,  later  also  trans.,  replacing  largely  in  the  latter  function  the 
factitive  fteiben  (see  b).    J?feben  shows  the  gradation  i  of  the  old  plural  of  the 
past  tense  of  kllban  changed  to  e  under  the  influence  of  a-mutation  (see 
26.  B).     The  wk.  getgen  to  show,  from  getfjen  to  accuse  (lit.  to  show  something' 
against),  has  preserved  the  vowel  of  the  old  sing,  of  the  past  tense.    The  g 
instead  of  ty  is  the  result  of  the  operation  of  Verner's  Law  (197.  E). 

d.  2)er  (Stetg  path,  bie  ©teige  path,  staircase,  show  the  vowel  of  the  present 
tense ;  bet  Untetfcfyieb  difference,  ber  @tieg  ascent,  show  the  new  vowel  of  the 
past  tense,  while  in  bie  @tege  (S.G.  from  O.  H.G.  stega)  staircase,  ber  <£teg  path, 
we  see  the  mutated  (a-mutation  ;  see  26.  B)  form  of  the  plural  vowel  of  the 
old   past.    2)te  Shrift  (from  treiben,  hence  a  place  where  cattle  are  driven) 
pasture   and   bie   ©djttft   writing  show  the  vowel   I   of  the   old    perfect 
participle  and  the  old  plural  of  the  past  tense.     3?td)en  sign,  mark,  related  to 
getfyfn  to  accuse  (lit.  to  show, point  out  something  against),  has  preserved  the 
vowel  of  the  old  sing,  of  the  past. 

e.  The  old  perf.  part,  of  gebeityen,  according  to  Verner's  Law  (197.  E),  was 
gebiegen.      This  form   still  exists,  but  is  now  felt  as  an  adjective  with  the 
meanings  solid,  genuine,  sterling,  meanings  which  are  easily  brought  into 
relation  to  the  primary  signification  of  the  verb.     In  the  present  period  the 
older  participle  has  been  replaced  by  the  levelled  form  gebietyen,  which  has 


199.  II.  CLASS,  i.  DIVISION  311 

resulted  from  the  tendency  to  level  out  little  inequalities  and  to  extend  the 
same  consonant  throughout  the  same  inflectional  system. 

199.  II.  Class.     Gradation: 

Pres.       ie,  e,  an,  u,  i,  a,  6  Past  o  Perf.  Part.  o. 

M.H.G.  ie  (iu  in  sing.,  ieinpl.)  ouoro-u(197.  A.c)  6. 

This  class  falls  into  two  divisions  strictly  on  the  basis  of  the 
closing  consonant  of  the  stem.  If  the  stem  terminates  in  d?,  f, 
f?,  fcfy,  t  (which  includes  fieben  by  virtue  of  its  perf.  part,  gefotten), 
a  double  consonant  or  a  combination  of  consonants,  the  vowel 
of  the  past  tense  and  perfect  part,  is  short  o,  while  it  is  in  all 
other  cases  long  o.  For  some  reason,  however,  bteten  does  not 
follow  this  law. 

Historical  Note.  The  explanation  of  this  division  lies  in  an  earlier  condition 
of  things.  Formerly  the  vowel  of  the  perfect  part,  was  uniformly  short  o.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  modern  German  period  all  short  vowels  became  long  in  open 
syllables  ;  hence  as  d),  f,  f ,  t,  double  consonants  or  a  combination  of  consonants  at  the 
close  of  a  stem  formed  a  closed  syllable,  words  containing  such  final  consonants  in 
their  stems  could  not  participate  in  that  movement  which  made  the  stem-vowel  of 
words  long  in  all  open  syllables.  Thus  verbs  of  this  class  fell  into  two  groups  in  the 
perfect  participle,  one  with  the  new  vowel  gradation  o,  the  other  with  the  old  $.  Later 
the  vowel  of  the  perfect  participle  spread  by  force  of  analogy  to  the  past  tense,  so  that 
each  verb  had  the  same  vowel  in  the  past  tense  and  perfect  participle,  and  there  thus 
arose  two  divisions  of  these  verbs,  -each  with  the  same  vowel  in  the  past  tense  and 
perfect  participle. 

The  old  past  tense,  which  had  been  levelled  away  in  the  manner  just  described, 
contained  two  vowel  gradations  in  the  singular,  ou  before  labials  and  gutturals  (except 
i)}  and  o  before  i)  and  dentals,  while  all  alike  had  the  same  gradation  in  the  plural, 
namely,  short  u.  When  later  the  vowel  of  the  perfect  participle  replaced  the  old 
vowels  of  the  past  tense,  the  derivatives  remained  unaffected,  and  thus  still  show  the 
old  gradations  of  the  past  tense ;  see  I.  Division,  c,  d,  and  2.  Division,  c,  d, 
below. 

This  class  was  greatly  enlarged  by  accessions  from  the  other  classes,  as  can  be  seen 
by  glancing  at  the  lists  below.  Words  in  other  classes  which  contained  a  long  or 
a  short  o  in  their  perfect  participle  joined  those  verbs  in  this  class  which  had  there  the 
same  vowel,  and  along  with  them  extended  the  vowel  of  their  perfect  participle  to 
their  past  tense  and  became  identified  with  them  as  members  of  one  class.  Their 
derivatives,  however,  did  not  make  this  change,  and  still  show  the  older  vowels. 

i.  Division.     Gradation : 

Pres.  ie,?,t,  au,o  Past  3  Perf.  Part.  o. 

M.H.G.  ie  (iu  in  sing.,  ie  in  pi.)  ou  oro-  u  (197.  A.c)  6. 

Examples  :  fliejjen,  flofj  (pi.  wir  floffen),  gefloffen ;  fteben,  fott,  gefotten. 

Here  belong:  i.  In  ie :  ttevbriepeu  to  vex;  fliefjen  to  flow;  giefjeu 
to  pour;  friecfyen  to  crawl,  creep  ;  geniefjen  to  enjoy;  riedjen  to  smell ; 
fcfytefjm  to  shoot;  fcfyliefen  (S.G.)  to  slip;  fctyltcfjm  to  shut,  close; 
fteben  to  boil,  str.  only  when  transitive  and  used  of  eggs  and  the 
like,  which,  when  '  done/  are  said  to  be  gefotten,  otherwise  wk. ; 
fyrief;en  to  sprout,  sometimes  wk.,  now  largely  confined  to  choice 
language,  elsewhere  usually  replaced  by  the  wk.  fproffen ;  triefcn 
to  drip,  troff,  getroffen,  now  also  often  wk.,  and  even  more  commonly 
so  in  the  perf.  part. 

•2.  In  e:  trefcfyen  (bit  brtfcfyeft  or  brifcfyft,  er  brtfd)t)  III  (O.H.G.), 
IV  (M.H.G.)  to  thrash,  also  in  III  Class,  3.  Division,  rarely 


312        GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB      199. 

wk. ;  fed)ten  (bu  fid}tft,  er  ftc$t)  III  (O.H.G.),  IV  (M.H.G.)  to  fight; 
flcdjten  (bu  flttyft,  er  fltty)  III  (O.H.G.),  IV  (M.H.G.)  to  braid,  plat, 
plait,  rarely  wk. ;  inelfen  (bu  mttfjt,  cr  mtlft)  III  to  milk,  str.  forms 
now,  perhaps,  less  common  than  the  wk.  except  in  the  adj.  part, 
(frifd?  gemolfene  SJJtld)  milk  just  from  the  cozv),  hence  more  frequently 
inelfe,  melffr,  melfte,  gemelft;  quettett  (MI  qutUfl,  er  quiflt)  III  to  swell  up, 
gush;  fd)eflen  III  to  sound  (intrans.),  now  replaced  in  the  pres.  by 
the  wk.  fdjaflen,  past  fcfyaflte,  in  poetic  or  choice  language  fcbofl,  in 
early  N.H.G.  fcfyatt  (Mark  i.  28)  according  to  former  class,  perf.  part, 
gefdjaflt,  str.  only  in  poetic  or  choice  language  in  certain  compound 
words  as  erfd)oUen  resounded,  and  always  in  t>erfd}oflen  forgotten,  lit. 
sound  or  report  (of  him,  her,  it]  died  away ;  fdjmeljeii  (t>u  fcfymiljefr, 
fdjmiljt,  or  fdjmetjeft,  er  fd?mil$t,  fcfymeljt,  str.  forms  here  more  common 
than  wk.)  Ill  to  melt  (intrans.),  but  the  rarer  fdjmilgen  to  melt  (trans, 
or  intrans.)  is  wk. ;  fd^nxtten  (bu  fcfynnUfr,  er  fd)nrittt)  III  to  swell  up, 
out  (intrans.). 

3.  In  i:  gtimmen  III  to  glimmer,  smoulder,  str.  or  perhaps  more 
frequently  wk. ;  ftimmen  III  to  climb,  str.  or  wk. ;  also  the  adjective 
participle  fceflommen  breathing  with  difficulty,  anxious,  oppressed  in 
one's  feelings,  oppressive,   adjective  and  participle  from  the   lost 
Beflimmen  (but  fceflemnten  with  the  same  meaning  to  oppress  one's 

feelings  is  entirely  wk.),  only  rarely,  however,  as  a  real  participle 
with  verbal  force :  «£at  bir  je  ben  95ufeit  £te&e§fd)merj  fceflommen  ? 
(Platen) ;  the  adj.  part,  tjerf  (ommeu  stiff  with  cold,  cramped,  from  the 
str.  M.H.G.  verklimmen  to  press  together,  cramp.  The  weak  part, 
fcerflammt  (sometimes  fcerflamt,  berftom(m)t)  with  the  same  meaning  as 
fcerflommeu  is  from  the  weak  intrans.  verb  fcerflammen  (sometimes 
fcerflatnen,  fcerflom(m)en)  to  become  stiff  with  cold. 

4.  In  au,  (a)  or  5  :  faufen  (fit  fauff},  er  fa  it  ft)  to  drink  (of  animals,  or 
as  animals),  foff,  gefoffen,  sometimes  wk. ;  erlofdjen  (bu  erlifd^efl  or  erlif^ft, 
er  erlifd^t)  III  (O.H.G.),  IV  (M.  H.G.)  to  go  out  (of  a.  light,  &c.),  intrans., 
sometimes  wk.     Here  also  belongs  the  poetic  part,  gerocfyen  from 
rdcfyett  to  avenge,  now  usually  entirely  wk.,  in  early  N.H.G.  id?  recfye, 
bu  ricfyfr,  er  rid;t,  past  racfy,  later  rod?.    The  strong  part,  is  still  occa- 
sionally found  in  prose  :  £>a3  fofl  flefcen  3KaI  gerodjen  irerben  (Frenssen's 
Heimatsfest,  i,  i). 

General  Remarks  on  the  i.  Division : 

a.  For  the  change  of  vowel  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing.  pres.  tense, 
see  177. 1 1.  D.  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f. 

b.  The  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing.  pres.  still  occasionally  show  in  poetry 
old  forms  in  eit,  which  were  the  rule  in  Luther's  works :  fleitfjt,  fmtcfyt,  &c.  for 
fliejjt,  friecfyt,  &c.     For  the  development  of  fit  out  of  M.H.G.  iu  see  p.  3,  2nd 
paragraph  (2).     The  ie  of  the  plural  had  in  Luther's  language  supplanted 
the  M.H.G.  iu  (N.H.G.  m)  in  the  1st  pers.  sing.,  but  had  not  yet  driven  it 
out  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing.     Later  the  ie  levelled  the  entire  sing. 

_c.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are :  erfdufen_/0  drown,  from  M.H.G.  ersoufen  ; 
flojen  to  wash  down,  away,  to  float  logs  ;  flojjen  to  administer  wine,  medicine, 
&c.,  instil  (courage,  &c.),  float  logs  ;  trdufcn  to  make  fall  in  drops  upon,  from 
M.H.G.  troufen  ;  fcfcfyen  to  extinguish,  quench,  slack  (lime),  lay  (dust) ; 
quetkn  to  soak  (peas,  &c.) ;  fcfyeKen  to  cause  to  sound,  ring  (bell  for  servant, 
&c.) ;  fdjmetjen  to  cause  to  melt,  melt  (trans.),  also  strong,  as  it  is  under  the 


199.  II.  CLASS,  2.  DIVISION  313 

influence  of  the  strong  intransitive,  as  in  <£ie  fdjmeljm  <Sd)nee  unb  Qn3  (Ludwig's 
Z"wischen  Himmel  und  Erde,  XX),  and,  perhaps,  more  commonly  so  in  the 
perf.  part.  ;  fd)tttt(len  to  cause  to  swell  up.  For  the  change  of  M.H.G.  ou  to 
N.H.G.  au  see  (4),  p.  3.  Hence  M.H.G.  6u  became  N.H.G.  du.  The  last 
five  verbs  in  the  above  list  were  formed  when  they  were  in  their  former 
class  (III),  hence  the  vowel  t  in  their  stem,  but  lefdjen  was  later  corrupted 
to  lefdjen,  which  form  was  also  extended  to  the  str.  verb.  The  strong  verb 
lojcfyen  is  often  confounded  with  the  wk.,  hence  the  wk.  forms  which  are 
frequently  found  instead  of  the  more  correct  str.  in  the  intrans.  use  :  Satin 
iwar  eg,  ate  Icfdjtm  a((e  biefe  Sifter  au3  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  I.  chap.  i). 

d.  Most  nouns  made  from  the  past  tense  of  the  original  verbs  of  this  class 
show  the  old  vowel  of  the  pi.  :  bee  3$erbru§  vexation,  ber  ©up  downpour  (of 
rain),  casting  (of  a  bell,  &c.),  ber  ©emtfj  enjoyment,  &c.  ;  bie  <£d)tuft  or  more 
commonly  @d)lud)t  (from  Low  German)  cleft.  In  other  cases  the  it  has 
changed  to  3  under  the  influence  of  a-mutation  (26.  B)  :  bet  5UIJ5  river,  with 
old  u,  but  bie  Sloffe  (O.H.G.  flozza)_/?#,  with  it  mutated  to  $.  In  {ylcjj  raft  we 
have  the  old  gradation  o  of  the  past  singular,  and  in  @d)teife  (for  the  correct 
early  N.H.G.  <8d)lditfe)  noose  the  mutated  form  of  the  old  gradation  au 
(M.H.G.  ou).  For  the  explanation  of  the  forms  <Sd}att,  (sdjmalj,  ©cfytoaU  see 

200,  3.  Division,  c. 

2.  Division.     Gradation  : 

Pres.  ie,  e,  au,  u,  a,  b  Past  o  Perf.  Part.  c. 

M.H.G.  ie  (iu  in  sing.,  ie  in  pi.)      ouoro-u(197.  A.c)  5. 

Examples  :  fciegen,  fcog,  gefcogen  ;  rctegen,  rcog,  gercogen. 

Here  belong:  i.  In  ie  :  tnegen  to  bend;  fcieten  to  offer;  fltegen  to 
fly  :  fliefyen  to  flee  ;  frtercn  to  freeze  ;  fiefen,  see  fiiren  in  4,  below  ;  flieten 
(now  only  used  in  S.G.)  to  split  ;  fcfciefceu  to  shove  ;  jtie&en  to  fly  away 
(in  the  form  of  mist,  dust,  or  other  small  particles),  to  scatter  (intrans.)  ; 
fcerliereu  to  lose;  rctegen  and  icdgeu  (DU  rcdgfi;  see  Note;  sometimes 
wk.)  V,  the  former  to  weigh  on  the  scales,  used  transitively  or  in- 
transitively, and  also  to  weigh  in  the  mind  when  used  intransitively, 
the  latter  to  weigh  with  the  mind,  used  only  transitively  ;  (rciegeu  to 
rock,  always  wk.);  ^tefyen  to  draw,  pull,  go,  move  (intrans.),  jog,  gc^ogen. 

Note.  The  parts  of  hnegett  and  fragen  to  weigh,  move  (intrans.,  a  meaning  now 
in  general  obsolete  in  the  original  verb,  but  surviving  in  the  factitive  to  move  and 
other  derivatives)  were  in  early  N.H.G.  according  to  V  :  roegen  (til  Unea.il,  er  tttegt), 
past  Jvag  (sometimes  ttmg),  pi.  tocgen  (developed  from  M.H.G.  wagen  ;  sometimes 
Wugen),  perf.  part,  geftegen.  Later  the  present  was  split  into  two  forms  Ujiegen  and 
rpdgcn  (corrupted  from  roegen  under  the  impression  that  it  was  a  derivative  of  SBage 
pair  of  scales'),  the  former  of  which  resulted  from  the  levelling  of  the  forms  by  the 
vowel  of  the  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing.,  the  latter  from  levelling  by  the  1st  person  sing. 
The  plural  form  of  the  past  tcogen  levelled  the  sing,  to  h)og,  and  later  the  vowel  o 
spread  also  to  the  perf.  part,  except  in  case  of  fertt>egen  (see  5,  below).  The  vowel  of 
the  old  present  survives  in  lengthened  form  in  SBeg  way  (lit.  'that  over  which  something 
moves').  The  vowel  of  the  old  sing,  of  the  past  survives  in  lengthened  form  in  SSagen 
wagon  (lit.  that  which  is  moved')  and  in  mutated  form  also  in  the  weak  factitive  betocgen 
to  move  in  c  below  and  the  strong  factitive  betregen  to  induce  (lit.  to  make  the  will 
move)  in  2,  below,  which,  however,  ought  to  be  weak.  The  vowel  of  the  old  M.H.G. 
plural  of  the  past  survives  in  SBage  (pair  of  scales).  The  modern  vowel  of  the  past 
is  found  in  2Boge  billow  (lit.  that  which  is  moved). 


2.  In  e:  tyefcm  ($eb|T)  VI  to  lift;  pft«Jf»  (Pfleflft)  V  to  devote  one- 
self to,  carry  on  (negotiations,  &c.),  past  tense  in  poetical  language 
sometimes  vftog  (according  to  its  former  class),  wk.  throughout  in 
the  meaning  to  be  accustomed  to  ;  fcfyeren  (fru  fdjerfi,  or  in  poetic  style 


314      GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB       199. 

also  fd)ierfi  you  cut,  bit  fd?etft  or  fcfyierft  you  bother,  bag  fd?ert  or  fcfytert 
bid)  nid?t  that  doesn't  concern  you,  fd?et'  or  fd?ter  bid?  fort  get  out  of  here) 

IV  to  cut,  shear,   be  off,  bother,  concern,  perf.  part,  usually  str., 
past  tense  str.  in  the  first  and  second  meaning,  wk.  or  str.  in  the 
fourth  and  fifth,  and  rare  in  the  third,  the  word  in  this  use  being 
largely  confined  to  the  imperative ;  (fcefcfyeren  to  give,  present,  always 
wk.);   ireben  (rcffcji)  V  to  weave,  usually  wk.,  sometimes  str.,  more 
commonly  so  in  poetic  language  and  in  the  figurative  use  alongside 
of  the  wk.,  sometimes  with  an  adjective  participle  made  according 
to  its  former  class,  as  in  bte  fefien  fyaugtrefcenen  (for  l^auSgercefcten)  <S  to  fire 
the  strong  home-woven  fabrics ;  fcercegen  (cu  fcercegjl ;  see  i.  Note,  above) 

V  to  move  the  will,  induce,  but  wk.  in  the  other  applications  of  the 
meaning  move,  as  to  move  the  feelings,  move  objects,  &c. 

3.  In  ait:  faugen  (cit  faugji,  in  early  N.H.G.  also  bufettgft  or  fdiigft) 
to  suck,  sometimes  also  wk.  throughout;   fd?rtaufren  (fcu  fd?naul>fi,  in 
early  N.H.G.  also  bit  fcfyneufcfi  or  fcfyndufrft)  to  snort,  wk.  or  in  poetry 
and  choice  prose  also  str. ;  fd?raitoen  (t>u  fctmmfcfl)  to  screw,  usually 
wk.  as  originally,  sometimes  str.,  especially  in  the  adjective  perf. 
participle  tterfcbrobeu  distorted,  crazy,  cranky. 

4.  In  it:  furen  (from  bie  Jtur  choice,  and  hence  in  a  strict  sense 
more  properly  wk.)  or  fiefen  (more  properly  str.),  both  confined 
largely  to  a  choice  style  with  the  meaning  to  choose,  for  (rarely 
fieflc)  or  fittte,  geforen  (rarely  gefteft)  or  gefttrt ;  Ittgeu  (in  early  N.H.G. 
liegen;    the  present  spelling  has  come  from  association  with  the 
derivative  bic  Sitge  lie)  to  lie  (falsify),  sometimes  wk. ;  tritgen  (older 
form  trtegen  still  common  in  eighteenth  century ;  the  present  spelling 
has  come  from  association  with  its  derivative  bcr  £rug  deception  and 
analogy  with  liigert)  to  deceive,  occasionally  wk. 

5.  In  a  and  6 :  gdren  (earlier  in  the  period  gtert  in  3rd  pers.  sing., 
now  gdrt)  to  ferment,  work,  effervesce,  str.  in  the  literal  meaning, 
wk.  when  used  figuratively,  as  illustrated  by  an  example  in  197.  F ; 
fd?rcdreit  (fd)redrt,  now  rarely  fd?roiert)  IV  to  fester,  suppurate,   past 
sometimes  fofytrdrte ;  fcfcttorcu  VI  to  swear,  fctjroor  or  fcfyitur  (old  form 
according  to  its  original  class,  still  not  infrequently  used  in  choice 
language,  and  indeed  the  favorite  form  in  the  subj.,  i.  e.  fd)rritre), 
gefcfyrooren,  only  rarely  wk.  throughout;  rcdgen  (M.H.G.  wfigen),  see 
njiegen  under  i,  above;  fid)  serrcdgm  (sometimes  tterroegen  as  in  M.H.G.; 
for  construction  see  262.  II.  A.  b)  V  to  dare,  venture  upon.     The 
adj.  or  adv.  perf.  part.  Derrcegen  bold,  daring  is  formed  according 
to  the  former  class  of  fcerredgen.     The  adj.  or  adv.  part,  uerrcogen, 
according  to  its  present  class,  is  also  found,  but  now  more  com- 
monly with  differentiated  meaning,  jaunty :  (Sr  fyat  einen  alten  3dger^ut 
giemlid)  fcerrcogm  attf  ben  frfjon  ftarf  angegrauten  Jtopf  gefefct  (Hauptmann's 
Hannele,    i,  p.    12).      3d?  feb'  bid?  fdjon  al3  tterrccgcne  @d?Iofjf)errin 
(Halbe's  Haus  Rosenhagen,  2,  p.  80). 

General  Remarks  on  2.  Division : 

a.  For  interchange  in  2nd  and  3rd  person  sing,  see  177.  II.  D.  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,f. 

b.  Old  forms  in  eu  occur  in  poetry  in  the  2nd  and  3rd  pers.  sing. :  fleiid)t 
&c.  for  flieljt,  &c.     For  explanation  of  the  forms  in  nt  see  I.  Division,  General 
Remarks,  b. 


200.  III.  CLASS,  i.  DIVISION  315 

c.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  in  this  division  are  beitgett  to  make  bend,  bend 
(the  will,  spirit,  knee,  head,  &c.),  from  M.H.G.  bougen;    bcwegeu  to  move, 
made  when  wegen  (see  I.  Note,  above)  was  in  V  class  ;   in  Switzerland  enti 
ttjegen  to  swerve,  from  which  comes  the  new  but  common  literary  perf.  part, 
itnentrcegt  unswerving :  an  btefen  Slbftcfyten  unentoegt  .  .  .  fefl$ul)a(ten  (Bismarck) ; 
fdugen  to  suckle,  from  M.H.G.  sougen  ;  ftaiiben  (sometimes  replaced  by  wk. 
fUeben,  which  is  properly  str.  and  intrans.)  to  throw  off  fine  particles  (as  diist, 
spray,  mist],  to  scatter  (trans.),  strew,  from  M.H.G.  stouben.     Notice  that 
in  the  original  factitives  of  this  class  the  stem  vowel  is  ait  (in  beitgen  written 
eu),  as  according  to  (4),  p.  3,  M.H.G.  ou  has  developed  into  N.H.G.  ait,  and 
consequently  M.H.G.  6u  is  represented  by  N.H.G.  ait. 

d.  The  nouns  made  from  the  gradation  of  the  past  tense  show  the  vowels 
of  the  old  singular  and  plural :    bet   @taub  (from   M.H.G.  stoup,   which, 
according  to   (4),  p.   3,  has  become   N.H.G.   <2>taitb)   dust,  bev   $tol)   flea, 
ber  §lug  flight,  bte  Siige  (O.H.G.  lugi)  falsehood,  groft  (<z-mutation  from  old 
stem  frosta  ;  see  26.  B)  frost,  &c.    The  old  it  and  o  (a-mutation)  were  short, 
but  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  period  they  became  long  before  one 
consonant :  8%  Slug,  ©ebot,  but  gludjt  (fUefyen),  83erlufl,  5*3)1,  JHfift  (fUeben). 

S)ie  ©cfyarte  nick,  made  from  the  old  weak  participle  schart  cut,  nicked, 
shows  the  old  singular  vowel  of  the  past  tense  of  Class  IV,  to  which  fdjeren 
formerly  belonged.  S)ie  @d>ur  shearing  shows  a  lengthened  vowel  form  of 
the  same  class  which  is  no  longer  preserved  elsewhere. 

200.  III.  Class.     Gradation: 

Pres.  i,  c  Past  a  Perf.  Part,  u,  o. 

i.  Division.     Gradation : 

Pres.       t  Past  <{  Perf.  Part.  ft. 

M.H.G.!  a-u(107.  A.  c]  \\. 

Examples  :  fcinben,  £anb,  geBunben ;  brtngen,  brang,  gebrungen. 

Here  belong:  fcinben  to  bind;  bingen  to  hire,  bang  (bung)  or  bingte, 
subjunctive  bange,  btngte,  gebungen,  gcbingt,  originally  wk. ;  Bebingen,  str. 
or  now  less  commonly  wk.  in  the  sense  to  reserve  in  a  contract 
something  for  oneself,  but  wk.  in  the  adjective  participle  in  the 
meaning  conditional  (ein  6ebingte§  SSerfyvecfyen  a  conditional  promise, 
but  S)a3  fyflfce  id)  ntir  fcebungen  That  I  have  reserved  to  myself),  always 
wk.  in  the  meanings  to  cause,  bring  about,  require  (as  a  necessary 
condition  of  success),  constitute;  bringen,  now  usually  intrans.  to 
penetrate,  crowd,  rush,  press  into,  earlier  in  the  period  also  trans,  to 
press,  crowd,  push,  force,  and  still  so  in  abbrtngeu  to  extort  from,  etnem 
etrca3  aufbringen  (or  aufbrdngen)  to  force  something  upon  one,  and  also 
in  certain  participial  expressions,  as  bringcnbe  (Sefafyr,  eine  gebrungcne 
©eflalt,  notgebrungcn,  id)  fitfyte  mid?  gebrungen,  also  in  bringlid)  pressing, 
aufcringlid?  obtrusive,  obtruding,  elsewhere  now  usually  replaced  in 
the  transitive  use  by  the  wk.  brdngen ;  finbcn  to  find ;  gelingen  to 
succeed  ;  flingen  to  sound,  either  str.  or  wk.  in  the  meaning  to  clink 
glasses;  rtngen  to  wrestle,  wring;  fdjinbm  to  flay,  skin  (one's  limb), 
fdjunb  or  fcfytnbete,  gefd?unbcn,  originally  wk. ;  ftyliugen  to  twine,  swallow; 
fdjrtnbcn  to  burst,  chap  (intrans.),  fcfyrunb  or  fd^ranb,  gefdirunben,  now 
little  used ;  fd^trinben  to  disappear ;  fd;nwtgen  to  swing,  wave,  whirl, 
but  fcefdjnnngen  to  wing,  derivative  from  @d?n>inge  wing,  always  wk.  ; 
ftngen  to  sing ;  ftnfen  to  sink ;  fpringcn  to  spring,  leap  ;  ftinfen  to  stink ; 
trtnfen  to  drink ;  irtnben  to  wind  ;  irrtngen  to  wring  (out),  N.G.  form  of 
ringen,  but  also  in  use  in  the  South ;  jwingen  to  force. 


316      GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB      200. 

a.  Here  belongs  the  adj.  part,  gebuufen  (usually  aufgebunfen)  bloated,  of  the 
now  otherwise  obsolete  btttfen ;  also  the  adj.  part,  ttmtmnfdjen  (also  vmviinfdjt) 
in  the  one  meaning  enchanted,  from  the  otherwise  wk.  verb  mitmnfd)cn  to 
curse,  enchant.     In  careless,  colloquial  language  the  weak  fdjtmvfen  to  rail 
against,  abuse,  often  forms  a  perf.  part,  according  to  this  class :   ^>ajl  bod) 
foufl  imtmr  fo  pmfdj  auf bag  alte  9lefl  gefd)iimpfen  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,  i). 

b.  Luther  still  used  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  past  tense, 
as  in  M.H.G. :  id)  banb,  toir  buttben.     In  archaic  style  we  find  the  old  pi.  even 
in  the  nineteenth  century :  2)urd)  bie  bag  $arabie3  ttnr  ttiebet  funben  (Tieck's  Oct., 
155).    In  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  past  tense  was  '  levelled,' 
the  vowel  of  the  sing,  spreading  to  the  pi.     In  two  words,  however,  the  pL 
vowel  has  entered  the  sing. :  id)  fdjiinb,  toir  fd)itnben  ;  fd)tunb,  fdjrunben.    Earlier 
in  the  period  we  find  also  other  words  that  were  levelled  according  to  the 
pi. :  2)et  junge  ®raf,  »of(  Scrcengrimm,  |  fd)toung  fctnen  £elbenjkb  (Schiller's  Graf 
Eberhard). 

c.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d]  of  this  division  are :  tterfdjtoenben  to  squander  ; 
fengen  to  singe,  lit.  to  cause  to  sing,  referring  to  the  crackling  noise  of  flames ; 
fenfen  to  sink  (trans.) ;  fprengen  to  blow  up,  blast,  to  ride  at  full  speed  ;  ftdnfen,  or 
more  commonly  fWnfern,  to  cause  to  stink  ;  tranfen  to  give  to  drink,  to  cause 
to  drink  in  (used  of  animals,  persons,  and  materials :   2Ran  trdnft  bag  SMefj, 
ein  Jlinb,  bie  bum  (Srbe,  $flanjen,  bie  <See(e  mit  grojjen  (Smpfinbungen) ;  lucnben 
to  turn. 

d.  The  nouns  of  this  division  made  from  the  gradation  of  the  past  tense 
now  show  the  vowel  of  the  sing,  and  now  the  pi.  vowel  of  the  old  past :  bcr 
S3anb  volume ;  ber  SBunb  alliance ;   bet  <£d)»unb   disappearance ;   ber  3»ang 
compulsion,  constraint,  £c. 

2.  Division.     Gradation : 

Pres.  (177.  II.  C,  D.  b,  c)  Past.  Perf.  Part. 

t,  e  (t  in  2nd  &  3rd  sing.)  a  (subj.  d  or  o)  o. 

M.  H.G.  !,  e  (i  in  sing,  and  e  in  pi.)  a-u  (197.  A.  c)  6. 

Examples :  ftnnnen,  fpann,  subj.  fpdnne  or  fponne,  gefponnen ;  gelten 
(bu  giltji,  er  gilt),  gait,  subj.  gdlte  or  golte,  gegolten. 

Here  belong:  freginnen  to  begin,  past  fcegattn,  in  early  N.H.G. 
usually  fcegunbe  (sometimes  Begunte,  tegonfie,  fcegtnrtte,  fcegan,  fccgun), 
later  tegiintc,  fcfgon(n)tc,  fcegonn,  fcegann,  perf.  part,  tegonnen,  in  early 
N.H.G.  kguunen,  fcegont,  begunt,  begonneu ;  Bergen  (bu  fctrft  in  choice 
language,  in  colloquial  speech,  perhaps,  more  commonly  fcerfteft)  to 
burst,  barft,  sometimes  borft  and  Berjlete,  subj.  6dr|lc,  fcorfte,  or  Berftetc, 
perf.  part,  gefcorften  ;  getten  (bit  giltft)  to  be  worth,  pass  for ;  rumen  to 
flow,  run  (of  liquids) ;  fcfyelten  (t»u  fcfytftfl  or  colloq.  sometimes  fcfceltefi) 
to  scold;  (c^ictmmen  to  swim;  flnnen  to  meditate,  in  early  N.H.G. 
wk.,  and  some  scholars  see  in  gefinnt  disposed,  minded  a  survival  of 
this  older  usage,  while  others  with  more  reason  regard  this  wk. 
participle  as  derived  directly  from  ©inn  bent  of  mind  (distinguish 
between  gefinnt  and  gefonnen :  @r  tft  u6el  geftnnt  evil-minded  and  (Sr  ijl 
gefonnen,  e§  gu  tun  is  willing,  inclined,  or  intends  to  do  it) ;  fptnnen  to 
spin ;  geroinnen  to  win. 

a.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  N.H.G.  period  the  M.H.G.  u  in  the  plural  of  the 
past  indicative  became  o  before  nn  and  mm  in  accordance  with  ageneral  phonetic 
law  (see  p.  3, 2nd  paragraph  (6) ),  funnen,  funnen  (subjunctive)  becoming  fonnen, 
fottnen.  In  the  other  words  of  this  group  the  plural  vowel  sometimes  became  o 
after  the  analogy  of  these  words  and  under  the  influence  of  the  o  of  their  own 


200.  III.  CLASS,  3.  DIVISION  317 

perfect  participle  :  irir  burflen  or  bcrfUn.  This  o  then  spread  to  the  subjunctive 
(as  in  bcrfle),  which  formerly  had  the  same  vowel  as  the  plural  of  the  indica- 
tive. The  u  and  the  o  of  the  past  indicative  which  were  still  used  by  Luther 
dropped  out  later  entirely  from  the  plural,  or,  speaking  technically,  the  plural 
was  "  levelled  "  by  the  singular  :  id)  bartf,  totr  barftm.  Occasionally,  however, 
the  plural  vowel  levelled  the  singular:  ba3  ©runbetS  borft  (Burger's  Lied -v. 
br.  Mann).  The  a  spread  also  to  the  subjunctive,  so  that  there  are  now  two 
forms,  the  older  one  in  o  and  the  newer  one  in  a :  id)  gctte  or  gatte.  The  6 
of  the  subjunctive  though  warmly  defended  by  the  grammarians  is  slowly 
dying.  This  6  of  the  past  subj.  is  most  common  in  verbs  with  the  stem 
vowel  e  in  the  present,  as  the  new  past  subj.  with  the  stem  vowel  a  is  in 
these  verbs  identical  in  sound  with  the  present :  gclte  often  instead  of  gdlte, 
as  the  latter  form  is  the  same  in  sound  as  the  pres.  gette. 

b.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are  :  brennen  (brannte,  gebrannt)  to  burn  (trans,  and 
intrans.),  from  the  str.  intrans.  brintien  to  burn,  which  earlier  in  the  period 
belonged  here,  but  is  now  replaced  by  brcnnen,  which  thus  assumed  the  intrans. 
force  of  the  parent  word  in  addition  to  its  own  trans,  meaning  ;  rennen  (rannte, 
gerannt)  to  run  (dagger,  &c.)  into,  run  or  race  (intrans.  with  fein),  but  in  the 
meanings  to  curdle  (milk),  melt  (iron),  raft  (logs)  always  trans.,  usually 
with  the  principal  parts  rennen,  vennte,  gerennt ;  fdpemmen  to  -wash  away,  lit. 
to  make  swim. 

3.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres.  (see  177.  II.  C,  D.  b,  c)          Past  Perf.  Part. 

e  (i  in  and  £  3rd  sing.)  a  o 

M.H.G.  e"  (1  in  sing,  and  e  in  pi.)  a-u  (197.  A.c)      6 

Examples  :  fyetfen  (bu  tytlfil,  er  §ilft),  fyalf,  subj.  fya'lfe  or  fjiilfe,  geljotfen. 
The  old  past  subj.  with  the  stem  vowel  ii  is  still  often,  perhaps 
prevailingly,  used,  as  the  new  form  with  the  stem  vowel  d  is  identical 
in  sound  with  the  form  for  the  present  tense. 

Here  belong  :  bergen  (i>u  btrgfl) ;  brefcfyen  (rw  brifcfyeft)  to  thrash,  usually 
in  the  II  class,  the  past  sometimes  btafd)  and  in  that  case  to  be  placed 
in  the  IV  class;  tyelfen  (tot  Jjilffl)  to  help;  fierben  (bu  fttrbft)  to 
die ;  uerbcrbcn  (bu  fcerbirbfi)  to  spoil  (trans,  and  intrans.) ;  irerben  (bu 
imbft)  to  enlist,  woo;  roerben  (see  177.  III.  c)  to  become;  n?erfen 
(bu  anrfft)  to  throw;  the  adjective  tterrcorren  in  a  state  of  disorder, 
confusion,  perf.  part,  of  the  lost  ttetrcemn.  The  related  tteririrreit 
to  confuse  is  entirely  weak.  Compare  the  adjective  fcerirorreu  with 
the  wk.  part,  fcemurrt :  2Sei(  «t  ganj  jjenvirrt  rear,  war  auc^  (einc  9tebe 
»erivorren  Because  he  was  confused,  his  thoughts  were  in  a  state 
of  disorder.  @r  iji  »ericirrt  He  is  (temporarily)  confused  (by  some- 
thing), but  (£r  iji  fcerrcorreu  His  thoughts  are  in  a  chronic  state 
of  disorder. 

a.  Luther  still  used  a  different  vowel  in  the  sing,  and  pi.  of  the  past  tense 
as  in  M.H.G. :  id?  ftarb,  toir  fhirbm  (sometimes  ftorben). 

b.  The  one  factitive  (197.  A.  d}  is  uevberben  to  cause  to  spoil,  to  spoil  (trans.), 
but  usually  now  limited  to  spoil  in  a  moral  or  a  phonetical  sense,  that  is,  to 
corrupt,  and  in  other  senses  now  replaced  by  the  str.  ccrtcrbcn :  ein  tterbcibteiJ 
£erj ;  etit  mbcrbcnet  2flagen.    But  even  in  the  moral  sense  the  str.  forms  are 
common. 

c.  Notice  the  noun  ber  2Burf,  which  still  shows  the  pi.  vowel  of  the  old 
past  tense  of  jucrfen. 

The  nouns  <Sd)att  sound,  @d)matj  lard,  @d)tuaf(  swell,  and  the  adjective 


318      GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB      200. 

flamm  (N.G.)  tight,  clammy  still  show  the  old  past  tense  sing,  vowel  a  of 
the  verbs  fcfycflen  (now  obsolete  in  pres.  tense)  to  sound,  fcfymcl^eu  to  melt, 
fdjttjelfen  to  swell,  flimmen  io  pinch  (old  meaning  now  only  preserved  in  flamm 
and  its  derivative  ftemmen  to  pinch) ,  climb,  all  of  which  have  left  this  class 
for  Class  II. 

201.  IV.  Class.     Gradation  : 

Pres.  (see  177.  II.  C,  D.  b,  c)          Past  Perf.  Part, 

o,  e,  e  (t,  ie  in  and  &  3rd  sing.),  3        a  0,0 

M.H.G.  £  (t  in  sing,  and  e  in  pi.)  S-a  (197.  A.  c)         o 

Examples :  Bremen  (bu  fcrtcfyjt,  er  fcrtdjt),  6ra$,  ge&rodjen ;  erfcfyrerfen 
(bu  erfcfyrirfft,  er  erfcfyricft),  erfcfyraf,  erfcfyrMen;  treffen  (bu  triffft,  er  trifft), 
traf,  getroffen ;  fleljlen,  (bu  fh'efyljt,  er  ftieljlt),  ftatyl,  geflotylen.  The  quantity 
of  the  vowel  is  the  same  in  the  infinitive  and  perf.  part.  The  vowel 
of  the  past  is  always  long.  See  also  a,  below. 

Here  belong  :  fcrecfyeu  (DU  faicfaft)  to  break ;  gebdren  (nu  gefcierji,  often 
gebarfi)  to  bear,  bring  forth;  tefefclen  (bu  fceftefylft)  III  to  command; 
empfeblen  (t>u  empftefylft)  III  to  recommend ;  netjmeu  (bu  mmmft,  er  nimmt) 
to  take,  na^m,  genontmen;  fcfyrecfen  (bu  fcfyrtcfji)  or  more  commonly 
erfcbrecfeit  to  be  frightened,  str.  used  intransitively  or  sometimes 
reflexively,  but  also  often  wk.  in  both  uses,  auffcfyreefm  to  start  up 
with  fright,  juritcf fcfcrecfen  to  start  back  with  fright  and  jufammenfdjrerfen 
to  be  overcome  with  fright,  both  str.  and  wk. ;  fprecfyen  (t>u  ftmcfyfit)  to 
speak ;  jlecfaen  (bu  fftcbjt)  to  stick  with  a  pointed  instrument,  sting, 
stab;  ftecfen  (bit  fiicffi,  er  jiicft,  common  in  the  classical  period  but 
now  usually  replaced  by  the  wk.  forms  bu  fiecf ft,  er  fiecft)  to  remain 
sticking  in,  intrans.,  often  with  a  strong  past  flaf  and  with  a  rare 
perf.  part,  geftocfen,  but  now  usually  wk. ;  ftef)Ien  (bu  fttefylfi)  to  steal ; 
treffen  (bu  triffft)  to  hit,  traf,  getrofen;  fommen  (bu  fommfl,  fontmjl,  the 
latter  form  common  in  the  classics  but  now  less  frequent,  especially 
in  choice  language)  to  come,  fam,  gefommen. 

a.  Those  words  that  have  double  consonants  or  cf  in  the  infin.  and  part, 
must  drop  one  consonant  or  the  c  in  (J  in  the  past  as  the  vowel  is  long ;  see 
examples. 

b.  Siefefylen  and  empfefyUn  which  used  to  belong  to  III  class  had  a  past  subj. 
in  6  like  gelten,  and  have  retained  it  alongside  of  the  new  d :  bcfdfyte  or  befofyle. 
Also  fteljlen  has  a  past  subj.  in  d  or  6,  as  earlier  in  the  period  the  irregular 
form  ftofyl  (the  o  after  the  analogy  of  the  perf.  part)  was  used  alongside  of 
the  regular  form  ftaljl. 

c.  Here  belongs  itiwr&oljten  open,  unconcealed,  adj.  part,  of  the  late  M.H.G. 
verheln,  now  replaced  by  the  wk.  werfyefyten  to  conceal. 

d.  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d)  are  erfcfyrecfm  to  frighten,  usually  wk.,  but  some- 
times (as  in  case  of  the  factitive  toerbevben  and  others)  is  str.  in  colloquial  lan- 
guage, as  it  is  influenced  by  the  str.  intrans.,  as  in  S)u  erfd)rufft  ein'n  aber  atid) 
(Hauptmann's  Friedensfest,  i) ;  ftccfen  to  make  stick,  stick  (trans.). 

e>  Nouns  are  made  from  the  gradation  of  the  present  tense :  bet  33efdjl, 
bcr  ©djrecf,  bet  ©ticfy,  &c.  A  number  have  the  gradation  of  the  past  tense  : 
£>ie  (Sptadje,  bie  3lu$nat)tne,  bie  Dual  (from  the  lost  queln  to  suffer  pain),  £c. 
©tadjel  and  its  derivatives  ftacfyeltg,  ftacfyelu  have  short  a,  the  vowel  of  the  old 
sing.  In  verbs  this  old  gradation  has  disappeared,  as  the  sing,  was  levelled  by 
the  pi.  It  remains,  however,  in  mutated  form  in  the  factitives ;  see  d,  above. 
Other  nouns  have  it,  which  was  once  also  the  stern  vowel  of  perf.  part. :  bet 
23mdj,  bie  ©cbitrt,  bie  Slnfunft,  &c.  The  old  stem  vowel  of  the  part,  suffered 


202.  V.  CLASS  319 

a-mutation  (197.  B),  which  was  caused  in  an  earlier  period  by  the  presence 
of  an  a  (now  e)  in  the  participial  suffix.  The  nouns  originally  belonged  to 
3rd  cl.  str.,  and  thus  had  i  as  the  final  vowel  of  their  stems  and  were 
preserved  from  a-mutation.  The  effect  of  the  original  i  in  the  stem  can 
be  still  seen  in  the  pi.  in  the  i-mutation  (see  26.  A)  of  most  of  these 
words :  bet  93viicfy,  pi.  bte  23rudje.  The  noun  bcr  23rocfen  crumb  and  the  weak 
verb  brocfcn  to  crumb,  both  from  brecfyen,  have,  like  the  perfect  participle,  the 
vowel  o.  The  E  was  not  shifted  to  dj,  as  it  was  doubled.  The  noun  £rotte 
•wine-press  shows  the  vowel  of  the  old  present  of  treten  (Gothic  trudan),  the 
older  vowel  of  the  Gothic  appearing  as  o  under  the  influence  of  a-mutation. 
Later  the  parent  verb  was  attracted  into  Class  V,  as  the  past  tense  gradation 
is  identical  in  the  two  groups,  the  parts  becoming  treten,  trot,  getreten  after  the 
analogy  of  geben,  gab,  gegeben. 

202.  V.  Class.     Gradation : 

Present  (177.  II.  C,  D.  b,  c)  Past  Perf.  Part. 

?,  e  (i,  ie  in  2nd  and  3rd  per.  sing.),  i,  ic  a_  e,  e 

M.H.G.  e  (I  in  sing,  and  e  in  pi.),  I          a-a  (197.  A.  c)         6 

1.  Division.     Gradation: 

Pres.  e,  e  (i,  ic  in  2nd  and  3rd  sing.)     Past  a         Perf.  Part,  e,  e 

Examples :  effen  (bit  tffeft  or  ffit,  er  ijjit),  ajj  (pi.  nnr  af en),  gegeffen ; 
lefen  (DU  liefeft  or  lie  ft,  er  lieft),  Ia3,  gelefen.  The  quantity  of  the  vowel  is 
the  same  in  the  infinitive  and  perf.  part.  The  vowel  of  the  past  is 
always  long. 

Here  belong:  i.  In  e :  effen  (bu  iffeft  or  tpt,  er  ifjit ;  see  also  a)  to 
eat;  Jreffen  (DU  friffefl,  er  frifU)  to  eat  (of  animals  or  as  animals);  gefcen 
(bit  gI6|t,  er  gtSt)  to  give ;  genefen  (bu  genefeft)  to  recover  from  sickness ; 
gefcfyefceu  (eg  gefcfyiefyt)  to  happen  ;  lefen  (DU  liefejt  or  liefl,  er  lieft)  to  read ; 
ineffen  (DU  miffefi  or  mijjt,  er  mi§t)  to  measure ;  fefyeu  (DU  ftetyft,  er  ftefyt)  to 
see  ;  treten  (bu  trittft,  er  tritt)  IV  to  step,  tread  ;  oergeffen  (bu  fcergtffeft  or 
Sergipt,  er  tergijjt)  to  forget;  fein  (which  has  replaced  the  regular 
rcefen  except  in  nouns,  as  bag  <Sct)iiliuefen  the  educational  system,  and 
in  part,  adjectives,  as  aStcefenb  absent,  &c.)  to  be,  njar,  gercefen. 

a.  The  perfect  participle  of  effen  was  in  early  N.H.G.  geeffen,  and  in  con- 
tracted form  gefint.  Later  the  contracted  form  prevailed,  but  still  later 
another  gc  was  prefixed  to  it,  as  the  first  ge  was  no  longer  felt,  the  form 
thus  becoming  gcgeffen. 

2.  Those  in  i,  ie,  which  do  not  show  an  interchange  in  2nd  and 
3rd  sing. :  fcitten  to  ask,  beg,  fcat,  gefceten ;  liegen  to  lie,  lag,  gelegen ;  ftfcen 
to  sit,  fap,  gefeffen. 

General  Note,  (i)  The  factitives  (197.  A.  d}  are:  afcen  to  feed  (birds,  animals, 
prisoners),  bait,  dfceit  to  etch,  feed  (birds,  &c.) ;  ergcfcen  (corruption  of  ergcfeen)  to 
amuse,  lit.  to  cause  to  forget,  factitive  of  M.H.G.  ergezzcn  to  forget;  legeit  to  lay; 
lldfyren  (factitive  of  nefcn,  now  only  found  in  the  form  genefett ;  see  197.  E)  to  nourish, 
lit.  to  cause  to  recover  or  remain  strong  ;  fcjjen  to  set. 

(2)  Sibling  and  (Safe  have  short  a,  the  vowel  of  the  old  sing,  of  the  past  tense. 
Except  in  case  of  afeen  verbs  no  longer  show  this  old  gradation,  as  the  sing,  vowel  was 
levelled  by  the  pi.  It  remains,  however,  in  mutated  form  in  the  factitives  dfeen,  fejjflt, 
and  in  rounded  form  also  ergofeen.  In  the  other  factitives  it  has  become  long,  as  it 
stands  in  an  open  syllable  ;  see  art.  4.  b.  Note,  p.  14. 


320     GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB    203. 

203.  VI.  Class.     Gradation: 

Pres.  a,  a,  e  Past  Ft,  u  Perf.  Part,  o,  a 

1.  Division.     Gradation: 

Present  (177.  II.  B,  D.  a)  Past  Perf.  Part, 

a,  a  (d,  a  in  2nd  and  3rd  sing.),  e  ii  a,  a 

Example  :  fdjlagen  (bu  fdjldgfl,  er  fd)tdgt),  fd)Iitg,  gefd)lagen ;  fcfyaffen  (bu 
fd)dffft,  er  fdjafft),  fdjitf,  geftyafen.  The  perf.  part,  always  has  the  same 
vowel  as  the  infinitive  except  in  case  of  fjeben.  The  vowel  of  the 
past  is  always  long. 

Here  belong:  bad)en  (in  early  N.H.G.  the  literary  word  of  the 
South  and  still  used  there)  or  forfeit  (used  by  Luther  and  now 
the  common  literary  word ;  bit  bdrf  ft  and  now  also  not  infrequently 
barfft,  er  Mcft,  barft)  to  bake,  past  tense  bud)  (early  N.H.G.),  now  buf 
or  fcacfte,  perf.  part,  gebacfyeit  (early  N.H.G.),  now  uniformly  gebarfen, 
weak,  however,  throughout  in  the  meanings  to  stick,  cake ;  fasten  (mi 
fdtyrjt,  er  faf)tt)  to  drive ;  fragen  (bu  fragft,  also  frdgfl  but  perhaps  less 
common  than  a  little  earlier  in  the  period,  er  fragt,  frdgt)  to  ask, 
fragte,  also  frug,  perf.  part,  always  gefragt ;  graben  (DU  grdbft,  er  grdbt)  to 
dig;  fyeben  (bu  fyebft,  er  fyebt)  to  raise,  in  early  N.H.G.  past  tyub,  perf.  part, 
gefyaben  (i  Cor.  xv.  26),  also  sometimes  wk.  throughout,  now  usually 
in  Class  II  except  in  the  past  tense  where  we  still  not  infrequently 
find  alongside  the  new  fyob  the  older  fyub,  especially  in  the  compound 
on^eben  to  begin ;  jagert1  (mi  jagjt,  rarely  idgft,  er  jagt,  rarely  jdgt)  to  chase, 
hunt,  jagte,  rarely  jug,  gejagt,  rarely  geiagen ;  laben  (bu  labfi  or  less  com- 
monly labefl)  to  invite  (in  this  meaning  properly  wk.  and  still  often  so 
in  the  present,  but  usually  found  str.  in  the  past  and  now  always 
so  in  the  perf.  part.),  to  load  (in  this  meaning  str.  except  in  the 
present  tense,  where  the  wk.  unmutated  forms  are  sometimes 
found) ;  mafylen  to  grind,  now  entirely  wk.  except  in  part,  gemafylen, 
in  early  N.H.G.  str.,  bu  mdfylfi,  er  mdfylt,  past  ntu^I;  fd)affen  (bu  fcbaffft, 
er  fd)afft),  str.  only  in  the  meanings  to  create,  produce,  str.  or  wk.  in 
the  meanings  cause,  bring  about,  wk.  in  the  senses  to  procure,  work, 
command  (in  Bavarian  dialect),  remove,  bring,  and  all  other  meanings, 
earlier  in  the  period  and  occasionally  still  strong  forms  are  found 
with  the  meanings  of  the  weak  verb ;  fd?Iagen  (mi  fdjldgfi,  er  fdjldgt)  to 
strike ;  tragen  (bu  trdgft,  er  trdgt)  to  carry. 

a.  The  adj.  erfyabett  lofty ',  lit.  lifted  »/,  is  the  old  perf.  part,  of  ertyfben,  which 
has  left  this  group  for  the  II  class. 

b.  The  one  factitive  (197.  A.  d)  is  fuljren  (from  fatyren)  to  lead,  guide. 

2.  Division.     Gradation : 

Present  (177.  II.  B,  D.  a)  Past          Perf.  Part, 

a  (a  in  2nd  and  3rd  sing.),  e  it  a 

Example  :  rcad)fcn  (bu  ivartjfefi  or  rrdd)ft,  rr  rcad)fl),  nwd)3,  geread)fen. 
Here  belong:    in  early  N.H.G.  ficmben  (still  in  use  in  S.W. 
dialects)  and  more  frequently  fia(l?)n,  also  fiefyen  (DU  flefcft,  er  jiet;t) 

1  The  rare  str.  forms  of  jagcn  occur  provincially,  usually  with  a  different  shade  of 
meaning,  being  used  in  the  derived  meanings  to  drive  rapidly,  dart,  chase  after,  drive 

something  before  one :  Sfie  ber  $oH$tjl  bte  Summer  (beg  SSBagens)  nterfen  fonnte,  jug 
(shot,  drove  quickly)  ber  33ettget  Uttt  tie  (Scfe. 


204.  VII.  CLASS  321 

to  stand,  the  last  of  which  alone  survives  in  the  literary  language ; 
past  tense  jlunb  quite  common  earlier  in  the  period  and  still  used 
in  S.G.,  elsewhere  now  ftanb,  past  subjunctive  ftdnbe  and  also  quite 
frequently  ftimbe;  tcacfyfen  (bit  trdcbfeft  or  redcfyft,  cr  irdcfyft)  to  grow, 
increase ;  nxifdjeit  (bu  rcdfd?eft  or  avdfd)t,  er  rcdfcfyt)  to  wash. 

a.  These  few  words  have  drifted  away  from  the  first  division  in  the  past 
tense,  since  the  old  historic  long  u  in  that  tense  has  now  in  large  measure 
yielded  to  the  tendency  to  shorten  vowels  before  a  combination  of.  consonants 
or  the  heavy  simple  sound  fd).     Many,  however,  still  prefer  the  long  vowel 
in  imtdj$  and  unifd).     See  4.  2.  A.  d.  (z),  Note. 

b.  The  historic  past  tense  of  ftefym  is  jlunb.     In  the  sixteenth  century  this 
form  began  to  be  replaced  by  ftanb  in  the  sing.,  the  pi.  remaining  fiunbrn, 
thus  following  the  analogy  of  banb  —  bunben.    The  sing,  vowel  a  then  levelled 
the  plural. 

204.     VII.  Class.     Ablaut: 

Present  (177.  II.  B,  D._«)         Past          Perf.  Part, 
a,  a,  au,  ei,  6,  u  ie,  i         a,  a,  au,  ei,  6,  it 

i.  Division.     Gradation:  Pres.  Past           Perf.  Part. 

a,  a,  aft,  ei,  o,  u       ie  a,  a,  au,  ei,  5,  u 

Example :  f)alteu  (bu  f)dltft,  er  f)dlt),  fjielt,  gefyalten.     The  perf.  part, 
always  has  the  same  vowel  as  the  infin. 

Here  belong :  Hafen  (bit  bldft,  er  fcldft,  rarely  bu  Hafefi,  er  Haft)  to 
blow ;  tratett  (bu  Brdtft,  er  Brat,  sometimes  bu  fcratfi,  er  fcratet)  to  fry,  roast, 
bake,  past  sometimes  wk. ;  fallen  (bu  fa  lift)  to  fall,  ftel,  gefaflen  ;  fatten  (bu 
fydltft)  to  hold;  l)auen  (early  N.H.G.  bu  fyeueft,  now  tyauft)  to  hew, 
strike  with  a  sword,  switch,  whip,  flog,  chop,  &c.,  fytefc,  gefyaueu 
in  choice  language,  often  fyaute  and  sometimes  getyaut  in  familiar 
conversation,  especially  in  the  last  two  meanings ;  l)ei§eu  (bu  tyeipeft 
or  fyeijjt,  er  l;eif?t)  to  bid,  command,  to  be  called,  signify ;  laffeu  (in 
S.G.  dialect  and  poetry  still  found  contracted  to  Ian  as  in  earlier 
periods ;  bit  Idffeft  or  Id§t,  er  ld§t)  to  let,  cause  to,  to  have  (something 
done);  laufett  (bu  Idufft)  to  run,  occasionally  with  the  past  loff  and 
perf.  part,  geloffen  after  the  analogy  of  faufen ;  rateu  (bit  rdtft,  some- 
times tat  ft)  to  advise,  w.  dat.  of  person  and  ace.  of  thing ;  ritfeu  (mt 
ritfft)  to  call  (somebody  in),  with  ace.,  to  call  out  to  some  one,  with 
dat.,  earlier  in  the  period  also  wk. ;  fdjlafen  (mt  fcfyldfft)  to  sleep ; 
flofjen  (bit  fto^eft  or  ftopt,  er  fto§t;  in  early  N.H.G.  also  bu  ftofjeft,  er 
fiofjt)  to  thrust,  push,  kick.  <£al$eu  to  salt,  f^altcu  to  split,  fcfyroteu  to 
grind  coarse  have  still  a  str.  part,  alongside  of  a  wk.  one,  but  are 
otherwise  entirely  wk. :  gefaljeu  or  now  rarely  gefaljt,  gcfpalten  or  less 
commonly  gefpaltet,  gefdjroteu  or  gcfd^rotet.  These  participles  are  more 
frequently  str.  in  the  adjective  than  the  verbal  use.  Entirely  wk.  is 
fcfyroteu  to  roll  (casks,  &c.).  The  strong  past  forms  fptelt  and  fdjrtet 
occur  in  early  N.H.G. 

a.  Here  also  belong :  the  adj.  part,  befdjeibcn,  once  part,  of  bcfcfyeiten  to  in- 
struct, which  has  left  this  class  for  the  I  class,  2nd  division,  now  felt  as  an  adj. 
with  the  general  meaning  instructed,  hence  wise,  sensible,  or  more  commonly 
modest,  as  it  is  felt  as  belonging  to  fid)  befdjeitcu  to  be  contented  with  ;  the 
adj.  part,  acfaltcn  folded,  still  found  instead  of  the  more  common  wk.  form 
fltfaltet ;  sometimes  cjcfdjmaljeu  greased,  cooked  in  lard  (perf.  part,  of  the 
otherwise  wk.  verb  fdjmaljen)  after  the  analogy  of  gefaljen,  especially  in  the 

y 


322      GRADATION  CLASSES  OF  STRONG  VERB      2O4. 

expression  icebcr  gefaljen  nodj  gefdjmatjen ;  in  popular  language  the  past  tense 
fief  from  faitfcn  to  buy  and  the  perf.  part,  gemalen  from  malm  to  paint,  both  of 
which  in  choice  language  are  always  wk. 

b.  The  factitive  is  fallen  to  fell.      Notice  that  the  one  factitive  of  this  class, 
differing  from  those  of  the  other  classes,  has  the  same  vowel  as  the  present 
tense. 

c.  Nouns :  ber  gad  fall,  ber  9?at  advice,  bet  9?uf  call,  bet  §ieb  blow,  &c. 

2.  Division.     Gradation  :  Pres.  a,  e     Past  \     Perf.  Part.  a. 

Example  :  tyangen  (tut  fydngft,  er  fydngt),  tying,  getyangen. 

Here  belong:  faugen  (bit  fdngft,  cr  fdngt ;  in  early  N.H.G.  also 
in  the  form  of  fafyen,  bit  fetyeft,  er  fetyet,  which  still  survive  in  poetry 
in  the  forms  fatyen,  bit  fdtyfr,  er  fdijt)  to  catch,  formerly  also  intrans. 
to  grasp  after  and  still  occasionally  so :  Unfetiger,  ber  nur  bte  3lngel 
iji,  |  nut  ber  ber  £cibe  fdfyt  nacfy  beinem  £>olf  (Ludwig's  Makkabd'er,  2) ; 
gel;en  (bit  getyfl,  er  getyt)  to  go,  in  early  N.H.G.  also  in  the  form  of 
gem  and  gangen/the  former  of  which  still  occurs  sometimes  in  poetry, 
the  latter  in  S.G.  dialect,  as  in  ©angen'S  (=  gefeen  @ie)  nur  rufyig 
fcfylafen  (Harriot's  Der geistliche  Tod,  chap,  i),  past  tense  fling,  perf. 
part,  gegangen;  tyangen  (DII  tydngji,  er  tydngt;  in  early  N.H.G.  also  bit 
|angjl,  er  tyangt)  or  more  commonly,  but  less  correctly,  fydngen  (bu  fjdngft, 
er  tydngt)  to  hang  (intrans.),  as  it  has  become  confounded  with  the  trans, 
tydngen  (see  a). 

a.  £dngen  to  hang  is  usually  a  weak  transitive.     It  has  besides  its  wk.  past 
tydngte  also  the  strong  form  tying,  and  not  infrequently  a  strong  perf.  part, 
gefyangen  instead  of  gefydngt,  as  it  has  become  confounded  with  the  str.  trans, 
fyingen,  a  form  once  common,  but  now  surviving  only  in  the  str.  forms  which 
serve   as  collateral  forms  to  the  regular  forms  of  the  wk.  trans,  tydngen. 
The  str.  trans,  participle  is  not  so  rare  as  often  stated  by  grammarians,  but 
occurs  frequently  in  good  literature  :  ©lauben  <Sie,  bafj  @te  bann  nidjt  cbenfo  gut 
aufge^angen  toerben  toie  etner  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  III,  p.  105).    Sfyre 
OJocfe  Jjatten  fte  an  Sdrd>endile  getyangcn  (Rosegger's  Friihling).    9ln  bem  f^icer- 
faKtgen,  fugelfujjigen,  gmnbe^angenen  ©tubiertifi^e  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogel- 
sangs,  p.  89).    2)aS  ^intmelSgcrtolbe  Jt»ar  aud)  tyeute  burcty  SBolfcn  »ertyangcn  (id., 
Die  Leute  aus  dem  Walde,  II,  chap.  i).     This  last  expression  is  still  the 
usual  one. 

b.  Nouns  :  2>r  £ang  inclination,  ber  Sang  catch,  ber  ©ang  walk. 

c.  The  vowel  of  the  past  tense  of  this  division  was  originally  long,  and  the 
spelling  i  has  only  in  comparatively  recent  years  been  generally  recognized, 
the  older  spelling  ie  continuing  long  after  the  sound  had  become  short.     This 
shortening  of  the  sound  has  split  this  class  into  two  divisions.    See  also  4.  2. 
A.  d.  (2),  Note. 

2O5.  Verbs  formerly  Strong.  Earlier  in  the  period  also  the  fol- 
lowing verbs  were  strong  which  have  since  become  weak  or  have  dis- 
appeared: fcannen(VII);  banen(VII),  sometimes  with  strong  participle 
(gebauen),  now  weak  ;  fcetten  (III,  II),  now  weak ;  reuen  (II),  sometimes 
with  strong  participle  (gerauen  and  gereijen),  now  weak;  fcrauen  (II), 
sometimes  with  strong  participle  (ge&rauen),  now  weak ;  fcrinnen  (III), 
intransitive,  now  replaced  by  the  irregular  weak  trans,  fcrennen,  now 
trans,  and  intrans. ;  ent&efjren  (IV);  getten  (III),  the  vowel  of  the  old  past 
tense  still  surviving  in  -ftacfytigafl;  glcifjen  (I);  greincn(I),  sometimes  with 
a  str,  part,  now  usually  wk. ;  tyetfcfyen  (VII),  earlier  in  the  period  str. 
•or  wk.,  now  wk.  with  the  exception  that  a  str.  participle  is  sometimes 


207.  a.         CONJUGATION  OF  COMPOUNDS  323 

found;  fyinfen  (III),  str.  part,  sometimes  still  found  in  S.G. ;  ititen 
(V);  fneten  (V);  freifdjeu  (I);  frtegm  (I;  in  early  N.H.G.  often  in 
M.G.  form  :  friegen,  past  freig,  part,  (ge)friegen,  latter  replaced  by  the 
wk.  friegen)  to  get ;  nagen  (VI),  the  part,  genagen  still  preserved  in  pop. 
language;  fctyaben  (VI),  still  with  str.  part,  in  S.G. ;  fdjalteu  (VII) 
to  shove;  fcfyerrm  (III;  Josh.  vii.  21),  now  replaced  by  the  wk. 
fcfyarren;  fd)miegen  (II);  fdjneien  (I);  fcfyrintyfen  (III;  Job  vii.  5),  now 
replaced  by  the  wk.  fcfyrumpfen ;  fcfyroetfen  (VII) ;  feifyen  (I ;  earlier  in 
the  period  also  feigcu ;  the  form  with  g  is  especially  frequent  in  the 
derivative  »erfeigen,  fccvjteg,  Derjtegcn  [Ps.  cvii.  33],  from  the  last  form  of 
which  the  wk.  fcerjtcgen  developed  in  the  sixteenth  century,  later 
entirely  supplanting  the  older  Sjeifcigen)  to  filter,  strain,  ooze  (early 
N.H.G.,  surviving  in  the  wk.  tterftegen  to  dry  up,  lit.  000^  away); 
fpannen  (VII);  njafyen  (VII);  rcnteii  (VI).  Strong  forms  of  these 
verbs  have  also  appeared  more  or  less  frequently  within  the 
present  period,  but  have  now  disappeared,  or  survive  only  in 
dialect  or  in  an  occasional  participial  form.  Although  a  few  weak 
verbs  have  assumed  strong  forms  as  recorded  under  the  different 
classes  of  strong  verbs,  the  general  tendency  is  toward  the  weak 
conjugation. 

Note.  In  college  slang  just  the  opposite  tendency  is  found,  namely,  for  comical 
effect  weak  verbs  are  given  strong  forms:  blattto'ren  for  blcmtt'ert.  eingebrmigeit  for 
eingebradjt,  gebcrf  en  for  geberf  t,  gentorfen  for  ge  jnerfr,  gcfdjonfett  for  gefdjenft,  gefdjump fen 
for  Qefdjitttpft,  gewimfeit  for  gcnnttft,  iiberjcgen  lor  uberjeugt.  Sometimes,  however, 
an  author  conjugates  a  weak  verb  strong  in  all  seriousness,  as  he  has  in  this  point  been 
influenced  by  his  native  dialect:  JDie  Heine  @(ccfe  auf  ber  Jttrdje  (ftenige  ©djntte  ttcr 
tnir)  ijt  etngefdjnieen  (I ;  Swabian  for  etngefdjnett)  unb  fyat  cinen  ^lang  line  93(ei 
(Morike  in  a  letter  to  Friedrich  Kauffmann,  dated  Novem.  1827).  So  fpitfen 
(I;  Swiss)  wir  beiltt  »ertvailltd)  (G.  Keller,  Werke,  iii.  86). 

206.  Conjugation  of  Strong  Verbs  m  Compounds.     Strong  verbs 
when  compounded  directly  with  some  other  word  or  prefix  are 
conjugated  as  simple  verbs :  erfcfylagen  (mt  erfcfylagji)  to  strike  dead, 
crfcfylufl,  er[d)Iagen.     However,  if  the  verb  is  compounded  indirectly 
(see  217),  that  is,  when  it  is  made  from  a  compound  noun  the  last 
component  element  of  which  is  made  from  a  str.  verb,  it  is  conjugated 
wk. :  rntfcfylagen  to  take  counsel  with,  made  not  from  rat  and  the  str. 
verb  fcMogcn,  but  from  the  noun  fcer  Olatfcfyliig  counsel,  past  ratfcfylagte, 
perf.  part,  geratfcfytagt;   thus  also  rafccbrecfyen  to  break  on  the  wheel, 
derived  from  the  noun  tic  Ohbe&recfye :    (£r  ratctrec^t  (not  rabefcricfyt, 
although  occasionally  found  in  good  authors)  t>n§  S)eutfcfye  He  speaks 
bad  (lit.  breaks  on  the  wheel)  German.     See  also  217.  Note  2. 

IRREGULAR  CONJUGATION. 

207.  fyatcu  (in  popular  language  contracted  to  fyan)  to  have  is 
irregular  in  the  pres.  and  past  indie,  and  also  in  the  past  subj., 
which  though  a  wk.  verb  suffers  mutation.     For  conjugation  see 
177.  III.  a. 

a.  The  reflexive  ftd)  gcljaben  to  behave  one's  self,  find  one's  self  is,  entirely 
regular:  ($r  gcfyabt  fid)  ttefyl  He  is  well.  3d)  ge^abte  midj  beffcr.  Also  fyanbfyabcn 
to  handle  is  entirely  regular,  as  it  is  formed  not  from  tyaben,  but  from  the 
substantive  ^anbfjabe  handle. 

Y  2 


324  ANOMALOUS  VERBS  208. 

208.  The  so-called  irregular  wk.  verbs  have  a  vowel  in  the  past 
indie,  and  perf.  part,  differing  from  the  vowel  in  the  present,  but 
are  otherwise  formed  regularly  according  to  the  wk.  conjugation. 
They  fall  into  two  groups : — 

i.        Infinitive          Past  Indie.        Past  Subj.          Perf.  Part, 
fcrennen  to  burn        fcrannte        trennte  (Orannte)        gefcrannt 

Here  belong:  faennert;  fennen  to  be  acquainted  with;  nennen  to 
name,  call;  fennen  (see  c)  to  run  (dagger,  &c.)  into,  run  (intrans.), 
race,  sometimes  in  past  tense  and  perf.  part,  rennte,  gerennt  instead 
of  rannte,  gerannt,  and  regularly  so  in  certain  other  meanings,  see 
200.  2.  b;  fenben  to  send,  past,  indie,  fanbte  or  fenbete,  perf.  part, 
flefcmbt  or  gefenbet  (see  b) ;  irencen  to  turn,  past,  indie,  wonbte  or  reenbete, 
perf.  part,  getranbt  or  gevrenbet  (see  b). 

a.  Remutation.     These  verbs  had  originally  an  a  in  the  pres.  tense,  which 
was  mutated  to  e  by  a  j  or  i  that  once  stood  between  the  stem  and  the 
inflectional  ending  of  the  present:    N.H.G.  legen,  Gothic  lagjan  ;    N.H.G. 
btennen,  Gothic  brannjan.     This  j  is  the  rule  in  most  wk.  verbs  in  Gothic. 
It  disappeared  early  in  O.H.G.,  but  its  effects  can  still  be  seen  as  in  the 
preceding  examples  in  the  mutated  vowel  of  the  stem.     The  connecting 
vowel  /  that  once  stood  between  the  stem  and  the  inflectional  ending  in  the 
past  indie,  and  perfect  participle  of  wk.  verbs  was  in  O.H.G.  in  certain  verbs 
syncopated  so  that  the  original  vowel  of  the  stem  was  not  here  affected  by 
the  /  as  in  the  present  tense :    (a)  leggen,  legita,  gilegit,  but  (b)  brennen, 
branta,  gibrant,  also  gibrennit.      Most   wk.   verbs   now  retain,  according 
to  a,  the  mutated  vowel  throughout,  only  the  few  words  in  the  above  list 
now  following  b.     In  early  N.H.G.,  however,  the  number  in  the  latter  class 
was  greater:    fe£en,  fafcte,  gefagt,  also  gefefcet,  now  fe|en,  fejjte,  gefe$t.    A  few 
fossilized  adjective  participles  still  show  a  perf.  part,  form  according  to  b: 
burdjlaudjt  and  evlaucfyt  from  leucfyten ;  gebacft  from  becfen  ;  gctafyrt  (now  only  used 
in  archaic,  solemn,  or  comic  style)  from  leljren,  which  once  had  sometimes 
the  incorrectly  formed  parts  leren,  larte,  gelart,  instead  of  leren,  lerte,  gelert ; 
getroft  from  ttefien ;  tnijjgefiaU,  wngetfalt,  and  ujofylgejhlt  from  fifllen,  &c.    This 
return  to  the  original  stem-vowel  in  the  past  indie,  and  perf.  part,  may  be 
called  remutation.     The  past  subjunctive  also  usually  showed  the  original 
vowel  in  M.H.G.,  but  this  is  now  uniformly  mutated  (usually  indicated  by  e 
instead  of  a  to  bring  the  stem  into  conformity  with  that  of  the  infinitive),  and 
thus  there  is  a  difference  of  vowel  here  between  the  past  indie,  and  subj., 
which  is  quite  rare  in  wk.  verbs. 

b.  Earlier  the  forms  fanbte,  ttxmbte,  and  gefanbt,  getoanbt  were  more  common 
than  the  mutated  forms  fenbete,  ttmtbete,  and  gefenbet,  geroenbet.     At  present, 
however,  both  forms  can  be  quite  freely  used  except  in  certain  expressions 
where  the  newer  mutated  or  the  older  unmutated  forms  have  become  fixed. 
Thus  we  say  ein  getoenbetet  (renovated,  lit.  turned)  [not  now  gewanbter]  9?ecf. 
The    old   forms  are   especially  firm    in  the  words   ©efanbtet  ambassador, 
geroanbt  skilful,  clever,  bettanbt  such,  vcrtvanbt  related. 

c.  ffiennen  is  an  intensive  and  violent  laufen  :  @r  lanft  fdjneff,  langfatn  He  is 
running  fast,  slowly,  but  @t  rennt  au3  SetbefSfraften  He  is  running  with  all  his 
might,  and  @r  rannte  toibcr  einen  <£tein  He  ran  against  a  stone.     Seiufen  is  thus 
the  more  common  word,  and  has  a  broader  meaning,  and  is  usually  used 
here,  except  where,  as  just  mentioned,  the  action  is  to  be  especially  marked 
as  an  unusually  intensive  or  violent  one,  or  the  reference  is  to  liquids.     In 
the  latter  meaning  rennen  is  not  used  at  all,  but  is  replaced  by  rtnnen  to  flow, 
litefjen  to  flow,  rztn,  and  laufen  to  run,  flow.     Oiinnen  usually  refers  to  a  small 
stream  or  a  weak,  gentle  flow,  jiiefjen  to  a  steady,  full  flow,  (aufrn  to  a  rapid, 
full  flow,  all  of  which,  however,  sometimes  approach  one  another  closely  in 
meaning. 


212.  i.  ANOMALOUS  VERBS  325 

2.    Infinitive  Past  Indie.  Past  Subj.  Perf.  Part, 

fcringen  to  bring         fcradjte  fcrticfyte  gefcradit 

benfeu  to  think  bad)te  bddjte  gebadjt 

bitnfen  to  seem        |  bi'mfte  (  bunfte  (  gebunft 

(  beucfyte  (bdud)te)      (  beud;te  (educate)  (  gebeudrt 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  we  find  the  forms  bunfen,  bunfen  (now  obsolete),  e3  bandit 
(after  the  analogy  of  the  past  baitcfyte ;  now  obs.),  past  baudjte  (now  obs.),  subj. 
beud)te,  perf.  part,  gebaud)t  (now  obs.).  The  present  tense  forms  biinfcn  and 
bunfcit  spread  to  the  past  and  perf.  part. :  biinfte  (now  very  common)  or 
bunfte  (now  obs.),  gebunft  (now  very  common)  or  gebunft  (now  obs.).  The 
form  of  the  very  common  past  subj.  beucfyte  spread  to  the  present  tense :  cei 
benefit  (a  little  earlier  in  the  period  very  common  and  still  not  infrequent)  or 
beucfytct  (now  rare),  with  the  infinitive  beud)tcn  (now  rare).  This  new  infinitive 
produced  the  new  past  beudjtete  (now  rare).  The  new  present  tense  form 
benefit  transformed  the  original  past  indie,  baudjte  and  perf.  part,  gebaudjt  into 
beud'te,  gebeud)t.  The  grammarians  usually  recommend  the  forms  given  in  2, 
above.  The  tendency  to-day  is  to  level :  biinfen,  bunfte,  gebunft. 

209.  The  verb  frtegen  to  get  is  inflected   regularly  in  school 
books   and   the   literary  language,   but   usually  in   the  colloquial 
language  of  the  North  ie  becomes  i  in  the  and  and  3rd  pers.  sing, 
of  the  present  tense  and  throughout  the  past  tense  and  also  in  the 
perf.  part. :  id?  friege,  bu  friegft  (pro.  fricfyft),  er  frtegt  (pro.  frtd/t),  id; 
frtegte  (pro.  fttdjte),  gefrtegt  (pro.  gefridjt).     See  205. 

210.  The  verb  tint  to  do  is  very  irregular :  present  id)  tite,  bu  tuft, 
er  tut,  u?ir  tun,  ifyr  tut,  fie  tun.     The  subjunctive  present  is  regular. 
The  past  indicative  is  tat,  subjunctive  tate,  perfect  participle  getan. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  poetic  or  humorous  language  the  past 
tense  forms  tat  (same  as  M.H.G.  tet  and  hence  at  present  misspelled),  pi. 
tdten,  are  often  used  instead  of  the  usual  tat,  pi.  taten,  at  present,  however, 
only  when  employed  pleonastically  in  connection  with  a  following  verb  (see 
185.  B.  I.  2.  e.  (2) ) :  93nb  bie  Jtinber  3frael  t()eten  adeg  hne  ber  >§evr  2J?efe  gebcten  Jjatte 
(Exodus  xxxix.  32).  @t  tat  nut  fpcttifd)  urn  fid)  blicfen  (Uhland)  =  @r  blicfte  nut 
fpottifd)  urn  fid). 

Note.  In  M.H.G.  the  past  tense  was  tet(e)  in  the  sing,  and  taten  in  the  plural.  Later 
in  the  literary  language  the  plural  vowel  passed  over  into  the  singular.  Alongside  of 
these  forms  we  find,  as  described  above,  the  forms  tat,  pi.  taten,  which  have  resulted 
from  the  levelling  of  the  plural  by  the  singular. 

211.  For  the  irregular  iterbeu  see  177.  III.  c;  other  irregularities 
in  str.  verbs  under  the  gradating  groups,  198-206. 

PAST-PRESENT  VERBS. 

212.  i.  Among  the  most  irregular  verbs  are  the   Past-Present 
verbs.     Their  present  tense  though  pres.  in  meaning  has  the  form 
of  the   past  tense  of  str.  verbs   and  even  to-day  preserves  the 
peculiarities  of  the  mediaeval  past  tense  better  than  any  other  word 
except  imbcn.     These  evident  marks  of  the  past  tense  are :  a.  The 
ist  and  3rd  pers.  sing,  are  alike,     b.  The  sing,  and  pi.  vowels  are 
different  as  was  once  the  rule  for  the  past  tense,  and  still  show  in 
part  the  gradation  classes  to  which  they  once  belonged,     c.  The 
vowel  of  the  subj.  is  the  mutated  vowel  of  the  pi.  indie,  which  was 


326 


ANOMALOUS  VERBS 


212.  i. 


once  the  rule  for  the  past  subj.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  past  subj. 
of  rcerben  (past  subjunctive  icfy  irurbe,  past  indicative  icfy  irarb,  pi.  nar 
icurben).  The  mutated  forms  of  the  present  indicative  plural,  as 
n>ir  muffen,  burfen,  £c.,  are  in  fact  subjunctive  forms,  as  the  latter 
mood  has  levelled  here  the  former.  These  mutated  forms  have 
become  established  in  the  infinitive  wherever  they  are  found  in  the 
indicative  :  burfen  (infin.),  nnt  burfen,  &c.  After  the  old  past  had 
come  to  be  used  as  a  present  the  weak  past  was  employed  to 
express  past  time. 

2.  These  verbs  are  :  irtjfen  to  know,  know  how  to,  be  able  to,  and 
the  six  auxiliaries  of  mood:  burfen  to  be  allowed;  fonnen  to  be  able 
(can)  ;  mogen  to  like,  to  desire  to  (also  often  expressing  a  possibility 
or  a  concession  =  may)  ;  mitffen  to  be  compelled,  to  have  to  (must)  ; 
(often  expressed  in  English  by  shall,  ought  to,  am  (is)  to,  is  said  to, 
&c.  ;  rcoflen  (see  g)  to  be  willing  to,  to  be  about  to,  to  desire  to,  £c. 
They  are  inflected  as  follows  : 


Present  Indicative. 


id)  rcei^ 

barf 

fann 

mag 

bu  iceifjt 

barffl 

fann  ft 

magft 

er  n?et§ 

barf 

fann 

mag 

rcir  rcijfen 

bitrfen 

fonnen 

mogen 

itjr  ict^t 

biirft 

fonnt 

mogt 

fte  njtffen 

burfen 

fonnen 

mogen 

mu§  fofl 

tttfft  fottfl 

mu§  fofl 

muffen  foflen 

mitfjt  fottt 

muffen  fotlen 


wiK 
reoflen 
uoflt 
ttoflen 


Present  Subjunctive. 


id)  tviffe 

burfe 

fonne 

moge 

bu  UMffeft 

burfeft 

fonneft 

mogeft 

er  roiffe 

burfe 

fonne 

moge 

rotr  Jciffen 

burfen 

fonnen 

mogen 

if)r  unffet 

bitrfet 

fonnet 

moget 

fte  roiffon 

burfen 

fonnen 

mogen 

muffe  fotfe  wotfe 

miiffeft  fofteft  icotteft 

muffc  fotte  vcotte 

muffen  foffeu  ivotlcn 

muffet  fotlet  ivoUet 

muffen  foUen  iroflen 


Past  Indicative, 
id)  nntpte,  biirfte,  fonnte,  mocfyte,  ntupte,  fottte,  njoflte. 

Past  Subjunctive, 
id)  nwflte,  biirfte,  fonnte,  mocfyte,  ntitpte,  (oftte,  rcottte. 

Perfect  Participle, 
gercufh,  geburft,  gefonnt,  gemorf;t,  gemujjt,  gefottt,  gevrottt. 

The  participle  of  muffen  is  occasionally  gemufjt :  Hub  irer  Don  ber 
Siebften  fci;etben  gemupt  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Werners  Lieder  aus 
Welschland,  XII). 

The  compound  tenses  are  formed  regularly  (see  also  e) : 


212.  2.  *.  ANOMALOUS  VERBS  327 

Pres.  Perfect.  id)  fjafce  getrupt,  geburft,  gefonnt,  gemortjt,  &c. 

id)   tyabe  (fommen)  burfen,   fonnen,  &c.    (but    not 

rciffen ;  see  b). 
Past  Perfect.  id)  fyitte  gennifjt,  geburft,  gefonnt,  gemod)t,  &c. 

id?  fyatte  (fommen)  burfen,  fonnen,  mogen,  &c. 
Future.  id)  njerbe  rmffen,  burfen,  fonnen,  mogen,  &c. 

Future  Perfect.         id?  roetbe  genmfjt  fyafcen,  geburft  tyaten,  &c. 

id)  trerbe  fyafcen  (fommen)  biirfen,  fonnen,  &c. 
Pres.  Conditional,     id)  nntvbe  njiffen,  burfen,  fonnen,  mogen,  &c. 
Perf.  Conditional,     id;  rciirbe  gennifjt  fyaben,  geburft  fatten,  &c. 

id;  rcurbe  $a&en  (fommen)  burfen,  fonnen,  &c.,  or 

id)  Ijtitte  (fommen)  burfen,  fonnen,  &c. 

a.  The  imperatives  and  present  participles  are  either  deficient  or  rarely 
used.    aBifjcn  and  tvollcn  alone  have  an  imperative :  hnfie,  &c.,  \vciie,  &c.     In 
popular  language  the  imperative  will  (instead  of  toofte)  is  heard  and  is  also 
found  in  literature  (in  Auerbach,  Grillparzer). 

The  participles  are  formed  regularly :  iwjfenb,  lonnenb,  &c.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  participle  of  unfjVn,  however,  these  forms  are  rarely  found. 
The  present  participles  of  the  modal  auxiliaries  are  only  used  in  connection 
with  a  dependent  infinitive,  as  illustrated  in  184.yj  and  in  the  case  of  a  few 
derivatives  and  compounds,  in  the  most  part  adjectives,  as  bcburfcnb  requiring, 
in  need  of,  ttermogenb  wealthy,  ttiefyhvcUenb  well-wishing.  Also  the  participial 
substantive  bet  aBollenbe  the  one  that  wills  is  used. 

b.  The  modal  auxiliaries  (not  including  wjfen)  do  not  use  the  weak  perf. 
participle  given  above  when  an  infinitive  depends  upon  them  in  a  compound 
tense,  but  a  strong  participle  without  ge;,  in  form  exactly  like  the  infinitive, 
for  which  construction  see  178.  2.  B.  a  and  Note  I  thereunder.     Thus  the 
construction  of  unffen  differs  from  that  of  the  other  past-present  verbs  :   (ft 
fyat  ju  antlrovtcn  getmifjt  He  knew  how  to  answer,  but  ®t  fyat  antwortcn  fcnncn  He 
was  able  to  answer. 

Note.  After  the  analogy  of  fcnncn,  toijTen  also  has  sometimes  a  perfect  participle  in 
the  form  of  an  infinitive,  when  an  infinitive  depends  upon  it.  JDie  dUggejetdjneten 
93cjte()itn^cn,  toelcfye  bte  »onge  CKegierung  itt>tfd)cn  Sranfvetcfc  iinb  ben  auamarttgen 
3ftad)teu  ifjat  IjergujWIett  nnjTen  (instead  of  ^erjuftellen  gehmfjt  Ijat),  National-Zeitung, 
24,  244.  See  178.  2.  E.a,  and  Note  i  thereunder. 

c.  Note  that  ftifiTett  and  vctmc^cn  (see  185.  B.  1. 2.  a.  Note]  are  the  only  past- 
present  verbs  that  require  git  before  the  dependent  infin. :  (St  ireifj  ftd>  iticfot 
ju  fatten  He  is  not  able  to  contain  himself,  but  (Sr  imtf  arbeitcn  He  has  to  work. 
However,  the  infinitive  without  ju  is  also  used  after  reiffcn,  but  with  a  different 
meaning ;  see  185.  B.  I.  2.  d. 

d.  In  early  N.H.G.  and  as  late  as  the  classical  period  the  forms  bu  fc((t 
and  httllt  are  found,  now  always  bit  fcllfi,  nndft.     Cf.  Kng.  shall,  wilt.    In  early 
N.H.G.  also  other  forms  occur,  which  have  since  disappeared  in  the  literary 
language :  buvfm  and  borfen  for  buvfcn,  borfte  and  bcvfte  for  burfte  and  biirfte ; 
funnctt  for  fonnen,  futtbe,  funte,  or  funt  for  fonnte ;  mugen  for  mogen  ;  uxdcn  and 
wo  (leu  for  irollen. 

e.  In  an  earlier  period  of  the  language  the  German,  like  the  English  of  the 
present  day,  could  not  form  a  perf.  participle  from  the  modal  auxiliaries. 
The  older  German  had  to  express  the  pres.  perfect  by  putting  the  dependent 
infinitive  into  the  perfect  tense,  and  the  past  perfect  by  placing  the  past 
indie,  of  the  auxiliary  before  the  perfect  infinitive  of  the  dependent  verb: 
ich  kan  getragen  habcn,  now  icfy  Kibe  tragen  fcnnen  ;  ich  kundegetragen  haben, 
now  id)  (jatte  tragen  fonnen  ;  ich  kiinde  getragen  haben,  now  id)  fyatte  tragen 
foitncn.     When  the  new  forms  were  introduced  the  old  forms  did  not  drop 
out,  but  remained,  often,  however,  with  a  new  shade  of  meaning :  (Sc  fann 


328  MODAL   AUXILIARIES  212.  2.  *. 

gefprodjen  Ijaben  He  may  have  spoken,  but  @r  Ijat  fpred)en  fonnen  He  has  been 
able  to  speak,  (§v  fonnte  fdjon  gefprodsen  fyaben  //  "was  possible  that  (at  that 
time)  he  had  already  spoken,  but  (St  Ijatte  fd)cn  fptedjen  fcnnen  He  had  already 
been  able  to  speak.  (Sr  fonnte  gefprod)en  Ijaben  He  might  possibly  have  spoken, 
but  @r  fyatte  fpredjen  fonnen  He  would  have  been  able  to  speak.  The  English- 
speaking  student  must  be  cautious  here,  as  there  are  pitfalls  for  him  at 
almost  every  step.  We  must  not  translate  He  should  have  done  it  literally 
by  (§t  fottte  (8  getom  fyiben,  as  the  German  may  mean  :  He  was  said  to  have 
done  it.  The  German  form  should  be  (Sr  fydtte  eg  tun  fo((en.  (St  fcnnte 
gefpmmen  fein  corresponds  to  the  English  He  could  have  come  only  in  the 
sense  that  it  is  a  possibility  that  he  has  come.  1  f  we  mean  that  *'/  would 
have  lain  in  his  power  to  come  we  must  say  (Sc  fyatte  fommen  fcnnen.  Occasion- 
ally the  old  and  new  constructions  are  used  without  differentiation :  3d)  (elite 
vcrfid)tiger  gewefen  fein,  or  more  commonly  3d)  tydtte  »orfid)tiger  fein  foKen. 

f.  In  early  N.H.G.  there  were  two  other  past-present  verbs  : 

(1)  £ugen  (now  taugen,  entirely  wk.)  with  the  following  principal  parts : 
(pres.)  id)  taug,  er  taug,  h?tr  tugen ;  past  id)  tud)te,  (subj.)  tiid)te,  (ge)tud)t.     Ex. : 
SKofe  fyrad)  |  £a$  taug  nid)t  |  ba3  nnr  alfo  tfyun  (Exodus  viii.  26).    Derivatives 
are  tudfytig  and  Xugenb. 

(2)  3:()uven  (now  obs.)  to  dare  (same  word  as  Ger.  Hjiiren)  with  the  following 
principal  parts :   id)   tfyar,  er  tfjar,  lt)tr  tfyuren,  past  id)  tfjurfte.     Later  it  was 
replaced  by  burfen,  which  in  turn  has  been  replaced  in  this  meaning  by  iragen 
and  fid)  unterfteljen. 

g.  From  the  standpoint  of  historical  grammar  IroHen  is  not  a  past-present 
verb.     It  is,  however,  now  justly  classed  here  upon  the  basis  of  its  present 
forms,  which  are  those  of  past-present  verbs.     The  present  indicative  was 
originally  a  past   subjunctive,  which  formerly  had  the  force  of  the  past 
subjunctive  of  cautious  statement  (see  169.  2.  A.  (i).  c)  as  used  to-day.    Thus 
this  original  past  subjunctive  had  the  meaning  of  id)  h>unfd)te  tooljl.     Later  it 
took  on  indie,  force  and  the  forms  of  past-present  verbs. 

SPECIAL  USES  OF  THE  MODAL  AUXILIARIES. 

213.  I.  Siirfctl.  a.  A  permission  from  some  one  to  do  something,  or 
a  right,  cause,  or  liberty  to  so  do,  in  so  far  as  there  is  nothing  in  the  dictate 
of  circumstances  or  moral  obligation  or  any  authority  to  restrain  or  forbid  : 
!Du  barfft  nidjt  fyingeljen  You  are  not  allowed  to  go  there,  ©efangene  twrfen  ntit 
niemanb  tterfeljten  Prisoners  are  not  allowed  to  associate  with  anybody. 
3ebermann  barf  SBaffen  tragen  Everybody  is  permitted  to  carry  arms. 
2)arf  id)  barauf  redjnen,  @ie  morgen  bei  mir.  ju  fefyen  ?  dr.  barf  fid)  bar-fiber  md)t 
luunbern  He  must  not  (has  no  right,  cause  to)  wonder  at  it.  SLUt  biirfen 
unfere  *pffid)ten  nid)t  ttergeffen  We  should  not  forget  our  duties.  2Bir 
biirfen  ?3  fd)on  unfereg  {RufeS  njegen  nid)t  tun  We  cannot  do  this  out  of  con- 
sideration for  our  reputation,  to  say  nothing  about  other  things  (all  in  fdion). 
This  leads  to  the  very  frequent  use  of  biirfen  in  negative  sentences  corre- 
sponding to  miiffen  in  positive  form  :  3Ijt  biivft  nid)t  taut  fd)reien  \  Children, 
you  must  not  scream  out  loud.  The  past  subjunctive  softens  the  force  of  the 
statement :  93alb  burfte  id)  nid)t  \  (Lessing's  Minna,  I,  2)  I  almost  ought  not 
to  \  Earlier  in  the  period,  and  sometimes  still,  miiffen  is  used  in  negative 
sentences:  9lvme3,  brakes  2Beib!  3d)  ntuf  nidjt  »ergeffen,  ben  53ettel  gu  »ernid)ten 
(id.,  Minna,  I,  7).  See  also  4.  c,  below. 

b.  Need  only  to,  need  but',  (fr  barf  nur  toinfen,  fo  finb  h?ir  ba  He  need  but 
make  a  sign  and  we  shall  be  there.     €>ie  biirfen  nur  flingetn  You  need  only 
to  ring.     <£ie  biirfen  nur  befe()tcn  You  need  only  to  speak,  to  command. 

c.  The  past  subj.  (potential ;  see  169.  2.  A.  (i).  c]  is  much  used  to  state  in  a 
modest  way  something  that  one  is  pretty  sure  is  or  will  be  true  :  3efct  burfte 
c6  ju  fpat  fein  Now  it  is  probably  too  late.     (£$  biirfte  ein  £eid)te$  fein  It  would 
probably  be  an  easy  matter. 


213. 2.  F.  USES  OF  biirfen  AND  fomtett  329 

Note.  Synonymous  with  butfett  in  this  connection  are  fonnett  and  tttogen  with  distinct 
shades  of  difference.  .Rcnnen  denotes  a  mere  possibility,  megen  a  probability  or 
likelihood,  burfeit  a  rather  positive  assertion,  but  stated  politely :  2WatI  fctmte  (£te 
fragen  One  might  question  you.  SKatl  mcd)te  @ie  fcagen  You  will  likely  be  ques- 
tioned. 2J?an  buvfte  <2ie  fvagett  I  warn  you,  you  will  be  questioned. 

d.  Rarer  'meanings  occur:  (i)  In  early  N.H.G.  to  need,  now  replaced  by 
beburfen  :  £ie  GJefunben  burffcn  beg  2lv£teg  nicfyt  (Luke  v.  31).  This  is  the 
original  meaning,  and  still  survives  in  biirfttg  needy,  beburfen  to  need,  23ebuvfnig 
need.  (2)  In  early  N.H.G.  and  still  in  the  classical  period  in  negative 
sentences  and  questions  to  need,  have  occasion  for,  now  replaced  by  braud)en  : 
i>or  mit  biirfen  @te  fid)  Sfyrcg  Ungturfg  nid)t  fcfyamcn  (Lessing's  Minna,  i,  6). 
(3)  In  early  N.H.G.  it  replaced  in  part  the  obsolescent  tfyuren  (see  212.  •z.f.  [2]) 
to  dare:  iBie  fyabt  jr  bag  thun  burffen  (Gen.  xliv.  15).  Luther  retained  tfyuren  in 
a  large  number  of  cases,  but  the  later  revisions  substituted  biivfen.  Compare 
Luther's  translation  of  Matt.  xxii.  46  with  a  revised  edition.  In  our  own  day 
burfcn  rarely  occurs  in  this  meaning,  but  is  replaced  here  by  toagen  and  fid) 
itnterftffyen. 

2.  Mbiiuni.  A.  Ability  or  power:  @t  fann  gut  rcitcn  He  can  ride  well. 
!Dev  Jtranfe  fann  nid)t  gefyen. 

Note.  In  this  sense  alone  is  ttermcgen  synonymous  with  fcnnen,  only  differing  from 
it  in  being  stronger  and  in  requiring  ju  with  the  infin. :  @r  »ar  \\\  fdjwad),  cr  »ermod)te 

ntd)t  bie  3JhtteUung  jit  @nbe  $u  Ijoren,  or  er  fonnte  bie  2Rtttei(ung  nic^t  jit  (Inbe  fyoven. 
In  early  N.H.G.  the  infin.  depending  upon  ttevtttcgen  is  also  without  ju. 

a.  Often,  cannot  bear  to  :  ©ie  fann  fein  93lut  fcljcn. 

b.  Notice  the  idiomatic  use  of  nid)t  timfyin  fcnnen  =  tniiffen,   requiring  jit 
before  the  dependent  infin. :  (Sr  fonnte  nid}t  umfjin  ju  ldd)eln  He  could  not  help 
smiling. 

B.  Possibility  in  the  broad  sense,  that  which  is  contingent  upon  circum- 
stances, and  often  probability  and  in  this  sense  synonymous  with  ntcgen  in  A, 
but  more  common  than  the  latter  in  the  pres.  tense  and  not  so  common  in 
the  past :   £er  2?rief  fann  »cr  Jnenetag  ntcftt  bcvt  fein.     (§r  fann  jebcn  2lua.enbUcf 
ba  fein.    3d)  glanb',  eS  fann  tocfil  fyeute  ncd)  fd)neien.    Serbamme  i(;n  nicbt,  er  fann 
(may)  nod)  unfd)utbig  fein.    <£ie  fcnnen  (may)  mid)  ntorgen  ernjavten. 

Note.  Observe  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  pres.  of  fcnnen  with  the  perf. 
infin.  and  the  pres.  perf.  of  fcnnen  :  (S'r  fann  ben  53nef  gefd)ttebcn  rjaben  He  may 
have  written  the  letter.  Sc  l)at  ben  S3rief  fcf)reiben  fcnnen  He  has  been  able  to  write 
the  letter.  Notice  also  the  difference  between  @r  fonnte  eg  getan  fyaben  He  might  have 
done  it  (i.e.  it  is  possible  that  he  has  done  it)  and  @r  I)dtte  eg  tun  foniten  //£  would 
have  been  able  to  do  it. 

C.  Permission,  arising  from  the  idea  that  something  can  be  done,  as  there 
are  no  hindrances  in  the  way:  SDJcinctwegcn  fann  et  fcmmen  As  far  as  I  am 
concerned  he  may  come.     SBon  ad)t  big  neun  Ubt  fcnnen  unr  nod;  in  bem  ©avtrn 
ein  hjcnicj  fpa^icren  gefjen.     <2ie  fonncn  je^t  geljen. 

D.  It  often  contains  in  polite  form  instructions,  directions,  or  a  request: 
3d)  fyabe  je£t  nidjt  3eit  fuc  end),  i^r  fonnt  abcr  ntorgen  imcber  etnmal  nadjfragen 
I  have  not  time  for  you  to-day,  but  you  might  inquire  again  to-morrow. 
£u  fcnntefl  (or  in  still  stronger  language  fannft)  ntir  cigentlid)  bag  laftige  @efd)dft 
abnehmen  I  think  you  might  take  this  troublesome  piece  of  business  off  my 
hands.     It  sometimes  contains  a  reproach  :  £u  fattnjl  (or  fcnntcft)  unmet  audj 
etnmal  mit  angreifen  \  I  think  you  might  take  a  hold  and  help  us  a  little  bit ! 
Sag  fannft  bit  fclbcr  mad)en !  I  think  you  might  do  that  yourself! 

E.  Good  grounds  or  reasons  or  good  opportunity  for  an  action  :  !l)arauf 
fcnnen  <£ie  ftclj  fein  You  can  well  be  proud  of  that.     Jann  (or  barf)  id)  nun 
anfangen  ?  Should  I  begin  now  ?  (Are  things  favorable  for  action  ?) 

F.  Also  used  as  an  independent  transitive  verb  with  noun  or  pronoun  as 
object  in  the  sense  of  to  know  or  understand  thoroughly,  to  be  at  home  in  : 


330  MODAL  AUXILIARIES  213.  2.  F. 

(Sr  fann  bag  2ieb  augroenbig  He  knows  the  song  by  heart.  Set  fann  ettvag  That 
fellow  understands  his  business,  JJomien  @ie  Seutfd)  ?  Can  you  speak 
German?  £>er  @d)utct  fann  feine  SSofabctn  The  pupil  knows  his  vocabulary, 
jlcnncn  <5ie  Jllasier?  Can  you  play  upon  the  piano?  (Sr  fann  feljt  gut 
8ran$eftfd). 

Note  i.  Here  belongs  the  expression  2Bag  fann  id)  bafur?  How  can  I  help  it, 
how  can  I  be  blamed  for  it  ?  It  has  here  changed  the  original  idea  of  being  able  to  do 
something  for  to  that  of  blame  for  not  doing  something.  Thus  also :  ($r  fann  nid)t  bafur 
It  is  not  his  fault.  SBag  fatltt  fie  fur  ifyre  SKutter?!  (Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alien 
Doktors,  p.  142)  How  can  she  be  held  responsible  for  her  mother  being  what  she  is  ? ! 

A'ote  2.  Distinguish  carefully  between  fonnen  to  know  something  thoroughly,  to 
know  by  heart,  to  have  a  fair  degree  of  skill  or  proficiency  in  something,  toiffeil 
to  know  facts,  femiett  to  know  or  be  acquainted  with  persons  or  also  those  things 
which  like  persons  can  be  recognized  by  certain  characteristics :  @ie  fonnen  Seutfd) 
They  can  speak  German.  S)ie  fonnen  if)te  <2ad)e  They  understand  thoroughly  the 
matter  they  have  in  hand.  (5r  fann  bag  Qjinmaletng  He  knows  by  heart  the  multipli- 
cation table.  3d)  toetg,  tt>0  er  roofynt  I  know  where  he  lives.  3d)  tt>ei{j  fein  -£>ang 
I  know  where  his  house  is.  3d)  fenne  if)*.t  gut  I  know  him  well.  3d)  fenne  fein  £aug 
I  am  acquainted  with  the  outside  or  inside  or  both  outside  and  inside  arrangements  of 
his  house.  Sag  Jtillb  feilltt  bie  93udjftaben  nod)  nidjt  The  child  cannot  distinguish  the 
letters  yet.  3d)  fenne  biefe  SKelobie  This  tune  is  familiar  to  me.  !£>ag  fennt  man  fdjcn ! 
We  know  all  about  that,  i.  e.  we  have  had  experience  in  that  matter. 

G.  Also  as  an  intransitive  verb  in  the  sense  of  to  have  the  power,  skill: 
,,£u  ttnlljl  atfo?"  ,,3JJad)'  mid)  fonnen,  fo  iw((  id)"  (Goethe).  Um  gu  fonnen, 
ntu^t  bu  in  jebcm  gall  tun,  itm  §u  unffen,  barffi  bu  bid)  in  »ielen  gaflen  nuv  leiceno 
»erhalten  (Pestalozzi). 

3.  tW&Qett.  A.  Probability,  plausibility,  that  which  rests  with  more  or 
less  probability  on  facts,  but  which  is  after  all  only  supposition,  conjecture 
(see  fonnen,  B) :  ds  ift  unred)t,  ba$  et  nidjt  geantoortet  fyat,  abet  et  mag  franf  fein 
It  is  not  right  that  he  has  not  answered,  but  it  may  be  that  he  is  sick.  (Sr 
I)at  eg  feinem  gefagt,  ev  mag'g  irof)t  geljeint  fatten  it»o({en  He  has  told  no  one,  he 
may  probably  desire  to  keep  it  a  secret.  Sag  mag  tooljl  fein  That  may  be. 
(fg  mag  jefct  $Wclf  fein  It  may  be  12  o'clock.  <£te  mod)te  fuhlen,  bap  fie  mtr  unred)t 
getan  She  probably  felt  that  she  had  done  me  injustice.  (£g  modjte  tool)t 
3)litternad)t  fein  It  might  have  been  about  midnight,  ©r  mag  bag  gefagt  fyaben 
He  may  possibly  have  said  that. 

a.  It  is  much  used  in  the  past  subjunctive  (potential)  to  state  modestly 
something  as  probable,  plausible  (see  also  burfen,  c.Note):  @g  mcd)te  rooljl 
beffcr  fein,  toenn  ttnr  eg  unterliefien  It  would  probably  be  better  if  we  did  not 
do  it.  Sag  mod)te  fd)tt>et  gu  betteifen  fein  That  might  be  hard  to  prove. 
Saraug  modjte  tvo^l  nid>tg  tt?erben  That  is  likely  enough  to  fail. 

B.  To    indicate    that   something  is  granted,   allowed,  at  least   that  no 
objection  will  be  raised  on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  and  from  this  arises 
the  idea  of  concession  in  general,  which  is  much  used  in  subordinate  con- 
cessive clauses  :  Sag  mag  er  immcrtjin  tun,  frag  fummert'g  mid)  ?  Let  him  do  it, 
what  matters  it  to  me  ?    SDlcgen  bie  Seute  reben,  lr»ag  fie  rocKen  Let  people  say 
what  they  will.     In  subordinate  clause :   3Bag  id)  aud)  tun  mag,  fo  ift  eg  bit 
nid)t  rcd)t  No  matter  what  I  do,  I  can't  satisfy  you. 

C.  Akin  to  the  preceding  is  the  idea  of  inclination,  liking,  in  this  meaning 
also  used  as  an  independent  transitive  verb  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  object: 
3d)  mag  ifyn  jc^t  nid)t  fcfyen  I  do  not  care  to  see  him  now.     As  a  transitive 
verb :  3d)  mag  biefe  9iabicgd)en  nid)t.     3Melleid)t  mogen  <3ie  lieber  ©urfen  I  do 
not  like  these  radishes.     Perhaps  you  like  cucumbers  better.     3)Ji?gen  is  often 
strengthened  by  the  adverb  gcrn :  3d)  tyabe  me  gern  tan$en  mcgcn  I  never  liked 
to  dance. 

a.  The  subjunctive  is  much  used  in  wishes  in  independent  clauses  with 
different  meaning  according  as  present  or  past  tense  is  employed  (168.1., 
I.  B,  and  169.  i.  A).  The  present  subjunctive  is  also  used  in  mild  commands 


213.  4- k  USES  OF  mogeu  AND  muffett  331 

direct  and  indirect ;  see  177. 1.  B.  a  ;  171.4-  a.  The  present  indicative  and 
subjunctive  are  used  in  warnings  and  menaces  :  Gju  mag  mtr  aufpaffen,  fonft 
pafiiett  ein  Unglurf  He  should  be  on  the  look-out  or  some  misfortune  will 
happen,  dr  mcge  ftd)  fyftten,  mid)  gn  reijen  Let  him  beware  of  provoking  me. 

b.  The   subjunctive  of  mcgen    is   in    indirect   discourse   sometimes   used 
instead  of  the  subjunctive  of  the  simple   verb,   especially  after  verbs  of 
wishing,  fearing,  doubting  :  2Bir  ttn"mfd)ten,  bajj  er  fomme  or  fommen  meg,?. 

c.  The  past  and  past   perfect   subjunctive   (potential),  the  former  with 
present,  the  latter  with  past  force,  differ  from  the  indicative  in  meaning  in 
that  not  the  mere  record  of  a  strongly  pronounced  desire   or  a  habitual 
inclination  is  made,  but  especial  attention  is  called  to  that  which  at  the 
time  and  under  the  circumstances  the  subject  feels  inclined  or  would  like 
to  do:  ftaft  mod)te  id)  tteinen  I  almost  feel  like  crying.    3d)  mod)te  fpajieren 
gefycn  I  should  like  to  go  out  walking.      3d)  Ijdtte  e3  if)m  ntd)t  fagcn  megen 
I  should  not  have  liked  to  tell  it  to  him.     £a  Jjatte  er  in  ben  23oben  jinfen  mcgen 
Then  he  felt  as  though  he  would  like  to  sink  through  the  floor. 

The  subjunctive  of  modest  statement  (169.  i.  A.  3rd  par.)  is  much  used  to 
state  a  wish  modestly :  3d)  mod)te  Sie  urn  cut  <£tncfd)en  £amme(dfd)(ege(  bitten, 
mtr  gum  23erfud)en  I  will  thank  you  for  a  small  piece  of  the  leg  of  mutton,  just 
to  try  it. 

D.  Its  oldest  meaning,  that  of  power  and  ability,  it  has  given  over  to 
»ermcgen  in  ordinary  prose,  but  this  meaning  can  still  be  found  in  elevated 
diction  :  D  tieb',  fo  lang  bit  Iteben  fannfl  (can  find  an  opportunity) !  D  lieb',  to 
kng  bit  lieben  ntagjl  (are  able) !  (Freiligrath).  This  meaning  occurs  frequently 
still  in  the  noun  (bie)  3Jlad)t  might  and  the  adj.  mfyiify possible,  which  have 
been  derived  from  it. 

a.  After  the  analogy  of  vernu'gen  (see  z,  Note,  above)  the  infinitive  with  git 
is  in  a  few  rather  rare  instances  used  here  with  mcgen  instead  of  the  simple 
infinitive,  especially  when  the  infinitive  precedes  the  auxiliary :  3Me  ©efafyt 
von  U)t  iu  wenben  magft  bu  gang  a((ein  (Goethe's  Die  natiirliche  Tochter,  2,  i). 

4.  SJJiiffcil.  a.  Necessity  in  the  broad  sense,  either  physical  compulsion 
or  that  constraint  which  is  imposed  by  the  stress  of  circumstances,  or  lies  in 
the  very  nature  of  things,  or  that  which  appears  to  the  mind  as  necessary, 
appropriate,  or  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of  things,  hence  corresponding 
to  the  English  words  must,  have  to,  obliged  to,  ought  to,  need  to  :  £)ag  .Sinb 
mttjj te  gn  SJette  gefyen  The  child  had  to  go'  to  bed.  (Sr  tyanbett  une  er  mufj  He 
acts  as  he  ought  to  do  under  the  circumstances.  5)  it  fommjl  nidH  mit,  benn 
bu  tyajl  feine  JKetbcr  nnb  fannjl  nid)t  tangen  ;  ivir  ntiifjten  uns  beiner  fd^amen  (we 
should  indeed  under  the  circumstances  have  to  feel  ashamed  of  you). 
.Rtnber  muffcn  befd)etben  fetn  In  the  natural  order  of  things  children  ought  to 
be  modest,  ©ft  (name),  eigentUd)  Tjattefl  bit  bod)  luol)(  Jtunftrettertn  werben  muffw 
(ought).  3JJn^t  bit  benn  a(le<3  Jviffen  ?  Do  you  need  to  know  everything  ?  Also 
translated  in  various  other  ways :  28ir  nutjjten  un3  fvcncn  We  could  not  but 
rejoice.  3d)  mufjte  lad)en  I  could  not  help  laughing.  It  is  much  used  in  com- 
mands ;  see  177. 1.  B.  a. 

It  often  denotes  a  logical  or  inferred  necessity :  3f)t  @eftd)t  u>ar  regefma^ig 
nnb  ber  ?ln<$bvncf  besfelben  »erjianbtg ;  fte  mnpte  in  t()rcr  3ugenb  fd)ott  ge»t?efen  fetn 
She  must  have  been,  &c.  (Sefteljt  if)it  [i.  e.  ben  Srief])  ai5al)vl)afttg,  ev  ifl  erbrod)en. 
9Bcr  mitj?  i()tt  benn  erbvod)en  J)aben?  (Lessing's  Minna,  3,  10)  Somebody  must 
have  broken  it  open,  who  could  it  be  ? 

Note.  Observe  the  difference  of  meaning  between  the  pres.  of  mflJTett  with  the  perf. 
infin.  and  the  perf.  tense  of  ntnffen  :  @r  muj?  vorbctgegangcn  feitt  He  must  have  passed 
by,  but  @r  fyat  B0l'bctgel)en  muftett  He  was  compelled  to  pass  by. 

b.  Often  found  with  a  force  difficult  to  reproduce  in  English,  conveying  the 
idea  that  the  circumstance  or  happening  in  question  is  untoward,  unfortunate, 
resulting  in  discomfiture  tothe  person  in  question,  sometimes  translated  by  un- 
fortunately to  happen  to,  it  must  needs  be  :  ©evabe  i()it  mnpte  id)  treffen !  Whom 


332  MODAL  AUXILIARIES  213. 4.  b. 

should  I  unfortunately  happen  to  meet  but  him  !  Unb  id)  mujj te  fo  fern  fein  ! 
And  bad  luck  would  have  it  that  I  just  happened  to  be  so  far  away !  3Jlein  -£>unb 
ivar  of)ne  SDiaulforb  fyinauSgelaitfen.  9Jun  mufjte  (as  bad  luck  would  have  it, 
there  happened  to)  and)  gcrabe  cin  $«?Ujift  baljcr  foramen.  ($3  mue  ja  crgerniS 
feinen  |  bed)  lucl)  bem  Sftenfcfycn  |  burd)  toeldjen  ergernig  fompt  (Matt,  xviii.  7). 

c.  An  older  meaning  to  be  •permitted,  ought,  is  still  in  the  classical  period 
found  in  negative  sentences,  instead  of  biirfen,  just  as  in  English:  3d)  raufj 
nid)t  vergeffcn,  ben  SBettel  gu  »crnid)ten  (Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm  i,  7) 
I  must  not  forget  to  destroy  the  trifle.     It  is  occasionally  found  in  our  own 
time  :  „  2ld),"  fagte  (Sftfabetf)  „  bag  n?etjj  id)  ja  ausroenbtg  ;  bit  ntujjt  and)  nid)t  tmmer 
baSfetbe  erjafylen  "  (Storm's  Immensee,  Die  Kinder).    It  is  now  in  large  measure 
replaced  here  by  biirfen  (see  this,  I.  a). 

This  old  meaning  of  muffen  comes  close  to  the  original  one,  to  find  one's 
self  in  a  situation  to,  have  opportunity  to,  be  free  to,  have  occasion  to.  Also 
the  use  in  b  approaches  this  sense  with  the  additional  idea  that  the  result  is 
unpleasant  to  the  party  in  question.  Later,  as  in  a,  the  idea  arose  that  the 
situation  in  which  the  subject  finds  himself  is  forced  upon  him,  and  that  he 
has  to  act,  not  in  accordance  with  his  wishes,  but  under  the  stress  of  circum- 
stances. The  original  meaning  of  mitffen  occurs  not  infrequently  in  early 
N.H.G.  in  different  stages  of  developments.  In  optative  sentences  the 
original  force  is  still  found  in  the  classical  period  :  So  ntujfe  (now  mcge)  mtr 
©ctt  fyelfen  (Schiller).  This  use  is  still  quite  common  in  connexion  with  bran  : 
!Da3  tverbe  id)  nie  gtauben,  er  mujHe  t$  nttv  benn  felbft  fagen.  For  fuller  explanation 
of  this  optative  see  168. 1.  2.  C.  b.  It  is  also  quite  commonly  found  here  in 
accordance  with  a,  above,  where  the  wisher  expresses  the  desire  that  some- 
body may  be  forced  to  suffer  something :  -sKi'iffe  ber  elenb  itmfommen,  bent  je  beffer 
von  bit  begcguet  txnirbe  al3  mtr  (P.  Heyse's  UArrabbiata).  SBareit  toil  SJettler! 
SDtfujjten  tr-tr  barfiif  burd)  bte  5ru()Ung3nacljt  ir-anbern !  (R.  Huch's  Vita  somnium 
breve,  I,  p.  7). 

The  related  noun  Sftitfie  leisure  has  retained  more  of  the  original  meaning 
than  the  verb,  and  has  developed  in  quite  a  different  direction. 

d.  It  is  also  used  as  an  intransitive  verb  in  the  sense  of  to  suffer  compul- 
sion: Jlein  aftenfd)  nnifj  (according  to  c)  nt  tiff  en  (Lessing's  Nathan,  I,  3)  No 
one  should  suffer  compulsion.   §ll(e  anbere  £>tnge  muffen,  ber  SKenfdj  ijt  bag  3Befen, 
ivelcfye^  tt»U(  (Schiller,  10,  214). 

5.  Solicit  expresses  throughout  all  its  varied  meanings  a  moral  con- 
straint, indicating  that  that  which  is  to  be  done  does  not  proceed  from  the 
will  of  the  person  represented  as  the  subject  of  the  verb,  but  from  some 
other  person,  or  some  other  source.  The  chief  uses  are  : 

a.  The  will  of  a  certain  definite  person  is  to  be  carried  out :  S)u  fcftft  ntd)t 
ftctylen  Thou  shall  not  steal  (God's  will).     The  father  says  to  John  :  2>u  foKft 
flct^tg  fein  I  want  you  to  be  diligent.     In  the  3rd  person  the  expression  of 
will  is  an  indirect  one  to  be  transmitted  by  a  third  party  :    (£r   fell  gletd) 
foramen   Tell  him  that   he  is   to  come   at    once.      Hence  its  use  in   the 
imperative;    see  177. 1.B.  a.    Also   in  toasts:    Gugler  (stofsen  an):    35te 
S3auernftubenten  fodcn  leben  !  profit !  (Schonherr's  Sonnwendtag,  p.  21). 

Note.  In  this  meaning  the  past  and  past  perfect  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  (potential) 
are  used,  the  former  with  present  force,  the  latter  with  past  force,  to  state  that  some- 
thing ought  to  be  done  or  ought  to  have  been  done  if  the  will  or  judgement  of  the 
speaker  were  consulted:  <I)te  ©efellfcfyaft  follte  bte  Jtitnft  fcrbern  Society  ought  to 
promote  art.  2)u  foflteft  bid)  lieber  in  9ld)t  nel)men  You  had  better  take  care.  (Sr 
J)citte  fid)  verteibtgen  fotlen  He  ought  to  have  defended  himself. 

b.  In  a  figurative  sense  it  often  means  the  will  or  dictate  of  circumstances 
or  fate,  to  be  destined  to,  to  have  to,  to  turn  out  that,  will  (expressing  not 
mere  futurity,  but  indicating  that  something  will  come  about  because  it  must 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  case  and  the  probabilities) :  2)arin  fcllte  cr  fid} 
J<iiifd?cn  In  that  he  was  destined  to  be  disappointed.    £er  3Jlann,  ber  bag  fann, 


213.5./.  USES  OF  folTctt  333 

foil  erfl  nod)  geboren  toerbcn  The  man  who  does  that  has  yet  to  be  born.  @o 
lajj  ung  uberlea,en,  nne  bit  bctt  Srrtunt  ungefd)cf;en  ntad)en  foflji  how  you  should  or 
will  have  to  (dictate  of  circumstances),  &c.  3d)  fyoffe  nod)  immer,  bie  9lad)rid)t 
foil  ftd)  nid)t  beilatigen  I  am  still  hoping  that  it  will  turn  out  that  the  news  will 
not  be  confirmed.  3d)  benfe,  bag  foil  nod)  fontmen  I  think  that  will  yet  come 
about. 

Note.  In  this  use  the  potential  subjunctive  (with  the  same  use  of  tenses  as  stated  in 
the  Note  under  a,  above)  is  much  employed  (i)  to  represent  something  as  possible  but 
as  contingent  upon  the  caprice  of  circumstances,  especially  in  conditional  clauses 
where  it  is  translated  by  our  should,  were  to  :  2Benn  eg  regnen  follte,  iwerbe  id)  nid)t 
fommett  If  it  should  rain  I  shall  not  come ;  (2)  interrogatively  to  express  a 
doubting  or  deliberative  conjecture :  @of(te  ^ar(  bag  getan  haben  ?  Can  it  be  that 
Carl  has  done  that?  @of(te  bag  toaljt  feitt?  Can  that  be  true?  ©elite  ev  ittetn 
@d)irffal  fd)on  erfafircn  Ijaben  ?  Can  it  be  that  he  has  already  learned  of  my  fate  ? 
<Sof(te  baljtntet  irielleidjt  tin  ©eljeimnig  ftecfen?  I  wonder  if  there  is  a  secret  back 
of  that ! 

c.  Used  in  threats  indicating  that  the  speaker  is  willing  for  some  one  to  do 
something  if  he  dares  :  @ie  folleu  ftd)  itur  regcn,  iwenn  jte'g  nwgen !  Just  let  them 
budge  if  they  dare  ! 

d.  It  may  denote  the  will  of  the  public,  hence  in  general  the  constraint  of 
custom,  law,  &c. :   3)te  Jtinber  foflm  ifyren  (Jltern  ge()ord)cn   Children  ought  to 
obey  their  parents.     Here  fcllen  can  often  be  translated  by  /'/  is  to  be  expected 
that :   2Bie  follte  ev  ftd)  riifiren,  luo  welleid)t  nuv  bet  ©afgen  ju  gctmnnen  fianb  ! 
How  was  it  to  be  expected  that  he  should  bestir  himself  there  where  perhaps 
only  the  gallows  could  be  gained  ?     Here  foUcn  can  also  be  translated  by  is  it 
to  be  tolerated:  „  (Sin  gvembltng,"  fpvadjen  fte  witter  etnanber,  ,,fol(  hierljer  fommen 
nad)  93agbab,  un3  {Rufjm,  S'hre  unb  @ieg  j^u  entreifen?  " 

e.  The  idea  of  willing  a  thing  leads  to  planning  its  accomplishment,  to 
be  intended  to,  to  be  apt  to :  SQorte  inarm  (6  nitr,  bie  id)  fprad) ;  fte  [ollten  vor  eud) 
nut  nteine  ©efit^te  tterftccfcn  It  was  only  empty  words  that  I  spoke  ;  they  were 
intended  to  conceal  my  feelings  from  you.     Soil  bag  ein  ©cfyeq  fein?  Is  that 
intended  as  a  joke?    2Bag  foil  bag?  What  is  that  for?     SSetfudjen  @ie  bicfen 
^o^(,  er  foil  (is  apt  to)  3t»nen  fd^mcrfen. 

_/.  The  idea  of  willing  a  thing  or  determining  that  it  shall  be  done  leads  to 
that  of  promising,  assuring  it,  shall:  @ie  follen  eg  ntorgen  fyabcn  You  shall  have 
it  to-morrow.  2)er  e()r(id)e  ginber  (o((  bclofjnt  toerbcn  The  honest  finder  shall 
be  rewarded.  @g  foil  gefd)ef»en  It  shall  be  done.  3n  SSevtin  foil  man  langc 
fud)en,  big  man  nuter  ben  Ijieftgen  ©elefyrten  einen  SRann  von  fctd)ct  SMlbnna,  finbet 
I  assure  you  that  you  will  hunt  a  long  time  in  Berlin  before  you  will  find 
among  the  scholars  of  the  city  a  man  of  such  culture. 

g.  It  often  denotes  the  will  of  different  parties,  hence  in  general  an 
agreement  or  arrangement,  or  the  decision  of  some  proper  authority :  3d) 
full  gefyn  taufenb  SDJavt  bag  ^safir  ev()alten  I  am  to  receive  ten  thousand  marks 
a  year.  Sic  follen  luarten  The  arrangement  is  that  you  are  to  wait.  2)tc 
^ruefe  fo((  nen  gcbaut  iwben  The  bridge  is  to  be  rebuilt.  @r  foil  bctt  ©efanbten 
bcglcitcn  He  is  appointed  to  accompany  the  ambassador. 

Note.  In  this  meaning,  if  nod)  is  added,  it  is  implied  that  a  promise  or  arrangement 
has  been  broken  and  probably  will  not  be  fulfilled  :  Qt  foil  nod)  nneberfomnten  He  has 
never  turned  up. 

//.  Much  used  in  questions  to  ascertain  the  will  or  idea  of  the  person 
addressed:  (Solicit  unt  jc$t  nad)  <§aufe  a,cf)cn?  Shall  we  go  home  now?  SBag 
foil  id)  30ttcn  vorlcgen  ?  What  shall  I  help  you  to?  (at  the  table). 

/'.  That  which  report  will  have  something  to  be,  /'/  is  said :  Dr.  Saitfl  foil  in 
(fvfnrt  cjelcbt  l)abett  Dr.  Faust  is  said  to  have  lived  in  Erfurt.  Sicben  (Etrajltnge 
fo'lcu  cntfctnincn  fcin  Seven  convicts  are  said  to  have  escaped. 

j.  Used  to  suppose  a  case  for  sake  of  argument:  Sllfvcb  bev  ©tofje  fof( 
bonbon  cvbant  Ijaben.  Sffite  erflaven  <2te  bann  bap  bie  OJomcr  bie  Stabt  fdjon  vor 


MODAL  AUXILIARIES  213.  5. /. 

©eburt  fahnten  ?  Well !  We'll  say  that  you  are  right,  and  that  Alfred 
the  Great  built  London.  How  do  you  explain  the  fact  then  that  the  Romans 
were  familiar  with  the  city  even  before  the  birth  of  Christ  ? 

k.  Used  earlier  in  the  period  as  a  trans,  verb  with  the  force  of  fd)ulben-/<? 
owe  :  2Ber  mir  fitnfjig  ©iilcen  fo((  (Logau).  This  old  meaning  survives  in  @o(( 
lint)  £aben  credit  and  debit. 

6.  SBoUfll  differs  from  fcHen  in  that  it  expresses  the  will  or  desire  of  the 
subject,  while  fotten  even  though  in  the  first  person  expresses  the  will  of 
another'.  3d)  nn((  gcljen  I  desire,  want  to  go,  but  3d)  foil  gefyen  /  am  ordered  to 
go.  It  is  used  in  many  idiomatic  expressions  : 

a.  Figuratively :  SMumcn  ttollen  gepflegt  fein  Flowers  ought  (lit.  want)  to  be 
tended.    9lnd)  bag  U?of(te  beadjtct  fein  Also  that  needed  to  be  considered.     Dbet 
line  gfaubfl  bu,  bafj  mir,  bent  fltotten,  blutjungen  ,f?a»af(erie0ffigier,  gu  3Kute  tear,  alg  id) 
eineg  2Horgen3  bcim  (Sflvadjen  mid)  befann,  bap  id)  in  bet  9tad)t  bag  ©ummdjen  von 
neungigtaufenb  £alern  »erfpiclt  tyattc,  bag  binnen  Dierunbjtoftnjig  ©tunben  begafylt  fein 
nw((te  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  I,   12)  //fo/  /ta</  /<?  be  paid,  &c.      Notice 
the  idiomatic  expressions :  bag  ftM  fagcn  that  is  to  say,  that  means,  bag  ttnll 
nid)t  »ie(  fagen  ///«/  doesrit  mean  imtch,  doesrit  amount  to  much. 

b.  Often,  to  intend  to,  to  mean  to :  @ie  un'ft  ben  ^inbern  ein  5fft  gffcen  She 
intends  to  give  a  party  for  the  children.     (Sc  n>of(te  eg  ^eute  bringen  He  meant 
to  bring  it  to-day. 

Note.  Sometimes  used  to  question  the  ability  to  carry  out  an  intention  or  plan  : 
SBie  woften  @ie  bag  Iieut  nod)  »o((enben?  How  do  you  expect  to  accomplish  that 
yet  to-day? 

c.  A  claim  that  some  one  makes :  Set  3f»gc  totfl  ben  Slngeflagten  gefe^en  Ijaben 
The  witness  claims  to  have  seen  the  defendant.     3d)  totfl  e3  ntd)t  gefe^en  fyaben 
I  will  claim,  pretend  that  I  did  not  see  it.     Figuratively :   3>a3  SSerf  iri(( 
meT)r  fein  al^  eine  Compilation  The  work  professes  to  be  more  than  a  com- 
pilation. 

Note.  Observe  the  difference  of  meaning  between  the  present  of  fojoflen  with  the 
perf.  infin.  and  the  pres.  perf.  of  IfloHen  :  (St  totfl  il)tt  gefe^en  ^aben  He  claims  to  have 
seen  him,  but  (Sr  Ijat  it)tt  fe^en  hjoden  He  wanted  to  see  him. 

d.  Often,  on  the  point  of,  to  be  about  to  :  &  nnf(  regnen  It  is  on  the  point  of 
raining.    3d)  ttriU  eg  3ljnen  fogleid)  geben  I  am  going  to  give  it  to  you  directly. 
3d)  hwttte  eben  gu  iljm  geljen,  at<J  er  ^ereintrat  I  was  just  going  to  see  him  when  he 
entered  the  room. 

e.  SBoUen  with  the  infinitive  of  the  verb  to  be  conjugated  is  also  used  to 
replace  the  wanting  imperative  forms  ;  see  177. 1.  B.<*. 

/.  Sometimes  with  the  idea  of  confidence,  assurance :  3d)  nn((  eg  nod) 
cvlcben,  bafj  .Slofc  fid)  ...  gnvucfjtcfjt  (Lessing,  Brief,  1768)  /  shall  yet 
live  to  see,  &c.  Unb  ttenn'g  nid^t  n?ar'  burd)  fa([d)e  Scut'  uerraten  toorben,  irollt' 
er  if;m  bag  58ab  gcfcgnet  unb  iljn  auggerieben  I)aben  (Goethe's  Gotz,  i,  i). 
©el)en  @ie  ^inten  gum  ©artcn  ^tnaug  unb  auf  ber  SBiefe  ^in,  big  eg  SDhttag  frf)(agt ; 
bann  fe^vcn  @ie  guriicf,  unb  id)  lin((  ben  <£pajj  fd)on  eingelettet  ^aben  (id.,  Dich- 
tung  und  Wahrheit,  II.  10)  then  return,  and  I  shall  surely  have  made  all 
preparations  for  the  practical  joke.  SSart'  nut  ein  9Bet(d)en,  big  ber  SKotib  auf^ 
gegangen  ift,  bann  n?o((en  iint  ben  28eg  fd)on  finben  (Grimm's  Hansel  und  Gretel}. 
it)a  bad)te  id) :  £>u  ftilljl  gang  reinen  Xifd)  ntad)en,  gang  reinen.  ©u  iri(l|l  itad) 
(Suropa  ^inuberfal)ren  unb  nn((ft  in  bag  (Slterntjaug  gefyen  unb  in  bie  <2d)ulftube  unb 
burd)  bie  <Stra§en  unb  auf  ben  ^trd)()of  unb  n?t((fl  nod)  einmat  gang  niid)tern  nnb 
cfyrltd)  in  bein  Seben  ^tnctnfeljen.  Unb  ttenn  bu  bag  getan  fyajl  unb  fannfi  bann 
bag  gfft  mitfetern,  bann  h?t[(fl  bu  tnitfetern,  fonft  ruifljl  bu  nod)  wor  bent  Jeft  wteber 
ire^gefjen  (Frenssen's  Das  Heimatsfest,  I,  i)  Then  I  thought  to  myself :  You 
(the  speaker  here  admonishing  himself)  will  surely  or  you  mtist,  &c. 

g.  SBodcn  is  often  used  more  or  less  pleonastically,  and  must  be  variously 
rendered  or  not  rendered  at  all.  In  these  cases  it  represents  the  statement 


214.2.  USES  OF  tooITcu  335 

not  so  much  as  an  actual  fact  as  that  it  is  the  opinion  or  seeming  intention 
of  somebody,  or  is  seemingly  a  fact  or  the  probable  outcome  of  the  matter, 
or  the  natural  result  of  the  given  circumstances :  SDJan  ftitt  mid)  »crftd)ern 
(almost  =  man  »erjtdjert  mid)),  bicfcg  $ud)  fo((  ucrftantUdicr  fein  (Forster)  Some 
people  assure  me  this  book  will  certainly  be  easier  to  understand.  2Jlg  er 
tmmcr  unb  iramcr  nid)t  footmen  ipolltc  (almost  =  f'am),  nwrbc  cin  ^oftbebientcr 
abgcfd)icft,  il)it  git  fud)en  (Hebel).  When  after  a  long  while  he  did  not  put  in  an 
appearance  (or  when  it  seemed  sure  that  he  did  not  intend  to  come),  a  postal 
clerk  was  sent  to  hunt  him  up.  9jun  trite  cr  berettg  fcit  jtoet  (gtunben  burd)  bie 
Xtefetn,  unb  bcr  20alb  tooKte  fcin  Gnbe  nefjmcn  (Baumbach)  Now  he  had  been 
straying  about  among  the  fir  trees  for  two  hours  already,  and  the  forest 
seemed  to  have  no  end.  SScrtcgen,  bajj  Feine  9}ad)rid)tcn  son  bem  9lt$t  fommcn 
ir-ofltcn  (Goethe)  Puzzled,  because  it  seemed  that  no  news  would  come  from 
the  doctor.  €ie  iveinte .  .  .  .  baf  fte  mir  ovbentlid)  Icib  tun  ttwdte  (=  tat)  (Temme, 
Volks-Z.,  25,  94  A)  She  cried  so  that  I  felt  quite  sorry  for  her. 

h.  Also  used  as  a  trans,  verb  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  object,  in  the 
sense  of  to  desire,  to  will:  SBoKen  <£ie  (Srbfcn  cbcr  5Mumenfct)l  ?  Will  you  take 
peas  or  cauliflower  ?  Soften  <£ie  etnxig  Suppe  ?  Do  you  desire  some  soup  ? 
(ft  h?U(  bcin  ©liicf.  @ott  nn((  eg  God  wills  it  thus.  S)ag  tootte  ©ctt  nid)t !  May 
God  forbid  !  Compare  What  ivouldst  thou  of  us  ?  (Shakespeare). 

t.  Also  used  as  an  intransitive  verb  in  the  sense  of  to  have  the  desire : 
£a$  bie  Jltnbei-  mdjt  imffen,  luariim  fte  ivoden,  barin  ftnb  a((c  I)cc^ge{al)rte  ©c&ul^ 
itnb  J&ofmet|ler  einig  (Goethe's  Werther,  Am  22.  Mai).  ,,2BUlfl  bu  ba3?  " 
„  Sentt  bu  n>if(jl."  „  9ietn,  bit  tnitgt  IPoUrti.  —  2Rit  fveubigcm  ^erjen.  ©onfl  ttf 
fein  ©cgen  babet"  (Sudermann's  Die  Ehre,  3,  4). 

214.1.  Omission  of  the  verb  depending  iipon  the  aitxiliary.  This  omission 
is  very  common,  and  perhaps  the  following  cases  are  the  most  frequent. 

a.  Jf  the  dependent  verb  is  gcfyen  to  go,  veifen  to  travel,  faljren  to  drive,  and 
verbs  of  motion  in  general :  SfL'c^in  iwllcn  <£ie  (gc()cn)  ?  Where  do  you  intend 
to  go?  3d)  ntufj  nad)  ^oblen^  (gefjen)  I  must  go  to  Coblentz.  Compare  the 
English  of  Shakespeare  :  You  may  aivay  by  night,  she  must  with  me,  thou 
shalt  to  prison. 

d.  In  case  the  dependent  verb  is  tun  to  do,  Jjetfjen  to  signify,  and  various 
other  words :  2Ha<5  fo((  id)  (tun)  ?  What  am  I  to  do  ?  3Ba<S  foil  ba<5  (fycijjcn)  ? 
What  does  that  mean  ?  2>er  ^ranfe  barf  fctn  gtctfd)  (effcn)  the  patient  must  not 
eat  meat. 

2.  In  case  the  verb  depending  upon  a  modal  auxiliary  is  dropped,  difference 
of  usage  occurs  according  as  the  verb  is  trans,  or  intrans.  With  intransitives 
nothing  shows  the  omission  of  the  verb,  but  with  transitives  the  pronoun  ftf 
or  ba3  may  stand  after  the  auxiliary  as  the  object  of  the  verb  which  is  to  be 
supplied  :  Sprid)  tauter  !  3d)  fann  md)t  Speak  louder!  I  cannot.  Jfaunjl  bit 
bag  beroetfen  ?  3an?ot)t ;  id)  fann  e<?,  or  bag  fann  id)  Can  you  prove  that  ?  Yes, 
indeed  I  can.  Often  the  eg  or  bag  thus  used  does  not  point  to  a  definite 
object,  but  to  an  idea  suggested  by  or  contained  in  the  previous  proposition  : 
©d)affct  itnb  fcefteHct  JUagweiber,  ba$  fte  fommcn  ;  unb  fdncfct  nad)  benen,  bie  eg 
(referring  to  the  idea  of  flagcn,  suggested  by  the  word  .ftlagciwber)  ftcljl  fonncn 
(Jer.  ix.  17,  revised  edition).  2l>d(cn  2ie  ink  btefen  ©efafren  tun?  3d)  fann 
eg  (referring  to  the  general  idea  of  doing  the  favor,  not  to  @cfa((en,  which  is 
of  a  different  gender)  nid)t  Will  you  do  me  this  favor  ?  I  cannot.  D  Ijdtte 
id)  mid)  gcfrcut,  a(g  id)  eg  (=  mid)  frcucn)  nod)  fonntc !  O,  had  I  enjoyed  myself 
when  I  was  still  able  to  do  so !  (Sr  fyat  eg  getan,  ob  cr  eg  gcmnfjt  fyat,  treig  id) 
ntd)t.  With  such  transitives  this  object,  however,  is  often  omit'ted,  especially 
in  common  conversational  style  :  3d)  mad)c  eg  fo  gut  id)  fann. 

Note.  Distinguish  between  the  cases  where  the  auxiliary  stands  alone,  the  depen- 
dent verb  being  understood,  and  the  cases  where  these  words  are  not  auxiliaries  but 
independent  verbs.  The  latter  case  occurs  in  fonnen,  213.  2.  F,  G,  in  mogtn,  213.  3.  C, 
in  ntiiffcn,  213. 4. d,  in  fcUen,  213.  5./-,  in  focllen,  213.  6.  h,i. 


" 


^; 


. 

COMPOUND  VERBS  215.  1.  1. 


*•>••  .^d1 

CONJUGATION   OF  COMPOUND  VERBS. 

I.  GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

215.  i.  Separable  Compounds.  All  accented  prefixes  (see  II.  i.  B) 
in  compound  verbs  are  separated  in  the  following  cases  from  the 
simple  verb:  (i)  In  the  simple  tenses  (pres.  and  past)  of  principal 
propositions  and  such  subordinate  clauses  as  do  not  have  the 
transposed  word-order,  the  prefix  is  separated  from  the  verb  and 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  clause  or  sentence  :  (pres.)  id)  fattge  meine 
XHrtett  an;  (pres.  imper.)  fang  betne  -Arbeit  ait;  (past)  id)  fttto,  meine 
Qlrfcett  ait.  dr  fagt,  er  fancje  fetnc  Qtrfcett  an  ;  but  (Sr  fagt,  baf?  er 
feine  Qtrbeit  anfange.  (2)  In  the  perf.  part,  the  ge  and  in  the 
infin.  and  the  gerundive  the  311  is  inserted  between  the  prefix 
and  the  verb,  but  in  these  cases  the  prefix  is  not  really  felt  as 
separated  and  hence  is  written  as  one  with  the  verb  :  id;  tyafce  meine 
%6eit  angcfangen;  id?  tyate  tterfprodjen,  meine  Qfrfcett  morgen  anjufangen; 
(gerundive)  bie  morgen  anjnfangenbe  2(r6ett  the  work  that  must  be 
begun  to-morrow.  Elsewhere  the  separable  prefix  is  not  separated 
from  the  verb  :  (future)  id)  rcevbe  meine  Qtrtett  cmfangen  ;  (pres.  part.) 
ein  anfcingenber  $lr>t»ofat  a  young  lawyer  who  is  just  beginning  to 
practise  his  profession. 

2.  Inseparable  Compounds.    The  prefixes  (for  list  see  II.  2)  which 
are  always  unaccented  are  never  separated  from  the  verb.     Such 
inseparable  compounds  do  not  differ  in  conjugation  from  simple 
verbs  except  that  they  never  take  ge  in  the  perf.  part.  :  (£r  etreid)t 
feinen  3rc>ed\     @r  erreicbte  fetnen  3rce<f.     (£r  ^at  feinen  3md  erreid)t.    (5t 
ijerfud)t  (is  trying),  feinen  S^erf  ju  erreidjen. 

3.  Compounds  Separable  or  Inseparable.     Certain  prefixes  (see 
II.  3.  A)    are    separable    or    inseparable    according  as    they    are 
accented.     If  unaccented   they  are  inseparable,  if  accented  they 
are  separable:  Gr  itfcerfefct'  baS  ©efcidjt  He  is  translating  the  poem. 
<5r  fyat  bag  ®ebtd?t  iifcerfefct'.     @r  sjerfu^t,  bag  @ebtd?t  git  ufcerfefc'en.     But 
2)ie  3!ru^^en  fe§en  iifeer  The  troops  are  crossing  the  river.    2>er 
^a^tmann  fe£t  fte  uter  The  ferryman  is  taking  them  across  the  river. 
€>te  fceafcftdjttgen  (intend),  u'fcerjufe^en.     In  the  separable  compounds 
each  element  usually  has  its  full  literal  meaning,  while  the  in- 
separable compounds  have  an  altered  or  figurative  meaning. 

II.  DETAILED  STATEMENT. 
I.  Separable  Compounds. 

A.  The  question  of  separation  or  non-separation  is  one  of  accent,  and  the 
accent  is  a  question  of  the  meaning  and  importance  of  the  prefix.  A  clear 
understanding  of  the  question  of  separable  prefixes  will  result  from  a  study 
of  the  origin  and  position  that  the  German  gives  to  the  important  words  in 
the  sentence. 

The  word  in  a  sentence  that  is  logically  the  most  important  receives  the 
strongest  accent.  Any  word  that  for  one  reason  or  another  seems  especially 
important  to  the  speaker  is  distinguished  by  stronger  stress,  though  it  may 


215.11.  i. A.0.     SEPARABLE  COMPOUNDS  337 

ordinarily  be  quite  unimportant.  Logical  accent  is  thus  often  a  matter  of 
subjective  view  and  feeling,  but  on  the  other  hand  certain  grammatical 
elements  of  a  sentence  are  quite  regularly  more  important  than  others,  and 
are  consequently  distinguished  by  stronger  accent.  Usually  the  most  impor- 
tant grammatical  element  is  the  predicate,  and  consequently  it  receives 
grammatical  accent  even  though  some  other  word  may  for  some  especial 
reason  receive  a  still  stronger  logical  accent.  The  favorite  position  of  the 
logically  most  important  word  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  while  the 
favorite  position  of  the  grammatically  most  important  element  is  the  very 
last  word  in  the  clause  or  sentence.  This  position  of  the  grammatically 
important  element  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  has  in  the  literary  language 
become  fixed  and  stereotyped,  and  hence  is  retained  even  when  the  gram- 
matically important  word  is  immediately  preceded  by  some  modifier  which 
is  relatively  more  important,  and  in  fact  is  more  forcibly  stressed :  @r  fyat 
eine  Dfyt'feige  gefriegt.  Such  grammatical  elements  are  a  predicate  noun  in  the 
nom.,  an  uninflected  adjective  standing  as  a  predicate  complement,  a  noun 
in  the  ace.  or  an  uninflected  adjective  used  as  an  objective  predicate  (see 
262.  III.  2  and  104. 2.  A. c),  a  perf.  part.,  an  infin.,  and  lastly  a  separable 
prefix,  all  of  which  are  absolutely  necessary  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the 
verb,  and  naturally  as  due  to  their  grammatical  importance  stand  at  the  end 
and  receive  accent :  Predicate  noun  :  @t  war  ftete  in  alien  Jtimpfen  cut  5JJann. 
Predicate  complement :  @v  war  in  alien  Jfatnvfen  tflpf cr»  Objective  predicate : 
(Sr  f»ielt  ttie  gafyne  in  alien  Jtampfen  Ijod)  He  held  high  the  flag  in  every  battle. 
Participle :  (ft  ijl  nad)  §aufe  gegangen.  Infinitive :  (5r  toirb  ntorgen  fontmen.  (Sr 
iwunfdjt  mid)  fennen  ju  lernen.  Separable  prefix :  £>a$  @d}iff  ging  mtt  3Wann  unb 
SKauiS  miter. 

In  the  last  sentence,  the  separable  prefix  untev  is  a  more  important  part  of 
the  predicate  than  the  finite  verb,  and  takes  its  place  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence.  In  fact,  unter  is  here  not  a  prefix  at  all,  but  an  independent 
adverb,  which  contains  the  chief  idea  of  the  predicate.  But  there  has  sprung 
up,  in  most  cases,  such  an  intimate  relation  between  the  verb  and  the 
adverb  that  they  form  one  idea,  and  hence  are  under  certain  circumstances 
written  as  one  word.  Thus  these  compounds  are  not  real  compounds,  as 
the  oneness  of  the  parts  of  the  compound  is  not  under  all  circumstances 
so  vividly  felt  that  they  are  kept  together  in  one  formal  whole.  In  the  simple 
tenses  of  principal  propositions,  the  prefix  is  quite  uniformly  separated  from 
the  verb,  and  stands  at  the  end  of  the  proposition  as  in  the  last  example 
given  above.  In  compound  tenses  in  principal  propositions,  in  all  subordinate 
clauses  with  the  transposed  word-order,  in  participles,  and  in  the  gerundive,  the 
parts  of  these  compounds  are  formally  united  in  one  compound,  more  or  less 
firm.  Two  things — on  the  one  hand,  the  principle  of  placing  the  important 
words  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  as  explained  in  a  and  b.  aa  below,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  substantive  or  adj.  nature  of  the  verb  in  many  of  these 
cases — have  facilitated  here  the  formation  of  the  compound.  There  is  in  our 
own  time  a  tendency  (see  2.  c.  Note,  below)  to  treat  these  compounds  under  all 
circumstances  as  true  compounds,  but  prefix  and  verb  are  as  a  rule  written  to- 
gether only  in  the  cases  mentioned  above,  which  are  here  discussed  somewhat 
at  length : 

a.  In  the  pres.  perf.  and  past  perf.  tenses  of  a  separable  verb  the  principle 
of  placing  the  most  important  grammatical  element  in  the  predicate  at  the 
end  of  the  clause  would  require  both  the  prefix  and  part,  and  in  the  future 
and  fut.  perf.  both  the  prefix  and  infin.  to  stand  last,  which  of  course  is  im- 
possible, as  only  one  word  can  be  last.  The  verb  (part,  or  infin.)  here  as 
elsewhere  has  precedence  and  takes  the  favorite  position  at  the  end,  but 
the  prefix  stands  immediately  before  it,  and,  as  both  together  form  one  idea, 
they  are  written  usually  as  one  word.  However,  a  separable  prefix  differs 
markedly  from  an  inseparable  one,  although  not  separated  from  the  verb,  for 


838  COMPOUND  VERBS  215.  II.  i.A.a. 

it  still  retains  its  accent,  since  it  is  the  important  element  of  the  verbal 
compound :  3)ag  <£dnff  ijl  or  (past  perf.)  war  mit  3Wann  unb  3Hau<5  un'tergegangnt. 
3>ag  ©djiff  hrivb  mit  2Kann  unb  2ftaug  un'tergeben,  or  (fut.  perf.)  ttirb  un'tergegangett 
fetn. 

Note.  The  poet  often  does  violence  here  to  the  prose  construction  and  separates 
the  prefix  from  the  verb :  <£>enn  fte  fann'g  nut  ttcrfyerfefieit,  |  ab  eg  toenben  fann  fie 
nid)t  (Grillparzer).  Especially  in  the  German  spoken  by  certain  foreigners  (see 
285.  II.  B.  b.  ff.)  deviations  from  the  usual  rules  occur.  They  often  separate  the 
separable  prefix  from  the  infin.  and  place  it  after  the  infin.  :  (It  tjl  eingcjogett,  JU 
fpionimit.  2Bit  topflen  i&m  fommen  juoor,  ba§  ung  nidjt  fann  begegnen  ein  Unglucf 
(words  from  a  Jewish  character  in  Ebner-Eschenbach's  Der  Kreisphysikus), 

b.  The  position  of  the  separable  prefix  in  the  subordinate  clause  depends 
upon  whether  the  conjunction  introducing  the  clause  is  expressed  or  omitted. 

aa.  If  the  subordinate  conjunction  is  expressed,  the  verb  of  the  clause  is 
required  according  to  the  German  idiom  to  stand  at  the  end,  and,  as  the 
prefix  on  account  of  its  grammatical  importance  must  also  stand  at  the  end, 
this  brings  verb  and  prefix  together.  As  both  together  form  one  idea,  they 
are  written  as  one  word  :  SBetm  bag  <£d)iff  sot  Sftorgen  ntdjt  mit  SDJann  uub  3J?aug 
un'tergefyt,  U?erben  alle  gerettet.  If  the  verb  is  in  a  compound  tense  the  auxiliary 
goes  to  the  end  and  the  verb  compounded  with  the  prefix  stands  next  to  it : 
3d)  glaube,  baft  bag  <2>d)iff  mit  2J?ann  unb  3Kaug  un'tergegangen  ijl. 

bb.  If  the  conjunction  bajj  is  omitted,  the  prefix  is  treated  just  as  if  the 
clause  were  a  main  clause :  3d)  glaube,  bag  ©djiff  gefyt  mit  2ftann  unb  SKaug  unter. 
3d)  glaube,  bag  ©d)tff  ijl  mit  SKann  unb  9JZau3  untergegangen. 

cc.  If  the  conjunction  loenn  is  omitted,  the  verb  stands  the  first  word  in  the 
clause  and  the  prefix  the  last  in  simple  tenses,  but  in  compound  tenses  the 
auxiliary  stands  first  in  the  clause,  and  the  prefix  compounded  with  the  verb 
stands  last  :  ©efit  bag  ©djiff  »cr  SJJorgen  nid)t  mit  SDfann  unb  SKaug  unter,  fo  werben 
ol(e  gerettet.  3jl  bag  @d)tff  morgen  ftiify  md?t  untergegangen,  fo  toerben  aKe  gevettet. 

c.  The  ge  of  the  past  and  the  ju  of  the  infin.  and  gerundive  stand  between 
prefix  and  verb:     (Sr  J)at  bte  Xitr  aufgemadjt.      3d)  bttte,  bte  Xiir  auf$umad)en 
Please  open  the  door.    25te  auf^umad^enbe  !£ur  The  door  that  is  to  be  opened. 

d.  Separation  does  not  take  place  in  the  pres.  part. :  (Einb  alle  biefe  j?tnber 
Store  @nfet  ?  fragte  bie  junge  grau,  jtd)  teilnef)menb  im  Simmer  umfeljenb. 

e.  All    separable   prefixes  remain   unseparated  in   simple  tenses   in  one 
particular  case.     If  the  separable  prefix  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence 
for  logical  emphasis,  as  can  be  done  with  any  word,  inversion  takes  place 
according  to   the   usual  rule,  and  this  throws  prefix  and  verb  together : 
9lieberjagt  bte  Sront  bet  SKajov  (Schiller's  Die  Schlacht}  The  major  dashes  down 
the  space  in  front  of  the  troops.    The  components  are  here  more  commonly, 
but  certainly  not  more  correctly,  written  apart  :  Sluf  fteigt  ber  2Ronb,  unb  nieber 
jtnft  bie  @onne  (Raabe's  Nach  dem  grossen  Kriege,  p.  2). 

f.  If  there  are  two  accented,  separable  prefixes,  which  is  a  rare  case,  the 
first  prefix  takes  the  accent.     Such  compounds,  however,  are  only  used  in 
the  cases  where  complete  separation  never  occurs :   Bunfte,  tteldje  jtcfy  oneber 
nad)  tfyten  tterfdjiebenen  ©etverfen  un'terabteilen.     In  the  part,  the  ge  stands  after 
the  second  prefix  :  un'terabgeteilt,  rudumgelautet  (Blatz's  Neuhochdeutsche  Gram- 
matik,  I,  p.  535,  3rd  ed.). 

B.  The  separable  prefix  of  the  verb  may  be : 

a.  An  adverb  or  preposition  (225.  i.  a  and  b) :  ab  ofif,  away  from,  separa- 
tion, thoroughness,  completion,  injury  brought  about  by  excessive  or  long 
continued  activity,  gradual  diminution  or  disappearance,  the  taking  back  of 
a  former  order  or  announcement ;  an  at,  upon,  on,  on  to,  to,  expressing  a  rest 
upon  or  a  touching,  movement  toward,  up,  the  beginning  of  an  activity  ;  auf 
up,  open,  an  arousing,  a  consuming,  exhaustion,  a  restoration  to  a  previous 
condition  ;  aug  out,  out  of,  the  finishing  or  cessation  of  an  activity  or  a  state, 
the  pushing  of  an  activity  to  a  befitting  end ;  bet  by,  at  the  side  of,  aside, 


215.  II.  2.c.       INSEPARABLE  COMPOUNDS  339 

expressing  the  idea  of  nearness,  close  association,  cooperation,  accompani- 
ment, addition  to,  direction  toward,  hostility  to  ;  besot'  ahead  of  (of  time) ; 
bar  to,  before  (of  place),  early  in  the  period  used  with  the  force  of  baljin'  with 
reference  to  a  definite  place,  now  =  fytit  without  reference  to  a  definite  place, 
confined  in  its  use  to  a  few  verbs ;  cin  into  ;  empor'  up  ;  fort  onward,  away  ; 
entge'gen  toward,  against,  expressing  a  friendly  movement  toward,  or 
a  hostile  resistance  to,  or  movement  against ;  entglw'  (corrupted  form  of 
in  gtoet)  in  two,  apart ;  I)er  motion  toward  the  speaker ;  Jjin  motion  from  the 
speaker ;  compounds  with  fyct  and  tjtn,  as  fyerab',  Jjinab ,  bafyin'  to  that  place^ 
to  it,  denoting  motion  toward  a  definite  place,  bafyer'  or  einfyer'  along,  &c. ; 
Ijintan'  behind,  in  a  secondary  position,  after ;  log  loose,  free  from,  off, 
a  sudden  and  lively  breaking  forth  of  an  activity  that  is  conceived  of  as 
held  in  check,  as  [ogfd)ief?en  to  fire  away,  Io6fd)lagen  to  begin  battle ;  mit 
with ;  Had)  after,  a  succession  in  order  of  time  or  place ;  uicbcr  down  ;  ob 
above,  on  top,  upon,  fig.  of  duties  that  rest  or  devolve  upon  us,  or  of  work 
upon  which  we  must  bestow  time  and  labor ;  »or  (earlier  in  period  sometimes 
fur  ;  see  fur,  b  in  230)  before,  forward,  also  in  compounds  (vcraug,  &c.) ;  rceg 
away ;  ba»on'  up  and  away  ;  toetter  continuation  :  lt>eitera,el)en  to  continue,  but 
irctter  gefyen  to  go  on  further ;  gurucfback;  gu  to,  toward,  addition,  shutting  ; 
jufam'men  together ;  gu»or'  before,  ahead  of  (of  time),  &c. 

b.  An  adjective,  usually  used  as  an  objective  predicate  (see  104.  2.  A.  c) : 
tot  fdjlagen  or  totfdjlagen  to  strike  dead,  blojjftetten  to  expose,  lit.  place  bare, 
gut'mad)en  or  gut  madjen  to  make  good.     This  is  a  very  large  group  of  words, 
but  there  is  no  uniform  way  of  writing  them.     The  closer  adjective  and  verb 
blend  together  by  taking  on  a  distinct  meaning  not  contained  in  the  words 
taken  separately,  the  more  liable  they  are  to  be  written  together. 

c.  A  noun  (see  249.  II.  i.  D) :  adjt'geben  to  give  attention,  fyaue'tyalten  to  keep 
house,  iMge  leiften  to  obey,  teU'nefytnen  to  take  part  in. 

d.  A  prepositional  phrase  (see  249.  II.  I.  C):    git  ©djiffe  gefien  to  go  on 
board,  gu  teil  ton-ben  to  be  allotted,  gu  jknbe  fommen  to  be  accomplished,  &c. 

2.  Inseparable  Compounds. 

The  inseparable  prefixes  are:  be,  ent  (written  emp  before  f :  empftnben), er,  ge, 
»ev,  unber,  get,  and  usually  mif  (see  b,  below).  As  they  do  not  now  as  formerly 
have  separate  existence  outside  of  compounds,  verbs  compounded  with  them 
are  in  reality  not  compounds,  but  only  derivative  verbs.  These  prefixes 
have,  however,  a  distinct  meaning,  and  often  influence  both  the  meaning  and 
construction  of  the  verb.  Their  meanings  are  treated  in  246.  II.  at  length, 
as  their  importance  deserves.  These  prefixes  are  ordinarily  without  accent, 
but  to  make  a  contrast,  they  may  receive  stress  :  3n  ;u  feudjtcn  ©egenben  mu£ 
man  bie  Selbet  itid)t  be'*  fonbevn  ent'rcajfern  In  very  moist  regions,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  drain  instead  of  irrigating.  As  they  are  usually  unaccented  they 
have  in  course  of  time  changed  considerably  their  original  form,  and  have 
lost  their  identity  as  independent  words  which  they  once  were,  and  are  now 
so  closely  compounded  with  the  verb  that  they  are  felt  as  one  with  it,  and 
can  never  be  separated  from  it. 

a.  In  the  perf.  part,  these  prefixes  never  take  a  ge  before  them,  but  in  the 
infin.  and  gerundive  the  gu  stands  before  them :  (Sc  fyit  bie  £itr  »erfd)loffen. 
3d)  bitte,  bie  Xur  gu  fccrfdjltejjen  Please  lock  the  door.    2)ie  gu  ferfd)tiejjenbe  itiir 
the  door  that  is  to  be  locked. 

b.  Among  these  prefixes  nttp  occupies  an  exceptional   position,  as  fully 
explained  in  246. 1 1.  8. 

c.  When  a  separable  prefix  stands  before  an  inseparable  one,  separation 
usually  takes  place,  but  there  is  in  individual  cases  evidently  a  tendency  to 
disregard   this  rule:  3d)   erfenne  bie  SJetbienjU  bf(5  2ftaune<3  an,  but  also  3d) 
anerfeime  bcit  SBtberjtreit  bev  2Jietnungen  (Fontane's  Vor  dcm  Sturm,  1 1 1,  chap.  ii). 
Sugleid)  mit  bcm  £elben  ancrfcnnt  Jtlcift  bie  ©djranfcn,  ineldje  bent  fvei  fdjweifcnben 

Z  2 


340  COMPOUND  VERBS  215.11. z.c. 

©enietam  fid)  fefcen  muffen  (Brahm's  Kleist,  p.  304).  (SineS  anetfennjl  geimjj  aiid) 
bu  (Fulda's  Talisman,  ii,  6).  Sufunbug  anevbot  jtdj,  bie  2Riffton  git  fibernefymcn 
(G.  Keller).  SJltemanbem  auf  bet  SBett  ancettraute  et  bag  ©djirffal  fetneg  etnjigen 
.tfinbeg  mit  gtojjerer  SSetiifyigung  afg  gerabe  tfym  (Ertl's  Mistral,  v). 

Note.  There  is  also,  especially  in  certain  words,  a  trend  toward  non-separation 
even  in  case  of  separable  prefixes  which  are  not  thus  used  in  connection  with  an 
inseparable  prefix :  §lf(e  ©toffe,  bie  man  jefct  tfjrem  ©ebadjtnig  anbietet,  ttncbetfaiien  fie 
titcfyt  (Gutzkow,  iii,  222),  instead  of  fduen  fie  ntcfyt  ttnebet.  3Hir  Wat,  alg  cbldge  mit  bie 
@orge  iibet  eine  ganje  SBelt  (Rosegger's  Waldheim,  i.  186).  Slber  nut  urn  fo  getoiffens 
Rafter  unb  ieibenfdjaftlidjet  cbtag  et  feinen  *PJu'd)ten  (Voss's  Psyche,  x).  From  such 
examples  as  these  we  can  clearly  see  the  process  by  which  all  the  above-mentioned  in- 
separable prefixes  have  in  course  of  time  become  inseparable.  The  prefix  becomes  closely 
identified  with  the  verb  as  forming  a  part  of  it,  and  the  compound  becomes  firm  and  fixed. 

d.  When  an  inseparable  prefix  stands  before  a  separable  one,  the  compound  is 
inseparable :  2ln  bet  £ut  ttntb  [33ettletn]  nicfytg  »etab'teid)t.  Compare  3.  A.^,  below. 

3.  Compounds  Separable  or  Inseparable. 

A.  A  few  prefixes  have  double  accent,  accented  or  unaccented  according 
to  their  meaning,  and  as  a  consequence  are  treated  as  separable  or  insepa- 
rable according  to  their  accent  and  meaning.  These  prefixes  are :  burd) 
through,  fyintet  behind,  iibet  over,  above,  urn  around,  untet  under,  beneath,  soil 
full,  completion,  tmebet  again,  back. 

Verbs  compounded  with  these  prefixes  are  separable  when  the  prefix 
receives  the  principal  accent  and  is  distinctly  felt  as  the  more  important 
element  of  the  compound.  These  verbs  become  inseparable  when  the 
accent  is  placed  upon  the  verb.  This  shifting  of  the  accent  upon  the  verb 
may  result  in  intensifying  the  verbal  force  of  the  new  compound  or  the 
weakening  of  the  distinctly  local  force  of  the  prefix  by  the  weakening  of  its 
accent,  which  latter  result  often  facilitates  the  use  of  the  compound  in  a 
figurative  sense.  These  inseparable  verbs  take  on  figurative  meaning  if  the 
simple  verb  is  trans.,  and  if  the  simple  verb  is  intrans.  the  compound  verb 
becomes  trans,  with  figurative  or  literal  meaning.  In  the  latter  case  the 
inseparable  verb  takes  on  intensive  force,  and  only  in  this  respect  and 
grammatical  construction  does  it  differ  from  the  intrans.  separable  verb. 
Few  inseparable  verbs  are  intrans.  ^intev  is  rarely  accented  in  these  com- 
pounds, and  hence  is  usually  employed  in  a  figurative  application.  It  is 
accented,  and  has  its  literal  meaning  only  in  popular  and  colloquial  language. 
The  more  detailed  treatment  is  as  follows  : 

a.  The  separable  verb  is  trans,  or  intrans.  with  literal  meaning :   !Det 
Safjnnann  fefcte  bie  Xrupjjen  iibet  The  ferryman  transported  the  troops  over 
the  river,  or  intrans. :  2)ie  Xruppen  fejjten  iibet  The  troops  went  over  the  river 
on  the  ferry.    2flan  fefct  bag  (Srj  butcfy  They  are  putting  the  ore  through  the 
melting-furnace.    Sag  ^5fetb  fe$te  biitd)  The  horse  plunged  through  (the  river). 
The  same  verb  is  trans,  and  inseparable  in  figurative  or  altered  meaning : 
2)er  ©djiiUt  ubevfe^'te  bag  Shicfy  The  student  translated  the  book.     2)ie  Suft  tjl 
mit  5dulnig|loffen  bittd)fe£t'  The  air  is  permeated  with  impurities.     Sometimes 
the  inseparable  verb  is  used  literally  or  figuratively,  as  in  both  cases  the 
idea  contained  in  the  verb  is  so  important  as  to  require  the  accent  :   £)ug 
Jpaua  ift  mit  93alfen  iinterftufct'  The  house  is  supported  by  beams  and  2)er  .ftaufmann 
ift  mit  ©elb  unterftufct'  The  merchant  receives  financial  support.    Compare : 
Come  over  and  overcome,  go  under  and  undergo,  hold  up  and  uphold,  look 
over  and  overlook,  set  up  and  upset. 

b.  The  separable  verb  is  intrans.  with  literal  meaning :  St  Ijielt  nitgenbg  an, 
et  fuJ)r-  butdj,  ijl  biitcfy'gefafyten  He  stopped  nowhere,  he  drove  through.    Die 
SKUdj  ijl  u'bergeiaufen  The  milk  has  run  over,  overflowed.    Also  metonymically 
35er  .Jtrug  ijl  ii'bergelaufen.    The  inseparable  verb  is  trans,  with  figurative  mean- 
ing :  £>et  geKenbe  Qtuf  butdjfufyt'  meine  ©liebet,  Ijat  meine  ©liebet  biitdjfafy'tcn  The 


215.  II.  3-  B.  SEPARABLE  OR  INSEPARABLE      341 

piercing  cry  went  through  my  very  limbs.  3d)  Ijabe  bie  9?ed)mmg  nut  fiberlau'fen 
I  have  only  cast  a  glance  over  the  bill.  (§3  fiberltcf  mid)  fait  My  blood  ran 
cold.  <2etne  ©laubiger  fiberlau'fen  ifyn  His  creditors  are  annoying  him.  Also 
according  to  c  with  different  shades  of  meaning:  3d)  fyabe  mid)  iiberlau'fen 
I  have  exhausted  myself  with  running.  Srancn  fiberlie'fen  fern  Slntltfc  Tears 
flowed  fast  down  his  cheeks. 

c.  The  separable  verb  is  intrans.  with  literal  meaning  :  (Sr  reif'te  burd)  He 
travelled  right  through.    The  inseparable  verb  is  trans,  with  literal  meaning 
and  intensive  force  :  (Sr  burd)Wf'te  tie  @egenb  He  travelled  all  over  that  part 
of  the  country.    See  also  last  part  of  b. 

d.  Few  inseparable  verbs  are  intransitive:    <2>te  mufiten  im   23albe  fiber; 
nad)ten.   Jturjum,  er  fonnte  fid)  nid)t  fyalten  unb  fiberflebelte  (also  separable)  .  .  .  nad) 
(Snglanb  (Fontane's  Cecils,  chap.  x).    £>te  £6fe,  bie  fie  tm  gluge  burdjfdjrttten, 
unebeifyaHten  (also  separable)  (Gutzkow's  R.,  6,  352).     SUet  ©oljne  jtnb  Ijinter; 
bltcben  Four  sons  survive  (the  deceased). 

e.  There  is  often  only  a  slight  shade  of  difference  between  separable  and 
inseparable  verbs.    The  trans,  inseparable  may  have  perfective  (denoting  the 
outcome  or  result  of  an  action)  force,  while  the  trans,  separable  compound 
has  both  durative  (denoting  duration)  and  perfective  force  :  iDer  Solbat  burd); 
bcijrt'  ben  ifcinb  The  soldier  is  despatching  the  enemy,  but  !Der  £tfd)ler  bofjtt  baS 
93rett  burd)  The  joiner  is  boring  a  hole  through  the  board.    The  first  sentence 
represents  only  the  final  point  in  the  action,  while  the  second  shows  the 
action  as  continuing,  at  the  same  time,  however,  intimating  that  the  hoped-for 
result  will  be  attained.    Sometimes  there  is  little  or  no  difference  between  the 
trans,  inseparable  and  trans,  separable. 

There  is  often  no  difference  between  the  inseparable  trans,  verb  and  the 
separable  intrans.,  except  that  they  require  after  them  a  different  grammatical 
construction  :  35a3  ^Sferb  tyat  ben  ©raben  itbevfprungen.  2)a<S  ^3fevb  ifl  fyinuber; 
gefprungen  The  horse  has  jumped  over  (the  ditch). 

Sometimes  there  is  no  difference  at  all  between  separable  and  inseparable 
formations,  especially  in  case  of  uneber  :  S5te  £6ne  fyabeu  in  ben  Olaumeu  une'ber? 
gc()a(lt  or  hnebevfyallt'.  2>ie  SRaume  tyaben  bie  £6ne  wie'bergefyant,  or  less  commonly 


f.  Sometimes  the  separable  verb  takes  on  figurative  meaning,  and  yet 
remains  separable  where  the  force  of  the  prefix  is  more  vividly  felt  than  that 
of  the  verb,  and  hence  is  too  prominent  to  be  united  with  the  verb  and  lose 
its  identity  :  !£>a<J  SSettcc  fd)lagt  urn  There  is  a  sudden  change  in  the  weather. 
!Die  .Rtanffyeit  fd)(agt  um.     (§r  fdjlagt  urn  He  changes  his  whole  nature.     (Sv 
fejjte  fcttten  ^lan  burd)  He  carried  his  plan  through. 

g.  Sometimes  the  separable  verb  that  is  usually  intrans.  may  become  trans. 
with  different  meanings  according  as  it  is  used  literally  or  figuratively  :  35a$ 
^fcvb  ijl  buvd)'gegangen  The  horse  has  run  away.    2)te  <2o{jlen  trareit  fo  burnt,  bap 
id)  fie  gleid)  butdj'gegangcu  Ijabe  The  soles  of  the  shoes  were  so  thin  that  I  soon 
wore  them  through.    3d)  fyabe  bie  Vlrbeiten  inetuet  Sd)iUct  eft  burd/gegangcn  I  have 
often  gone  over  or  looked  over  the  exercises  of  my  pupils. 

h.  When  one  of  these  prefixes  stands  unaccented  before  an  accented 
prefix,  usage  varies.  According  to  the  analogy  of  the  prefixes  which  are 
always  inseparable,  as  described  in  z.  d,  above,  such  compounds  ought  to  be 
inseparable,  and  they  are  generally  so,  but  they  often  take  a  ge  or  ju  after 
the  accented  prefix:  @c  iibevan'jkcttgt  fid).  Gr  Ijat  fid)  fibcvan'firengt  or  fiber; 
an'gcflrengt.  <ste  flub  fibcranfirengt  (Anselm  Heine's  Eine  Gabe,  Am  13. 
Juni).  3d)  U?ar  tmmet  ein  fibcraugejhengtcr  gcvtagtct  SWaitn  (Fulda's  Die  wilde 
Jagd,  4,  5).  3d)  fitrd)te,  mid)  gu  ubevait'ftvengcn.  Sum  Jludjcttbaumeifler  foil 
man  cincu  angejjenben  Oientncr  ird^lcn  unb  einen  5Kann,  ber  burd)  feine  Unter; 
ftaltung^gabe  bie  ^aubwerfet  ab^altcn  fann,  bei  ber  Jlivd)enarbeit  fid)  uberanjuflrengen 
(Frenssen's  Die  drei  Cetreuen,  III,  10). 

B.  The  student  may  be  helped  by  studying  the  following  additional 
sentences  :  — 


342  INDIRECT  COMPOUNDS         215.  II.  3.  B. 

Inseparable.  Separable. 

Det  itrompeter  tmtd)fcldjt  bie  ©tabt  plays  dr.  Haft  ba3  Stucf  bittd)  He  plays  the 

all  over  the  town.  piece  through. 

(Sr  Jjinterbringt  tljm  bie  91ad)tidjt  brings  $)et  Jlranfe  bxingt  fein  Sifien  meljr  fiinter 

him  secretly  news.  doesn't  eat  a  bite.     See  A,  above. 

3d)  iibergefye  ben  fttfyw  I  overlook  the  ©t  gefyt  jum  fteinbe  iiber  He  goes  over 

fault.  to  the  enemy. 

(§t  umtief  bag  £au3  breintat   He  ran  (fr  lief  ben  ©tufcl  itm  He  knocked  the 

round  the  house  three  times.  chair  over. 

2)er   33eamte   unterfd)lda,t    ©elber    The  (St  fdjlagt  ifym  ein  93ein  unter  He  trips 

official  embezzles  money.  him  up. 

(£t  »o{{bringt  bie  £at  He  accomplishes  (Sr  bringt  ba3  ©Ia3  »oH  He  brings  the 

the  deed.  glass  full. 

6r  uneberfjolte  bag  ©efagte  He  repeated  (Sr  fyolt  e3  ntorgen  toieber  He  will  get  it 

what  he  said.  again  to-morrow. 

Note.  In  such  sentences  as  (5t  bringt  ba3  ©tag  »of(  the  prefix  »cf(  may  also  be 
regarded  as  an  adjective  and  construed  as  an  objective  predicate.  Hence  usage  fluc- 
tuates as  to  the  written  form  of  the  infinitive  and  perf.  participle  :  »ofl  bvtngen  and 
tiollbrtngen,  »cft  gebradjt  and  »o((gebrad)t.  The  prefix  often  enters  into  closer  relations 
with  the  verb,  forming  with  it  one  meaning,  and  is  here  usually  written  together  with 
it  as  one  word  :  @r  Ijat  ftcfy  ben  Seib  ttoftgefdjlagen  He  has  stuffed  himself  (with  food). 
Sit  fyaft  beinett  (Rod  »o((geHecfert  You  have  soiled  your  coat  (in  eating  or  drinking). 

NOUNS   MADE   FROM    COMPOUND   VERBS. 

216.  Nouns  made  from  verbs  of  course  retain  the  accent  of  the 
verb  :  aitS'geljen,  ber  9hig'gang  outcome ;  fcefefa'Ien,  ber  SSefe^K  command ; 
u'&erfefcen,  bte  U'Serfe^ung  transportation;  u6erfe|'en,  bie  Uberfe^'ung 
translation.  For  notable  exception  see  art.  47. 3.  B.  a. 

VERBS  INDIRECTLY  COMPOUNDED. 

"  217.  There  is  a  class  of  verbs  (see  206)  that  seem  to  be  com- 
pounded by  prefixing  a  noun  or  adjective  to  a  simple  verb,  but 
they  are  in  reality  made  from  compound  substantives  or  adjectives. 
Verbs  that  have  received  their  compound  form  in  this  indirect  way 
have  noun  accent,  i.  e.,  accent  on  the  first  syllable,  and  are  treated 
as  simple  verbs :  bag  ftriify'ftitd:  breakfast,  frufc'jlucfen  to  take  breakfast, 
frufc/jlucfte,  geftitb^jiucft ;  ber  Otat'fcfytag  counsel,  rat'fcfylagen  to  take  counsel 
with,  rat'fcfylagte,  gerat'fcbtagt ;  bie  -^anb^afce  handle,  tyanb^afcen  to  handle, 
$cmb'f)a6te,  geljanb'fjafct,  &c. 

a.  In  some  cases  the  noun  or  adj.  from  which  the  verb  was  made  has 
gone  out  of  use  :  h>et'terleud)ten  to  sheet-lighten  from  M.H.G.  weterleich.     Thus 
also  redjt'fertigen  to  justify,  branb'fdjafcen  to  lay  under  contribution,  toeie'fagm  to 
prophesy,  &c. 

b.  This  class  of  words  has  been  productive  in  that  other  words  have  been 
formed  after  analogy  with  these,  by  simply  welding  two  words  which  together 
form  one  idea  into  one  word,  and  treating  them  then  as  a  simple  verb : 
tiebdugeln  to  ogle,  Icb'preifen  to  praise  in  song,  lob'jtngen  (w.  dat.)  to  sing  praises 
to,  toitt'faljren  (w.  dat.)  to  humor  a  person  or  gratify  his  wishes,  lieb'fcfen  to 
caress,  &c.     The  last  two,  however,  and  also  fvoi)(ocfcn  may  also  be  accented 
on  the  second  syllable,  and  hence  may  be  treated  as  inseparable  verbs  and 
drop  ge;  in  the  perf.  part. ;  see  178. 2.  A.  b.  (3).     On  the  other  hand,  tobflngen 
and  lob^reifen  are  sometimes  in  the  infinitive  and  perf.  part,  treated  as 
separable  verbs :  lobjupreifen,  tobgepriefen. 


218.  i.  REFLEXIVE  VERBS  343 

c.  The  following  are  the  most  common  compounds  treated  as  simple 
verbs,  all  of  which  are  weak  except  where  otherwise  indicated  :  afterreben, 
argtocfynen,  btanbmatfen,  biidfybinbern,  ehebrecfyen  (see  Note  i),  erbfdjteidjen  (strong, 
also  separable),  falfd)ntunjcn,  feberfudjfen,  feueiiverfen,  flicf  fdjujhrn,  frcty  locfen  (see  also 
b),  friiljfturfen,  fud)gfd)todnje(l)n,  fuf)rn>erfcn,  fujjtoanbent,  getflreicbcui  to  try  to  talk  or 
write  in  a  bright  racy  style,  glatteifen  (impers.),  fyanbfyaben,  ljanblange(r)n,  tyeiraten, 
fyerbevgen,  Ijcfmeijhnt,  {jo&nlddjeln  (uber  w.  ace.,  sometimes  separable  w.  dat.), 
fannegietjern  (sometimes  fannegiejjen,  which  is  separable  and  strong),  fafcbalgen, 
fafcenbucreln,  fenngeid)nen,  fielljolen,  fleinmimjetn  to  be  particular  in  little  points, 
fo:j>f[i$uttetn,  frafcfujkln,  funbfdjaften,  langnwlen,  liebdugeln,  Itebfofen,  lobfyitbeln,  lob* 
pretfen  (198.2 ;  see  also  b,  above),  lobftngen  (always  strong,  see  £,  above),  Iiijl* 
toanbeln,  ntafiregeln,  meudjelmorben,  mutmajjen,  nadjtwanbeln,  nafenftubern,  nagfufjren 
(also  separable),  ntefjbraudjen  or  niefjnufcen,  mcffcpfen,  nottaufen,  oljrfeigen,  quart; 
falbcrn,  rabebredjen  (sometimes  strong),  ratfd)fagen,  rec^tferttgen,  fdjabenfreuen,  fd^arj 
rcerfen,  f^neebaKen,  fc^riftfiedern,  fcfyufyriegein  to  knock  (some  one)  around,  fdjul; 
meificrn,  fingfangen,  jtrafprebigen  to  censure  one's  conduct,  tagebieben,  »ierteilen, 
tva^rfagrn,  n.ial(fa^r(t)en,  icegelagern,  tne^flagen,  tt>et3fagen,  tt>ettcifent,  ioetterleuc^ten,  \wtk 
laufen  (strong),  toetttennen  (conj.  like  rennen),  hrilbbieben,  teilb^euen,  Jciflfa^ren  (see 
t>,  above),  unnbbeutetn,  ttirtfc^aften,  gd^nefnirfc^en. 

Note  i.  The  verb  etjebredljen  is  only  used  in  the  pres.  part,  and  the  simple  infinitive 
form  without  gu,  elsewhere  being  replaced  by  the  verb  btfdjett  and  the  noun  bit  @lje : 
cine  efyebrecbenbe  grau.  JDu  foil  ft  nidjt  e^ebred^en.  But  ®ott  »erbietet,  bie  (j^e  ju 
brec^en. 

Note  3.  Present  usage  fluctuates  with  regard  to  the  inflection  of  the  basal  component 
of  some  of  these  verbs,  the  strong  or  the  weak  form  or  both  occurring.  The  strong 
form  asserts  itself  sometimes  contrary  to  the  rule  of  the  grammarian,  as  the  compound 
noun  is  not  now  in  use  while  the  force  of  the  simple  strong  verb  is  distinctly  felt :  btr. 
fte  (i.e.  bie  ©pradje)  . . .  rabebricfjt  (P.  Heyse,  iii.  226).  In  early  N.H.G.  we  find  strong 
forms  even  where  the  compound  noun  is  in  common  use :  SBott  bent  tage  an  ratfdjlligm 
fie  |  tone  fte  \n  tobten  (John  xi.  53). 

Fluctuation  also  prevails  with  regard  to  the  firmness  of  some  of  these  compounds, 
inseparable  and  separable  forms  occurring.  The  separable  forms  are  in  most  part  con- 
fined to  the  perf.  participle  and  the  infinitive  with  »u,  the  accent  upon  the  first 
element  suggesting  the  insertion  of  ge  or  gu  after  analogy  of  separable  compounds, 
which  are  likewise  accented  upon  the  first  element :  3cfj  fyabe  erbgefdjltdjen  (Hillem's 
Arzt,  i,  186) ;  um  erbjiifcfcleicfjen ;  toettgelaufen,  toettgerarint,  but  gewetteifert. 


REFLEXIVE  VERBS. 

218.  i.  The  verb  may  be  connected  with  the  reflexive  pronouns 
(see  142)  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  English.  Most  reflexive 
verbs  govern  the  ace.,  but  a  few  govern  the  dat.  and  a  still  smaller 
number  the  gen. : 

Present  Tense  Indicative. 

ftd?  irren  (w.  ace.),  fcfymeicfyeln  (w.  dat.),  fpotten  (w.  gen.), 

to  be  mistaken.  to  flatter.  to  ridicule. 

id)  irre  micfy  id)  fdjmetcfyle  mir  id)  faotte  meiner 

f  bu  irrfl  bid;  ( bit  fdjnuidjelfi  bir  f  bu  fpottefl  betner 

\  @ie  irren  fid;  (  @ie  fd?metd?eln  ftd)  \  @ie  fpotten  3§rer  feI6fl 

er  irrt  fid;  «r  fd;meid;elt  fid;  er  faottet  fciner  felifl 

rcir  irren  un8  wir  fdjmetdjeln  unS  ttir  fpotten  unfer(er) 

f  tt)r  irrt  eud;  ( i^r  fd;metd;elt  end;  f  i{)r  fpottet  euev(er) 

(  @ie  irren  ftd)  \  @ie  fd;meid;eln  fid;  ( <5ie  fpotten  S^rer  felfcfl 

fte  irren  ftd;  fie  fd;meid;eln  fid;  fie  fyotten  i^rer  felbfl 


344  REFLEXIVE  VERBS  218.  i.  a. 

a.  In  all  tenses,  the  reflexive  usually  stands  first  in  order  of 
words  among  the  modifiers  of  the  predicate,  preferring  especially 
the  place  next  to  the  verb,  and  in  compound  tenses  next  to  the 
auxiliary :  £>a§  Jtinb  f)at  ftd)  ttor  ber  Strafe  gefiirdjtet,  or  in  the  question 
order:  «£>at  ftd)  bag  Jttnb  t>or  ber  (Strafe  gefitrd)tet?     However,  in  the 
question  order  the  reflexive  must  follow  the  subject  if  the  subject 
be  a  pronoun  :  SBie  beftnben  €>ie  ftd)  ?  How  do  you  do  ? 

b.  As  indicated  by  its  position  the  reflexive  pronoun  is  entirely 
without  accent.     If  it  is  to  be  made  prominent,  the  word  felfcjl  must 
be  added,  which  bears  the  accent :  £>er  Ieibenfd)aftlid)  erregte  Simgltng 
totete  ftd)  felfeft,  ntd)t  feinen  SBeleibiger. 

2.  There  is  a  difference  in  reflexive  verbs.  Some  are  usually 
reflexive,  pronoun  and  verb  together  forming  one  idea :  ftd)  fd)dmen 
to  be  ashamed,  fid)  fefynen  to  long  (for),  fid)  freuen  to  rejoice,  ftd) 
irunbern  to  be  surprised,  &c.  Some  trans,  and  intrans.  verbs  are 
also  used  reflexively:  baben  to  bathe,  id)  Babe  mid);  gefyen  to  walk, 
id?  gel;e  mid)  miibe  I  walk  myself  tired. 

a.  The  reflexive  pronoun  in  genuine  reflexive  verbs  is  not  felt 
as  an  object  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term  and  hence  is  not  treated 
as  an  independent  element  in  the  sentence,  but  merely  as  a  part  of 
the  verb,  and  consequently  the  predicate  complement  does  not 
agree  with  it  in  case,  but  refers  back  to  the  subject  with  which 
it  agrees:    @r  njunbert  fid)  aI0  unerfafjrener  (not  unerfatyrenen)  dealing 
iibcr  atteg. 

b.  The  predicate  complement  of  verbs  not  really  reflexive  but 
used  reflexively  agrees  sometimes  with  the  subject  and  sometimes 
with  the  reflexive  object,  as  usage  has  not  yet  become  fixed  at  this 
point :  S)ann  itbt  ber  Sitngling  ftreitenb  feine  Jtrdfte,  fiifylt,  reaS  er  ijl,  unb 
fiiljlt  ftd)  balb  ein  3ftann  (Goethe's  Tasso,  i,  2).    SSenn  bu  . .  .  fcfyrcelgteft, 
no  id)  eineu  ©ott  mid)  fii^Ite  (Schiller's  Kab.,  iv.  3).    5)a  fit^Ifi  bu  bid)  em 
«§elb,  ctn  ©ott,  ein  SKann  (Grillparzer's  Des  Meeres  und  der  Liebe 
Wellen,  2).   ©in  2ftenfd),  ber  ftd)  atg  fetnen  etgenen  5tnttpoben  ful)It  (Gutzkow). 
Sebcr  ©etiilbete  fit^lt  ftd)  gern  a!3  mttbeflettter  2Bdd)ter  biefer  Sibling  (Rudolf 
Hildebrand).     3d)  fitt)Ite  mid)  al3  ber  5tpoftel  eineS  tterfeinerten,  berebelten 
3Kenfd)en»oIf3  (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Glaubenslos,  chap.  viii).     d3  itar 
erftd)tltd),  ba^  er  infolge  ber  gegen  i^n  erljofcenen  3(nflagen,  i?teHeid)t  and) 
ge^etmer  Q3orn>urfe,  bte  er  felbft  ftd)  mad)te,  anfing,  ftd)  gletd)fant  alg  2)iit* 
fd;iitbtger  ber  d^olera  ju  fiifylen  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap.  xxvi). 
2)er  S®ejin:inb  fliirjte  fid)  font  2Weer  ^er  ii6er  ben  Winter  tm  SJanb  unb  ftng 
an,  ftd)  al3  ben  ©tdrferen  ju  fu^)Ien  (Frenssen's  Die  drei Getreuen,  III,  8). 
SOBenbelin,  ber  baS  latent  ^at,  feet  feiner  S&afferfaraffe  ftd)  «§err  oon  ungejd^Iten 
SEBelten  gu  fii^ten  (Fontane's  Poggenpuhls,  chap.  iv).    9Ber  ein  Drtginat 
fein  rcitt,  bewetfl,  ba^  er  ftd)  alS  5)u§enbmenfd)en  fii^It  (Otto  v.  Leixner). 
SBriefl  gafc  fid)  alS  jdrtltd)er  ©ropoater  (Fontane's^?,  chap.  xxiv).    @3  tfl 
anftrengenb,  etnent  ®efu^l8fd)rcdrmer,  alS  n?eld)en  $aberew§ft  fid)  auSfdjttefjiltd) 
gab,  etnen  langen  Qtbenb  I)tnburd)  ju  folgen  (Tagliche  Rundschau).    35 u 
nennfl  bid)  einen  ileit,  unb  ftojifi  bod)  gan^  J)or  mir  (Goethe's  Faust,  i). 
3d)  benf ',  er  nennt  mein  guter  ^reunb  ftd)  nod)  (Kleist's  Der  zerbrochene 
Krug,  10).    Meg,  wa§  fid)  babet  ,,^6^erer  ©eftd)t6^unf t "  ncnnt,  ifl  Summ^eit 
cber  ^errannt^eit  ober  SGBtttf itr  (Fontane's  Ce'cile,  xx).  aSerjrceifelt 


218.  3-  A.  b.      USE  OF  REFLEXIVE  VERBS  345 

rcaS  ftd;  S)eutfd)er  nennt  (Wildenbruch's  Ktinig  Heinrich,  2,  2).  £>er 
ftd;  tralmte  ben  ^errfd;er  ber  SBelt  (Freiligrath,  Volksztg.,  18,  191).  (Sg 
ifl  nid;t3  ©eringeS,  an  ber  golbenen  Xafel  ber  Oli;mpier  ju  ftfcen,  ftd;  reo^jl 
gar  etner  ifyrer  jit  it»d^nen  (Spielhagen's  Selbstgerecht,  p.  64). 


There  is  a  tendency  to  make  a  distinction  here  between  nom.  and  ace.  The 
former  is  a  simple  predication  of  a  fact  known  and  acknowledged,  the  latter  indicates 
a  desire  or  intention  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  or  some  one  else  to  show  himself  in  the 
capacity  mentioned  in  the  predicate  complement,  and  in  general  calls  attention  to 
a  fact  not  before  known  to  the  person  in  question :  @c  jctgt  fid)  dig  ein  gebtlbeter,  un- 
terridjtcter  Sflamt,  but  Xraue  nid)t  jebcm,  bet  fid)  bit  ate  beinen  grcunb  geigett  ttill. 
3d)  Ijabe  mid}  ficte  aU  alter  5«unb  beiness  93atev3,  bent  id)  fo  »iel  mbanfe,  gcjetgt; 
bafjet  toerbe  id)  mid)  bir  aud)  in  biefem  bebenflidjen  tlnternehnten  al3  ben  treuefhn 
93erater  enreifen,  ben  bu  n>imfd)en  magft.  SD?an  fann  fid)  empfefclen  al^  jemanbe^ 
aufrid}tigen  ^ere^rer,  ergebenften  3)ienet  (He  desires  to  show  himself  in  these  capaci- 
ties), abet  nut  aid  fein  banfbarer  <£d)uler  (He  is  already  known  as  a  student  and  hence 
need  not  make  known  his  desire  to  appear  in  this  capacity,  but  simply  states  it  as 
a  fact  by  using  the  nom.). 

c.  Because  the  reflexive  is  not  felt  as  object,  it  cannot  in  the 
passive  voice  become  subject.  Hence  reflexive  verbs  should  not 
form  a  passive,  but  the  people  insist  nevertheless  on  forming  one, 
however  an  impersonal  (never  a  personal)  passive  (see  219.  5.  B)  : 
5) a  irirb  ftcfy  gerubert  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  ii,  p.  24).  The  reflexive 
is  also  omitted  in  this  construction  :  4?ter  rcirb  l;tngefe$t !  !g  ift  $fa§  genug 
jitr  'n  lujltgeS  Jtleefclatt  (Halbe's  Das  tausendjdhrige  Reich,  p.  133). 

3.  The  reflexive  verb  in  German  has  a  wider  field  of  usefulness 
than  in  English.  It  is  often  used : 

A.  In  a  passive  sense  : 

a.  When  the  reference  is  not  to  a  definite  agent  by  whom  the 
action  is  performed,  but  to  something  that  will  come  about  of  itself 
in  due  time  and  under  favorable  circumstances,  or  to  something 
that  is  represented  as  proceeding  spontaneously  under  the  impulse 
of  natural   forces,  or  as  brought   about   naturally  by  the   given 
circumstances,    or   is   represented   as   self-acting  or   impelled    by 
some  hidden  force  so  that  it  seems  to  act  of  itself:  Ser  @d?litffel 
unrb  ftcfy  ftnbeu  The  key  will  be  found.     Brcifcfyen  ben  Ttugen  fyatte  ftdj 
cine  tiefe  8'alte  gegraOen  A  deep  wrinkle  had  been  formed  (as  the  result 
of  care)  between  his  eyes.     £er  Whit  oerlernt  ftcfy  mrt)t,  une  cr  fid?  nicfyt 
lernt  Courage  is  a  natural  gift  that  cannot  be  acquired  or  lost.    2)a3 
<5))iel  be3  £e&en3  ftel)t  fid)  Better  an,  |  tvenn  man  ben  ftd?eren  €d?a§  int 
J&er^en  tragt  (Schiller)  The  game  of  life  is  viewed  with  cheerful 
composure  if  one  has  within  his  own  heart  the  consciousness  of 
a  happiness  that  is  secure.     @S  iKrftefyt  ftd;  It  is  understood  (i.e. 
it  is  a  matter  of  course).     £>er  SBicfengrunb  ifl  fdwt  fo  hint  unb  malt  fid; 
tagltdj  hotter  The  meadow  is  already  resplendent  with  many  colors 
and  is  daily  adorned  with  still  brighter  ones.     £>a3  $or  o^nete  fid; 
bent  Sieger  The  gate  was  opened  to  the  victor.     £>er  €>aal  fitUte  fid; 
atlmdt)Iid)  The  great  room  was  gradually  filled  with  people. 

b.  Especially  frequent  is  the  reflexive  use  of  lafjen  with  a  dependent 
infinitive  which  has  passive  force :  £a3  Id§t  ftd?  Ieid)t  madden  That  is 
easily  done.     £)a3  Idjjt  fid;  Iciest  fagen  That  is  easily  said.     (£r  Idpt 

auf  fid;  ^atfcn  He  is  easily  imposed  upon,  He'll  stand  anything, 


346  REFLEXIVE  VERBS  218.  3.  A.  b. 

lit.  He  allows  wood  to  be  chopped  upon  himself.     (£r  lapt  fid)  Ieid?t 
afcfdjterfen  He  is  easily  deterred. 

B.  In  German  there  are  comparatively  few  verbs  which  are  used 
both  transitively  and  intransitively  as  is  so  common  in  English. 
The  German  idiom  very  often  adopts  the  reflexive  to  give  a  transitive 
verb  intransitive  force  :  Diefe  <8ttefel  tragen  ftd?  gut  These  boots  wear 
well.     Der  2Binb  tjat  fid?  gebrefyt  The  wind  has  turned.    Dag  ^Better 
tinbert  fid?  The  weather  is  changing.    <Ste  !(eibet  fid)  einfad?  She  dresses 
plainly.    Dag  €d?if  ndfyert  ftd?  Dem  lifer  The  ship  is  approaching  the 
shore.    Dag  SSoIf  fammett  ftd?  auf  bem  Statljaug  The  people  are  assem- 
bling at  the  city  hall.    @t  fyat  fid?  unt  tiler  SWarf  tterred?net  He  has  made 
a  mistake  of  four  marks  in  counting.     Det  SBinb  legt  ftd)  The  wind 
is  abating.     Die  91ad?rid?t  tyat  ftd?  fcerfcrettet  The  news  has  spread. 

a.  A  few  verbs  are  used  intransitively  or  reflexively  :  (ftd?)  etlen 
to  hasten,  (ftd?)  etiben  to  end,  (fid))  ftud?ten  to  flee,  (fid))  gefcaren  to  act, 
behave,  (fid))  irren  to  err,  make  a  mistake,  (fid?)  nafyen  to  approach, 
(fid))  fdumeu  to  delay,  (fid))  serroeilen  to  tarry,  and  sometimes  (fid)) 
forgen  (usually  intrans.),  (ftd?)  fcangen  (usually  intrans.)  to  be  afraid,  £c. 

C.  With  intransitives  (or  transitives  used  like  intransitives  without 
an  object)  in  the  impersonal  construction,  to  show  that  the  action  is 
proceeding,  or  is  able  to  proceed  in  a  certain  manner,  which  is 
represented  as  the  natural  result  of  the  given  circumstances  :  (£g 
tan^t  fid?  gut  in  biefem  @aal  This  room  is  good  for  dancing.     (Ig  ftif)rt 
fid?  Sequent  in  biefem  SBagen  It  is  pleasant  riding  in  this  carriage.    SSMe 
ritt  eg  ftd?  lufn'g  burd)  bie  ge&trgigen  SSege  !  What  jolly  riding  that  was 
over  the  mountain  roads  !    (£g  fd?reifct  ftd)  fd?Ied?t  auf  biefem  papier  This 
paper  is  bad  for  writing  on.     @3  arbeitet  fid?  6et  biefem  £drm  fd?Ied)t 
It  is  hard  to  work  with  such  a  noise  going  on.     2J2it  ber  Qiifenfcafjn 
fa^rt  eg  ftd)  rafd).     SSon  eurer  5a^rt  fe^rt  fid?'3  nid)t  immer  icieber  From 
journeys  like  yours  it  is  in  the  nature  of  things  that  one  does  not 
always  return. 

a.  Sometimes  a  trans,  verb  and  its  object  are  conceived  of  as  forming 
together  an  intrans.  verb,  and  can  thus  form  this  impersonal  reflexive  con; 
struction  :  3Bie  tyiibfd)  fpielt  ftd)'$  ben  SJater,  loenn  man  fo  aderltebfte  (Stftdnbniffe  jU 
t^oren  icfommt  (Schiller)  How  nice  it  is  to  play  the  father  when  one  gets  to 
hear  such  charming  confessions. 

D.  Frequent  is  the  use  of  a  reflexive  in  connexion  with  a  prep. 
phrase  or  an  objective  predicate  to  denote  the  goal  or  the  result  of 
an  action  :  (Sr  fcettelt  fid?  burd?  bag  ganje  £anb  He  begs  his  way  all  over 
the  country.     3d?  lief  mid?  in  <£d?rcet§  I  began  to  perspire  from  run- 
ning.    3d?  fiet  mid)  nntnb  I  became  sore  from  a  fall. 

E.  «§aten  is  often  used  reflexively  as  a  strong  negative  reply 
to  a  preceding  statement,  but  is  in  fact  an  affirmative  assertion, 
uttered  in  an  ironical  tone  :  Unb  bag  @efd?a  ft  Hufyt  ?    Saroofyl,  MiU)t  ! 
£at  ftd?  ba  trag  $u  fcluljen  !  (Eckstein)  Is  your  business  flourishing  ? 
O  yes,  it  is  flourishing  finely  (ironically).     „  3f)t  $f)legnia  ifi  fce* 

ftd?  rcag,"  fcrummte  ber  Qtngerebete,  ,,ber  Seufel  ifi 


*>t)Iegmatifd?  "  '  Your  phlegmatic  temperament  is  worthy  of  admira- 
tion.' '  I  don't  know  about  that,  (or  O  no,  not  at  all,)  the  devil  is 
phlegmatic.'  3a,  eg  bat  ftd?  njag  utit  bem  „  ©ut  "  !  33ofe  foflte  eg  fieipen 


219. 2.  IMPERSONAL  VERBS  347 

It  is  not  good  at  all.  It  ought  to  be  called  bad.  The  reflexive,  as 
in  the  first  sentence,  is  sometimes  followed  by  an  infin.  which 
contains  the  substance  of  the  preceding  sentence,  but  short  ellip- 
tical expressions  such  as  (ee)  J)at  ftd;  reag,  or  e3  fyat  ftd;  reol)l  with  the 
force  of  a  negative  adverb  are  more  common. 

F.  In  an  exceedingly  large  list  of  idiomatic  expressions  where 
in  English  there  is  no  corresponding  reflexive,  of  which  a  few  are 
here  given  :  3t;r  ©eftcfyt  iifcerflofj  ftd;  mit  eincr  9l6te  (Jensen's  Heimkunft, 
vii)  Her  face  was  suffused  with  blushes.  @te  (bie  @d;rceftern)  fijpten 
ftd;  mit  bent  93ruber  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  xxix)  They  kissed 
their  brother.  Notice  also  the  following : 

ftd)   drgcrn  liter   (w.   ace.)  to  be  ftd)  erf  unbigen  nad)  to  inquire  after. 

annoyed  over.  ftd;  frcuen  itfcer  (w.  ace.)  to  rejoice 
ftd;  auf  fyalten  to  stay  in  a  place.  at. 

ftd;  fceetlen  to  make  haste.  fid;  futd)ten  tor  (w.  dat.)  to  be 
ftd;  fceftnben  to  do  (how  do  you  afraid  of. 

do  ?).  ftd;  Bitten  ttor  to  be  on  one's  guard 
ftd;  Beflagen  to  complain.  against, 

fid;  fjefiunmern  to  bother  about.  ftd;  fdjamen  to  be  ashamed, 

ftd;  fcelaufen  auf  (ace.)  to  amount  to.  ftd;  fejjen  to  sit  down, 

ftd;  iemiifjen  (with  311  and  infin.)  to  ftd)  fefynen  nad;  to  long  for. 

endeavor.  ftd;  imterf)alten  mit  to  converse 
ftd;  fcetrageu  to  behave.  with. 

ftd;  etinnern  (gen.)  to  remember.  ftd;  tterlaffett  aitf  (ace.)  to  depend 
ftd;  entfd)lte§en  git  to  resolve  to.  on. 

ftd;  erfjolen  to  get  better.  ftd)  »erfydten  to  be  late, 

ftd;  erfdlten  to  catch  cold.  fid;  rceigern  to  refuse. 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

219.  Impersonal  verbs  are  conjugated  like  other  verbs  throughout 
the  different  moods  and  tenses,  but  are  defective  in  having  only  a 
third  person  sing,  and  no  passive  at  all  (for  exception  see  5,  below). 
The  subject  of  such  impersonal  verbs  is  the  indefinite  eg  expressing 
an  agent  only  in  a  vague  and  most  general  way.  The  impersonal 
construction  in  German  is  a  favorite  one  and  has  been  very  pro- 
ductive, and  many  verbs  are  now  used  impersonally  which  with 
other  meanings  are  also  personal.  The  following  groups  are  very 
common  : 

1.  Verbs  which  express  phenomena  of  nature,  the  time  of  day, 
and  seasons  of  the  year:   eg  regnet  it  rains;    eg  fd;nett  it  snows; 
eg  tyagelt  it  hails ;   eg  frtert  it  freezes ;    e3  bdmntert  it  is  twilight ;   eS 
tagt  it  is  dawning ;    e3   taut  auf  it  thaws ;    c3  bomtert  it  thunders ; 
e3  fclifct  it  lightens;    eg  tvirb  9tad)t  it  is  getting  quite  dark;    e8  ift 
fait,  rearm,  tyetfj,  and  in  S.G.  mad;t'8  fycifj  ?  (Grillparzer's  Libussa,  2), 
e3  madrt  fait ;  eg  ifl  elf  it  is  eleven  o'clock ;  e8  gefpt  auf  elf;  e3  fd;lagt  elf; 
cS  ift  bunfel,  eg  ifl  @ommer,  eg  len^t  spring  is  coming,  has  come,  eg 
^erbftet,  &c. 

2.  Many  reflexive  verbs  or  verbs  used  reflexively :   eg  fragt  ftd), 


348  IMPERSONAL  VERBS  219.2. 

ot)  the  question  arises,  it  is  doubtful  whether ;  eg  jtemt  ftd?  it  is  proper, 
seemly ;  eg  gifct  fid)  nid;t  gut,  rcenn  man  nifytg  f)at  (218.  3.  C) ;  eg  geljt 
ftd?  fel;t  gut  the  walking  is  good,  &c. ;  eg  fcerftetjt  ftd}  it  is  a  matter 
of  course ;  eg  ereignet  ftd)  it  happens ;  rcenn  eg  ftd)  jutragen  foflte,  bafj 
if  it  should  unexpectedly  happen  that,  &c. ;  eg  tyanbelt  ftd;  um  (w.  ace.) 
it  is  a  question  of,  is  at  stake,  &c. 

3.  Some  trans,  and  intrans.  verbs  are  used  impersonally  to 
indicate  that  the  subject  of  the  verb  expressing  the  action  or 
state  is  thought  of  as  something  indefinite,  vague  or  general : 
@g  j;urfte  inn  fetnen  -DJunb  There  was  a  twitching  about  his  mouth. 
(5g  flopft  Somebody  is  knocking.  @g  Itiutet  The  bell  is  ringing.  (S3 
fe£t  @d)Id'ge  There  is  a  quarrel.  (S3  getyt  gut  Things  are  going  along 
well.  @g  getyt  log  Now  things  are  beginning  in  good  earnest,  ©g 
gef)t  nid)t  It  won't  do,  it  can't  be  done.  @g  ftefyt  fd)Ied)t  Affairs 
are  in  a  bad  condition.  (S3  tyat  ®efaf)r  There  is  danger.  SKorgen 
gefyt'g  nod)  2)eittfd)lanb  To-morrow  we  start  for  Germany.  5htf  bet 
^romenabe  rcogt  eg  Son  3Kenfd)en  The  promenade  is  crowded  with 
people.  @g  reogte  unb  tofcte  There  was  a  heaving  and  raging,  or 
their  minds  were  in  violent  commotion.  -OKandjmal  lief  eg  u)m  fait  ben 
SRucEen  Ijevafc  Many  a  time  a  cold  thrill  ran  down  his  back. 

Sometimes  the  object  in  using  eg  is  to  indicate  an  indefinite  or 
indescribable  something  or  to  impart  a  weird,  ghostly  impression : 
©3  lajjt  ntir  Eeine  SRufy  A  queer  undefinable  feeling  of  unrest  disquiets 
me.  9Bag  gifct'g  fyeute?  @g  gifct  lljeute  nod;  @d)nee  What  will  we  get 
to-day?  We'll  have  snow  sometime  to-day,  lit.  an  undefinable 
something  will  send  us  snow.  Unb  alg  er  im  nnlligen  ©drummer  lag, 
tetregt  eg  ftd)  unter  bent  ®ette  And  when  he  was  about  to  go  to  sleep 
something  stirs  under  the  bed. 

a.  The  impersonal  e3  gifct  there  is,  there  are  from  its  unusual  frequency 
demands  careful  attention.  The  original  idea  is  that  the  force  of  circum- 
stances or  the  existing  condition  of  things  will  produce  or  cause  something 
to  come  into  existence,  or  has  caused  it  to  come  into  being  and  it  now 
exists,  can  be  found.  Though  this  original  idea  has  become  somewhat 
obscured,  its  leading  notion  still  remains  that  of  the  existence  of  something 
represented  in  a  vague  or  general  manner  as  the  decree  of  a  wise  provi- 
dence, or  the  result  of  the  general  laws  of  nature  or  of  certain  circumstances. 
(S3  flifct  is  always  in  the  sing,  as  e$  is  the  subject,  and  what  in  English  is  the 
subject  will  in  German  be  in  the  ace.,  object  of  the  verb :  (£$  gibt  cine 
SJergcltuna,  im  Scben  There  is  such  a  thing  in  life  as  retribution.  (§&  gab 
Fftnen  grcpercn  Sfteifter  in  ter  .ftunjl  be$  £al&bunfe($  als  ben  Softer  £f)eopl)ile  @tdn 
(Raabe's  Hungerpastor,  chap.  xx).  (5$  gibt  fo(d)e  SWenfcfyen  There  are  such 
people.  (§&  gibt  nicfytg  2>utnmre$  a(3  tfyn  There  is  nothing  more  stupid  than 
he  is.  2Ba0  gibt'S  9teitei5  ?  <S&  gibt  tttdjJS  Writes  What's  the  news  ?  There  is 
no  news.  (§$  gibt  <£trett  unb  8drm  There  is  contention  and  noise  going  on. 
<£ei  artig,  fonft  gtbt'3  @d)lage  Be  good,  or  you  will  be  punished.  (*)eftern  jtt 
SDIittag  gab's  Jtofyl  unb  Ijcut  gibt'3  »ieber  rcef^en  (see  139.  3.  k)  Yesterday  we  had 
cabbage  for  dinner,  and  to-day  we  shall  have  more. 

After  the  analogy  of  a  number  of  the  above  sentences  where  «J  gibt  is 
used  in  a  broad  general  statement  it  is  sometimes  employed  to  avoid 
particular  mention,  and  to  state  something  in  a  vague,  general  way:  Gtf 
gibt  fyier  cincn  Jungen  SKenfdjen,  bet  fcine  Slufjerungen  fin  iremg  mefyt  bemac^cu  foitnte 
There  is  here  a  young  fellow  (I  do  not  desire  to  point  him  out)  who  might 
be  a  little  more  guarded  in  his  remarks. 


219.  4.  A.  b.    GROUPS  OF  IMPERSONAL  VERBS          349 

In  contrast  to  c3  gibt  is  t$  ijt  there  is  and  e3  fmb  there  are,  in  the  sing, 
or  pi.  as  in  English  according  to  the  logical  subject.  These  forms  differ 
from  e3  gibt  in  that  they  are  used  only  when  definite  individuals  or  places 
are  referred  to,  and  there  is  no  reference  whatever  to  any  causes  or  forces 
which  have  any  relation  to  the  existence  of  the  person  or  thing  in  that 
place :  (§3  gibt  Suiter,  tie  betm  ertfen  53licf  ©etft  ju  wraten  fdjeutcn,  im  ©ritnbe 
abet  leeret,  oberffacfylicfyer  Sdjaum  finb  There  are  books  which  at  first  sight  seem 
to  betray  spirit,  but  which  are  in  reality  mere  superficial  froth,  but  when  the 
reference  becomes  definite:  @3  finb  gtoei  93ud)er,  beren  Sefung  id)  3f)tten  emitfchle 
There  are  two  books  which  I  recommend  you  to  read.  @3  gibt  SBlumen,  tt>eld>e 
Snfeften  frefien  There  are  flowers  which  eat  insects  (an  instance  of  nature's 
wonderful  productive  power),  but  <$$  jttib  fd)cne  5Blumen  in  biefem  <£trau£ 
There  are  beautiful  flowers  in  this  bouquet.  @3  gibt  Sctoett  in  9lfnfa,  abev 
nidjt  in  (Sitrova  There  are  lions  in  Africa,  but  not  in  Europe  (which  is  a 
natural  result  of  different  climatic  conditions  and  the  different  state  of 
civilization),  but  (S3  finb  ftcifje  (Slefauten  in  biefer  SJienagerie  There  are  white 
elephants  in  this  menagerie. 

Note.  The  real  nature  of  this  construction  must  now  be  little  felt,  as  in  many 
dialeats  the  object  of  geben  has  become  the  subject  and  this  incorrect  usage  appears 
occasionally  in  the  literary  language  :  @<3  if}  em  Jtaii$,  hne'$  ittefjr  nod)  geben  (Goethe's 
Urfaust,  1.  1175).  (S3  mujfen  audj  foldje  Jftdiije  geben  (Kolnische  Zeitung). 

4.  Some  verbs  expressing  states  of  the  mind  or  body.  They 
fall  into  two  groups  (a  and  b),  of  which  the  second  is  growing  at 
the  expense  of  the  first : 

A.  a.  Those  that  take  an  ace.  of  the  person :  e3  drgert  mtcfj 
I  am  vexed ;  e3  betritbt  mid)  I  am  grieved ;  e3  bauert  mid),  or  id) 
bebauere,  bap  I  regret  that ;  eS  beuf t  mid?  (earlier  in  the  period  mid? 
or  imr,  now  nur,  see  262.  II.  A.  c  and  B.  d] ;  e3  biiuft  (rare  form 
bitnfelt)  or  bebitnft  (betiinfelt)  mi^  or  mir  it  seems  to  me;  e8  burftet  or 
burftct  mtcfy,  or  ic^  bin  bur|ltg  I  am  thirsty,  icfy  burfie  nad; ;  c?  frcut  ntic^ 
or  id)  freue  mid;  baruBer  I  am  glad,  rejoiced ;  e8  friert  mid)  I  am  cold, 
eg  frtcrt  mid)  an  (w.  dat.  of  the  part  affected,  as  ben  S'iijjen,  sometimes 
also  w.  ace.  bte  &iipe)  or  with  a  little  different  meaning  in  w. 
ace.  (:  eS  friert  mid?  big  tit  bte  5ingerfpt£en),  or  id)  friere  an  (fcen  ftiijjen),  or 
mir  fvieren  bie  ^itpe ;  e3  froftelt  mid)  or  sometimes  mir  (:  bent  ^farrfyerrn 
frijflelte  oft  in  ber  ^eifeften  @titt  beg  Suit — Raabe's  Else  von  der  Tanne); 
e§  geliiflet  or  Ittftet  mic^  (sometimes  mir)  nad),  or  id;  gelitfte  or  litfte  nad) 
I  long  for,  lust  after,  e§  Hiflert  mid;  (sometimes  mir)  nad;,  or  ic^  liifterc 
nad;  I  have  a  desire,  longing  for ;  e3  gereut  or  rent  mid;  (sometimes 
mir)  I  feel  sorry,  feel  remorse ;  e3  ^ungert  mid;,  or  id)  bin  fymgrig  I  am 
hungry;  eg  jammert  mid;  (in  N.G.  sometimes  also  mir)  it  fills  me  with 
pity;  e3  jurft  mid)  I  itch  ;  c3  fcbautert  mid;  or  mir  (:  UnD  auf  etnmal  fdjauberte 
i£)r — Wilbrandt's  Vater  Robinson,  II.  chap,  v)  (yor),  or  icr)  fd;aur>ere 
(oor  w.  dat.)  I  shudder  (at) ;  e3  fd;lafert  mtc^  I  am  sleepy ;  eg  fd)inerjt 
mid;  it  pains  me ;  eS  fd;rut^t  micr;,  or  more  commonly  id;  fdjirige  I  am 
perspiring;  eS  oerlangt  mid;  (sometimes  mir;  see  262.  II.  B.  d)  nad) 
(w.  dat.),  or  ^u+ infinitive,  I  long  for  or  to,  or  id;  Derlange  na^;  e8 
nntnbcrt  mid;  I  wonder,  am  surprised ;  e3  icurmt  mid;  (or  now  less 
commonly  mir)  it  vexes  me  inwardly. 

b.  Those  that  take  a  dative  of  the  person  :  eg  afmt  mir  (earlier  in 
the  period  also  mid?)  I  have  a  presentiment;  eS  ifl  mir  befebrt, 
common  in  colloquial  language  in  the  expression  3d)  rceip  felber 


350  IMPERSONAL  VERBS  219.  4.  A.  b. 


nid?t  red?t,  ivie  mtr  befef)rt  ift  (Telmann's  Wahrheit,  XIII),  or  3d? 
nid?t,  tnie  id?  befetyrt  bin  I  am  sorely  puzzled;  eg  beliebt  it  pleases 
in  certain  set  expressions,  as  icte  eg  3fynen  beltebt  as  _yo«  please,  also 
eg  geliebt  it  pleases  in  a  few  expressions,  as  geliebt  eg  ®ott  if  God  wills, 
geliebt'g  ben  ©ottern  (Grillparzer's  Libussa,  2)  ;  eg  bdtnmert  mtr  it  dawns 
upon  my  mind  ;  eg  benft  mir,  see  262.  II.  A.  c  and  B.  d;  eg  eilt  mtr  I  am 
in  a  hurry,  eg  eilt  Sfynen  ja  auf  cinmal  ganj  gercaltig,  <§err,  mir  gute  9?ad?t 
gu  rc>unfd?en  (Wilbrandt's  Vater  Robinson,  II.  chap,  ii),  also  id?  Ijabe 
(Jtle  and  eg  preffiert  mir  :  9lber  eg  ifi  bod?  befjer,  alg  bajj  @ie  big  morgen  irarten 
mitffen,  icenn  eg  31)nen  fd?on  fo  prejftert  (Spielhagen's  Faustulus,  p.  60),  or 
id?  bin  ^reffiert  ;  eg  efelt  mtr  (also  mid?)  oor  (w.  dat.)  I  am  disgusted  with, 
I  loathe  ;  eg  fdtttmir  ein  it  occurs  to  me  ;  eg  fef)lt  mir  on  (w.  dat.)  I  lack  ; 
eg  gefdUt  mtr  in  I  find  pleasure  in  :  eg  gefdflt  mir  in  SBerlin  ;  eg  gef?t  mir  gut 
it  fares  well  with  me  ;  eg  gelingt  mir  +  infin.  w.  ju  I  succeed  in,  &c.  ; 
eg  genitgt  mir  it  suffices,  satisfies  me  ;  eg  graut,  grauelt  (grduelt),  graitfelt 
(grdufelt),  graujl,  grufelt  mir  or  mid?  (oor  w.  dat.)  or  id?  graue,  grau[e]Ie, 
&c.  mid?  (»or)  I  shudder  (at),  eg  ifr,  inirb  mir  ongji,  bange,  or  sometimes 
id?  bin  angft  (originally  a  substantive,  now  sometimes  construed  as 
a  predicate  adjective)  and  more  commonly  id?  bin  bange  (originally  an 
adverb,  now  quite  commonly  felt  as  an  adjective),  bifl  bu  bange? 
(Otto  Ernst'  sjugend  von  heute,  4,  6),  or  eg  bangt  mir  or  mid?  I  am,  am 
getting  anxious,  afraid,  eg  bangt  mir  or  mid?  fitr  (inn)  mein  £eben,  meinen 
ftreimb,  ttor  bem  $obe,  or  id?  bange  mid?  or  id?  bange  fitr  eticag  (or  etnen)  or 
ttor  ettrag  ;  eg  liegt  mir  baran  it  is  of  importance  to  me  ;  eg  luifjfo  flt  mtr 
it  displeases  me  ;  eg  nit§t  or  nu|t  mir  it  is  of  use  to  me  ;  eg  rappelt  iJ?nt 
or  more  commonly  bet  if  m  something  is  wrong  with  him  in  his  upper 
story;  eg  fd?eint  mir  it  seems  to  me  ;  eg  fd?reant  mir,  bafj  I  have  a  feeling 
or  presentiment  that  ;  eg  fd?rcinbelt  mir  (sometimes  mid?)  I  am  giddy, 
dizzy;  eg  fd?merft  mir  I  like  it;  fein  in  connexion  with  certain  adjectives 
and  adverbs,  as  eg  ift  mir  fait,  inarm  I  am  cold,  warm,  eg  ifl  mir  fd?rcad? 
I  feel  faint,  eg  ift  mir  itbel  I  feel  sick  at  the  stomach,  eg  ijl  mir  irof?I  gu 
SPhtt  I  am  in  good  humor,  eg  ijt  mir  Iteb  I  am  glad  ;  eg  ftel)t  mtr  frei  + 
infinitive  w.  jit  I  am  at  liberty  to  ;  eg  flef)t  mir  an  +  infinitive  w.  gu  it 
is  becoming  for  me  to  ;  eg  tut  or  iji  mir  leib  I  am  sorry  ;  eg  trdumt  mir 
(only  rarely  mid?),  or  id?  trdume  I  dream  ;  eg  »erfd?Idgt  mtr  nid?tg  it  is 
quite  immaterial  to  me  ;  eg  ttibert  mtr  fcor  etrcag,  or  errcag  ju  tun  I  loathe 
something,  or  to  do  something,  also  with  ace.  :  2)od?  eg  roibert  mid? 
(Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  III,  v,  14). 

B.  a.  The  construction  a  and  b  under  A  may  be  varied  by 
changing  the  order,  either  placing  the  dat.  or  ace.  object  before 
and  the  eg  after  the  verb,  or  by  thus  inverting  the  object  but 
suppressing  the  eg  :  eg  graut  mir,  or  mir  grant  eg,  or  mir  graut.  Some 
verbs  only  take  the  eg  in  the  inverted  word-order,  when  no  other 
modifiers  follow:  36n  jammert  eg  It  causes  him  pity,  but  3f)n  jamtuert 
beg  SSolfeg  He  pities  the  people.  A  number  of  the  verbs  describing 
a  state  of  mind  or  body  do  not  take  the  eg  at  all  in  the  inverted 
order:  2ttid?  bitnft,  er  icirb  alt.  2ftid?  tyungerte.  The  eg  is  sometimes 
lacking  in  the  subordinate  clause,  especially  in  set  expressions: 
<£elig  ftnb  bie  ba  fjungert  onb  burflet  nad?  ber  @ered?tigfett  (Matth.  v.  6).  (Sg  ift, 
alg  ob  jemanb  anberg  bag  Staffer  trinft,  nad;  bem  mid;  bitrftet  (Spielhagen's 


219. 5- B.  a.     GROUPS  OF  IMPERSONAL  VERBS          351 

Sonntagskind,  II,  5).  (£3  ifl  nid)t  fait,  rate  micfy  bimft  (M.  Heyne, 
Worterbuch],  2Bie  mir  efelt  .  .  .  irie  mir  efelt !  (delle  Grazie's  Vineta). 
Notice  also  the  sentence  from  Telmann  in  A.  b,  above. 

Note.  In  earlier  periods  of  the  language  such  verbs  did  not  take  a  formal  subject. 
Thus  the  omission  of  the  c$  in  the  inverted  order  is  the  survival  of  a  once  general 
usage.  In  modern  German  the  tendency  is  to  seek  out  a  formal  subject  for  a  verb  and 
in  lieu  of  a  definite  one  to  make  use  of  the  indefinite  tg. 

b.  Observe  that,  though  the  impersonal  construction  may  some- 
times be  replaced  by  the  personal,  as  in  (53  friert  ifm,  or  er  fricrt 
He  is  freezing,  sometimes  there  is  a  sharp  distinction  between  them. 
The  impersonal  construction  indicates  that  the  force  exerted  comes 
from  without,  while  the  personal  subject  indicates  that  the  act 
comes  from  the  subject :  (Sr  friert  unb  fyungert  au3  ©ei$  He  freezes 
and  goes  hungry  from  pure  stinginess.  Here  the  impersonal 
construction  could  not  be  used. 

5.  An  impersonal  construction  with  e8  either  expressed  or  under- 
stood is  found  in  the  passive  of  verbs  that  govern  the  gen.  or  dat., 
and  with  many  other  intransitives,  an  idiom  that  is  quite  foreign  to 
our  language.  Note  the  following  points  : 

A.  In  transferring  a  sentence  from  the  active  to  the  passive,  the 
ace.  as  in  English  becomes  nom.,  but  the  gen.,  dat.,  and  a  prep, 
phrase  remain  unchanged  and  the  subject  becomes  e3  expressed  or 
understood  :  (active)  er  fpottet  meiner  ;  (passive)  eg  icirb  nteiner  gefpottet, 
or  nteiner  n?trb  gefpottet ;  er  fcfjmeicfyelt  mir,  eg  irirb  mir  turn  ifjm  gefcfymeicfyelt, 
or  mir  trtrb  fcon  iljm  gefcfymetcfyelt.    @r  fcfyicfte  micfy  nad?  bent  3lrjt  He 
sent  me  for  the  physician.     (Jg  ift  nacfy  bent  5trjt  gefctytcft  tvorben  The 
physician  has  been  sent  for.     3tfj  tyafce  an  it)n  gefcfyriefren  I  have  written 
to  him.     (£3  ijl  an  ifyn  gefcfyriefcen  worben  He  has  been  written  to. 
When  the  agent  is  not  expressed  as  in  the  last  sentence,  this 
impersonal  passive,   as  in   B  below,   represents  an  activity  only 
in  a  general  way  without  reference  to  a  definite  agent.     For  fuller 
description  of  this  construction,  see  258.  i. 

B.  The  impersonal  passive  of  such   intransitives  as  have  no 
object  at  all  and  such  transitives  as  are  used  like  intransitives 
without  an  object  does  not  represent  the   subject  (see  a,  below) 
as  acted  on,  but  denotes  in  quite  a  general  way  an  activity  or 
a  state  in  and  of  itself  without  reference  to  a  definite  subject, 
and  with  no  reference  whatever  to  a  direct  object :  (£3  rvtvb  gelaufeu 
There  is  running  going  on ;  @3  rcnrbe  tntnter  incl  geplaubert,  gcfcfyerjt 
unb  flelacfyt  There  was  always  a  good  deal  of  chatting,  joking  and 
laughing.     Dfceu  icirb  fletangt  There  is  dancing  going  on  upstairs. 
©3  ivirb  nocfy  gefcfylafen  Some  people  are  still  asleep.     ?yur  ben  Itefceii 
•Konii]  unb  4?errn  ivtrb  [personal  passive]  atteg  getan,  itirb  [impersonal 
passive]  treulicfy  gefdmpft,  tcirb  [impers.J  unflig  getlutet,  nnvb  [impers.] 
freubtg  in  ben  $ob  gegangen,  fiir  tl^n  icirb  [impers.]  ntefyr  al3  geftorben  :  fitr 
i^n  iverben  [pers.]   ^arfen  >§cr$en8   auc^  bte   ^inber  geo^fert   (Vilmar's 
Literaturgeschichte),    3)fan  mup  <8olbat  fein  fur  fetn  iJanD  ober  aug  Siefce  ju 
ber  <Sad^c,  fur  bie  gefocfyten  njirb. 

a.  In  principal  propositions  f<5  can  only  stand  as  the  first  word  in  this 
construction,  and  also  that  in  A,  and  drops  out  when  some  other  word  takes 


352  PARTICLES  219. 5.  B.  a. 

the  first  place.    It  is  omitted  as  a  rule  in  subordinate  clauses  with  transposed 
word-order. 

b.  This   construction  can  only  be  used  with  intransitives  which  express 
an  activity  or  condition  that  stands  in  a  relation   to  a  free  moral   agent : 
G<3  nritb  gegeffen,  gefdjlafen  They  (indefinite)  are  eating,  sleeping,  but  not  @3 
toirb  gefunfelt,  geblifct,  geraufd)t  There  is  a  sparkling,  it  is  lightening,  there  is  a 
rushing  of  water. 

c.  In  certain  set  expressions  a  trans,  verb  and  its  object  are  conceived 
of  as  together  forming  the  idea  of  an  activity,  and  hence  the  verb  with  its 
object,  both  together  being  treated  as  a  simple  intrans.,  may  form   this 
impersonal  passive  :  (S3  rourbe  J?  egel  (ace.  pi.)  gefd?cben  There  was  playing  at 
ninepins  going  on.  3RajHc3  ttwrbe  fortgeroirf  t,  getoaffnet,  geiibt,  gef  (eibet  unb  ^Berwunbete 
(ace.  pi.)  gefyeilt  (Kohlrausch).    Hitter  biefen  ttmtbe  fleijjtg  Garten  gefyieft,  getnajjigte 
sparfyrontenaben  gentadjt,  ben  Safelfreuben  geljutbigt  unb  unabfefybar  ttiet  „  f  annegegoffm  " 
(Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder!  III).    3n  ben  3ttnfd)enpaufen  auf  bem 

uwrbe  nur  ncdj  ©olbaten  gefpielt  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  xv). 

6.  In  many  idioms  the  impersonal  construction  is  found : 
fommt  barauf  an,  ofc  (with  a  following  subordinate  clause)  It  depends 
upon  whether.      (£8  gefcfyieljt  i^m  recfyt   It  serves  him  right. 
fli6t'8  ^  What's  the  matter  1    2Wit  feiner  Srommigfeit  ifl  e8  ntc^t  meit 
His  piety  doesn't  amount  to  much. 


PARTICLES. 

220.  A  particle  is  a  word  that  cannot  be  inflected  at  all.  Par- 
ticles are  divided  into  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and 
interjections,  but  these  classes  cannot  always  be  sharply  defined, 
as  many  prepositions  and  conjunctions  are  also  reckoned  among 
adverbs. 

Note.  Particles  are  in  most  part  fossilized  case  forms,  being  either  simple  cases  of 
nouns,  or  pronouns,  or  a  case  with  a  governing  preposition.  These  case  forms  are  in 
part  still  discernible,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following  articles.  Also  the  different 
oblique  cases  of  real  nouns  are  often  used  adverbially  instead  of  adverbial  particles,  or 
as  prepositions  instead  of  pure  prepositions.  A  small  number  of  adverbs  derived  from 
nouns  and  especially  pronouns  have  forms  that  cannot  be  brought  into  relation  with 
known  case  forms. 


ADVERBS. 

221.  Definition.     The  adverb  (i.  e.  belonging  to  a  verb)  is  true 
to  its  name,  a  particle  principally  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
a  verb,  but  it  may  also  modify  an  adjective  or  another  adverb  :  £er 
(Sturm  tobt  fefyr;  eiit  feb.r  tyeftiger  (Sturm;  cut  fefyr  fjefttg  tobenber  Sturm. 

a.  The  adverb  is  often  used  alone  without  reference  to  a  verb,  adjective, 
or  other  adverb  :  fyerein  !  come  in  !  »ortt)art<3 !  forward  !  auf,  auf,  ^atneraben  1 

THE  FUNCTION  AND  FORM  OF  ADVERBS  AND  ADJECTIVES 
COMPARED. 

222.  i.  The  adverb  borders  very  closely  in  its  nature  upon  the  adjective. 
It  modifies  a  verb,  adjective,  or  other  adverb  in  the  same  manner  as  an 
adjective  modifies  a  noun.    Thus  in  general  out  of  any  adjective  an  adverb  can 


222. 2.  B.  ADVERBS  353 

be  formed,  and  there  results  a  large  number  of  parallel  forms— an  inflected 
one  modifying  a  noun  and  an  uninflected  one  modifying  a  verb,  adjective,  or 
other  adverb. 

2.  The  adverb  has  usually  exactly  the  same  form  as  the  uninflected  form  of 
the  adjective.  Only  in  earlier  periods  of  the  language  were  they  distinguished 
in  form.  Thus  as  the  adverb  has  to-day  usually  the  same  form  as  the 
predicate  adjective,  and  as  both  often  approach  each  other  closely  in  nature, 
the  boundary  between  their  respective  functions  is  not  always  sharply  defined. 
Hence  an  adverb  is  often  used  for  an  adjective,  where  there  is  no  corresponding 
adjective.  Many  adverbs  which  are  now  used  adjectively  were  originally 
used  as  true  adverbs,  modifiers  of  a  verb,  and  did  not  take  on  adjective  func- 
tion until  after  the  verb  (i.e.  participle)  had  been  dropped  and  they  themselves 
stood  alone  in  the  predicate,  and  were  felt  as  the  real  predicate  comple- 
ment :  £>et  Singer  ifl  ab(o,efdjlag,en).  It  will  be  noticed  in  the  articles  below  that 
these  adverbs  assumed  adjective  function  first  in  the  predicate.  That  they 
later  were  also  used  attributively  and  have  taken  on  adjective  inflection  is 
only  a  natural  development.  The  following  cases  of  interchange  of  function, 
or  form,  or  of  both  between  adjectives  and  adverbs  occur : 

A.  An  adverb  or  adverbial  phrase  often  takes  on  adjective  function  when 
there  is  no  corresponding  adjective : 

a.  In  the  predicate  to  express  rest  in  a  place  or  a  condition,  often  with 
the  verb  fetn,  and  sometimes  as  objective  predicate  after  the  verbs  (affen  and 
iwfien,  and  sometimes  when  no  verb  is  expressed :  (£r  ifl  ba.    3)te  Xuv  ifl  ju. 
3d?  UJcijJ,  lajj  ifyn  bott  I  know  that  he  is  there,  leave  him  there.      -Sotet  [ifl] 
bet  ergtimmtf  ^elbfjert,  bott  [ifl]  bte  gutdjtetltcfye  (Schiller's/««£/hz#  von  Orleans, 
2,  6).     (£t  ifl  juftieben  (lit.  in  peace). 

b.  In  the  predicate  to  express  motion  to  or  from  a  place,  lit.  or  figura- 
tively, usually  with  the  verb  fetn  :  @ie  ftnb  fort  They  are  gone.     £)te  SBmtetfoat 
ijl  gttat  (()e)vein  (in).    (§t  ifl  Bon  bott  He  is  from  that  place.     Gt  ijl  mtf  (from) 
granrmdj.    Qti  ifl  au3  tnit  ifynt  It  is  all  over  with  him. 

c.  In  the  predicate  to  express  time :  @3  u?ar  im  2J2atj.    25a$  J?onjert  ifl  and. 
!£>ag  ifl  nun  ttorbet. 

d.  Attributively,  following  the  noun  that  it  limits,  in  the  case  of  those 
classes  of  adverbs  described  in  a,  b,  c.     S)er  SDlann  ba  the  man  yonder ;  bet 
ba  cben  He  on  high ;  bet  93eta,  bort  the  mountain  yonder  ;  bte  %a\)\i  fyietfjet  the 
journey  to  this  place ;  bte  2tu$fid)t  mtf  ben  ftlufj ;  em  SBctt  fur3  £evj ;  bet  3Jaum 
briiben;  bie  .ftamyfe  in  ben  3al)ten  1813-15,  &c. 

e.  Sometimes  in  the  predicate,  in  case  of  adverbs  of  manner  after  fein 
and  sometimes  toerbcn  :  (53  ifl  fo,  anberS  It  is  thus,  different.     (§3  ifl  umfonjl, 
or  vergcbcntf  It  is  in  vain.     @t  ift  red)t3,  Itttfe  He  is  right-handed,  left-handed. 
@t  ttitb  tnit  jmvtbet  He  is  becoming  disagreeable  to  me.     ©3  ifl  tnit  toelj  ju 
SKnt  I  feel  sore  at  heart. 

y.  In  dialect  or  popular  language  in  case  of  an  adverb  of  manner,  when 
it  stands  before  a  noun  in  the  attributive  relation:  (*$  ojbt  fo  ®dnSd?en 
(i.e.  girls),  bte  ljubfd)  l»eid)e  ©cfyndbel  fyaben  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kur- 
jfursten,  chap.  i). 

g.  In  the  superlative  (112.  3.6)  in  the  predicate,  instead  of  a  superlative 
adjective  :  !Dcr  ©turnt  hwt  am  fyeftiajlen  cjegen  Slbenfc. 

B.  As  a  number  of  adverbs  (as  those  in  A,  a,  b,  c,  e)  could  stand  as  an 
adjective  in  the  predicate,  it  was  only  a  natural  development  for  them  to 
assume  adjective  function  also  in  the  attributive  relation.      Thus  nafye,  ftrn, 
fctten,  jiitfrieDen,  votfym'Den,  bcbm'be,  einjcln,  taglid),  ungefafyv,  tctlreeife,  anbetweit,  toel), 
&c.,  have  developed  into  full  adjectives  with  adjective  inflection.     Other 
adverbs  which  have  not  proceeded  so  far  in  this  development  are  thus  used 
in  dialect  and  occasionally  appear  in  the  literary  language  :  3d)  ntufjte  alfo 
ben  gaitjen  Sag  (Stnlabungen  an  alleifianb  nnintcrefTante  imb  Jlltt>i&rre  (see  A.  e) 
2»enfd)en  »etfaffen  (Hermann  Bahr  in  Theater,  chap.  ix).     Dialect  goes  much 

Aa 


354  ADVERBS  222. 2.  B. 

farther,  and  uses  other  adverbs  adjectively  :  ein  jueS  or  $neneg  gentler  a  closed 
window  ;  ber  fiinene  ©tlifil  the  broken  chair,  &c.  Notice  here  that  the  adverbs 
gu  and  I)in  usually  become  $uen  and  fitnen  in  adj.  function.  Quite  a  number 
of  other  adverbs  can  also  in  the  literary  language  take  on  adjective  function 
and  inflection  when  they  add  the  suffix  ig  ;  see  245.  II.  9. 2.  B. 

C.  In  the  case  of  verbal  nouns  in  ;itng  and  nouns  denoting  agents  in  ;?r 
the  adjective  in  fact  fills  the  office  of  the  adverb,  as  these  nouns  have  in  reality 
the  meaning  and  force  of  verbs.     Thus  in  ehte  gute  @v$df)lung  a  good  story 
and  ein  guter  (Srjdfjter  a  good  story-teller  thz  adjective  marks  the  effectiveness  of 
an  action  and  not  the  quality  of  an  object.     In  some  cases  such  expressions 
may  be  ambiguous,  as  the  adjective  may  also  refer  to  the  author  of  the 
action,  and  not  the  action.     Hence  such  expressions  cannot  be  freely  formed. 
We  may  say  ein  gutec  23eobad)ter,  Oiebner,  better,  ©djadjftnefer,  ©cfennmmer,  &c., 
but  not  ein  fdjcner  ©cfyreiber,  &c.     In  such  cases  in  German  we  must  usually 
take  recourse  to  compound  nouns :   ber  5ru()auf|lel)er  or  ifrufyauf  early  riser, 
©cfconfcforeiber  good  penman,  Stinfcfctnecfer  one  with  a  fine  sense  of  taste,  Sang* 
fd)Idfer  late  sleeper,  &c. 

D.  In  dialect  the  adverb  standing  before  an  adjective  is  often  erroneously 
taken  for  an  adjective,  and  hence  assumes  adjective  inflection :    ein  ganjer 
(instead  of  ganj)  guter  2Kann. 

E.  The  adverb  has  in  N.H.G.  given  up  in  the  positive  and  comparative 
the  special  form  which  it  had  in  earlier  periods,  and  assumed  the  exact 
form  of  the  predicate  adjective.     However,  in  poetry,  elevated  diction,  and  in 
case  of  a  few  isolated  adverbs  even  in  prose  we  still  find  occasionally  the 
old  adverbial  form ;  see  Note.     In  the  superlative  the  adverb  has  in  N.H.G. 
developed  new  special  forms  (see  114),  one  of  which  is,  however,  also  used 
adjectively  in  the  predicate  (see  112. 3.  B). 

Note.  In  M.H.G.  the  positive  of  the  adverb  was  often  distinguished  from  the  adjec- 
tive by  the  ending  e,  and  even  to-day  some  adverbs  have  alongside  of  their  short  form 
also  the  M.H.G.  form  in  e,  especially  lange,  feme,  Qerne,  fHUe,  and  in  poetry  and 
elevated  diction  also  others  as  juriide,  &c.  In  M.H.G.  some  adverbs  were  distin- 
guished from  the  uninflected  form  of  mutated  adjectives  by  taking  no  mutation,  and 
this  usage  is  still  found  in  the  classics,  and  even  to-day  in  poetry :  SBtt  Iiabon  f etne 
SKagb ;  tnuJ3  focfyen,  fegen,  flricfen  |  intb  ndfien,  itnb  laufen  friif)  unb  ft»at  (now  ftat). — 
Goethe's  Faust,  3111-2.  2Ba$  begimtt  tljr  morgenfrufi?  (for  friif))  (Geibel).  Allfeeling 
for  this  differentiation  of  form  has  in  general  disappeared,  so  that  in  the  few  cases  in 
prose  where  double  forms,  one  for  the  adverb,  one  for  the  adjective,  still  exist,  each  form 
has  taken  on  a  different  meaning:  fcfyon  already,  but  fcfyott  beautifttl ;  fafl  almost, 
but  fefi_/zr/w.  ©djon  and  fejl  are  now  also  used  adverbially  and  then  take  the  meaning 
of  the  adjectives  fdjcn  and  feft — beautifully,  firmly.  As  here  in  case  of  fdjon  and  fcfoon, 
fafl  and  feft,  so  also,  in  general,  related  forms  which  have  become  separated  from  each 
other  in  speech-feeling  may  soon  drift  apart  in  meaning.  For  cases  of  the  survival  of 
the  older  meaning  of  fc^on,  see  223.  II.  3.  a  and  XI.  A.  e  and/.  In  M.H.G.  the  com- 
parative of  the  adverb  differed  from  the  uninflected  comparative  form  of  the  adjective 
in  that  it  lacked  mutation.  For  a  survival  of  this  older  usage  see  117.  I.  d. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  ADVERBS. 

223.  Adverbs  'and  adverbial  constructions  may  be  divided 
according  to  their  meaning  into  the  following  classes: 

I.  ADVERBS  OF  PLACE  which  fall  into  the  following  subdivisions, 
indicating : 

I.  Rest  in  a  place  near  the  speaker:  r)ier  here  and  fyit  in  early  N.H.G., 
and  still  used  in  poetry,  also  in  prose,  in  the  set  expression  fyie  iinb  ba 
here  and  there  ;  bier  accompanied  by  other  adverbs  which  mark  some  place 
near  the  speaker  more  accurately,  as  fyier  cben  here  above,  filer  iinten  here 


223.  1. 4.  A.  ADVERBS  OF  PLACE  355 

below,  fytet  mtjjen  outside  here,  here  in  a  foreign  land,  fyiet  ubtn.  (always  con- 
tracted ;  see  below)  here  on  this  side  (of  the  ocean,  river,  question,  &c.),  fyier 
»orne  here  in  front,  written  together  in  fytenie'ben  here  below,  on  earth,  &c. ; 
contractions  of  the  preceding,  as  fyoben  for  fyie  oben,  fyaujjen  for  fyte  anfjen,  were 
formerly  in  use,  but  are  now  common  only  in  dialect  except  Ijuben  for  I)ie 
itben :  SijSacfere  banner  ftanben  Ijiiben  tmb  bruben  Brave  men  stood  on  this  side  (of 
the  question)  and  on  the  other  side. 

2.  Rest  or  motion  near  the  speaker  according  to  the  verb  used,  in  adverbs 
compounded  of  fyiet  and  some  prep,  (see  141.  5.  A.  c  for  the  accent):  Jn'eran 
near  this,  fyierbei  by  this,  Jn'evanf  upon  this,  fyternnter  under  this,  fyierautf  out  of 
this,  Ijievin   in  this,  fyieritbet  over  this,  concerning  this,  fyierum  around  this, 
fyiequ  to  this,  to  this  end,  Ijierneben  beside  this ;  with  preposition  preceding 
and  written  apart :  »on  fyiet  or  (in  elevated  diction)  »on  fyinnen  from  here,  &c. 

3.  Motion  toward  the  speaker  either  in  a  general  way  expressed  by  fyer 
or  in  a  specific  way  expressed  by  a  preposition  in  composition  with  Ijev,  very 
frequently  with  contraction,  as  (b,e)nm'ter,  (fye)rau3',  (f)e)tetn'  (the  one  prep,  in 
changes   its  form  to  etn  in  these  adverbial  compounds),   (l)e)ru'ber,   l)er»ot', 
(lie)rum',  fyerju',  fyernie'ber,  (^e)ran',  fyerbei',  (f>e)rauf,  (^e)vab' ;  with  preceding  prep, 
and  adverb,  as  »on  oben  fyer,  »cn  oben  Remitter  ;  the  indefinite  trgettb  lucljer  from 
somewhere,  &c. :  Jtomm  fyer  Come  here.    @r  fieigt  »cn  ber  Slnfyefye  ^crunter  He  is 
descending  from  the  height  (towards  the  speaker),     Jtommen  <2>ie  fyerein  Come 
in  (the  room  where  I  am).     Set  (Segen  jiromt  auS  ben  SBolfen  fyerab.     (Sr  mufj 
Qleid)  trtebec  »on  cben  (upstairs)  Tjevuntec  fommen. 

a.  In  many  cases  the  idea  of  motion  towards  the  speaker  contained  in 
t)et  disappears,  and  then  this  particle  simply  means  motion  or  rest  with 
reference  to  some  other  person  or  thing  which  is  represented  as  the  point 
of  departure,  centre  of  attraction,  or  as  itself  being  in  motion,  sometimes 
implying  in  case  of  motion  that  the  person  preceding  or  following  the 
person  in  question  keeps  step  with  him  or  goes  at  the  same  rate  of  speed, 
sometimes  implying  that  the  one  party  is  in  pursuit  of  the  other:  (§r  tft 
»on  ajciltn  Ijer  He  is-  from  Berlin.  @ie  ftanben  al(e  neitgierig  um  tlw  fyer.  2)ec 
£eibitcf  lauft  ncben  bem  SDagen  fyer.  Site  SDhtfif  gefyt  »ov,  bet  Xrofj  ^intcv  bent  3uge 
Ijer.  (Sie  niaren  fc^neft  ^intev  (in  hot  pursuit  of)  bem  SlttSreijjer  I)er.  (Sv  ift  fe^c 
ijinter  bem  ©elce  Ijet  He  is  after  money. 

It  sometimes  represents  an  action  merely  as  proceeding  in  a  given  way 
without  reference  to  direction  toward  a  definite  object :  ($3  gefjt  tnftig  t)er  They 
are  having  a  gay  time.  In  N.G.  colloquial  language  the  force  of  fyet  has 
become  so  faint  that  its  original  meaning  is  now  no  longer  felt,  and  hence 
it  is  even  used  instead  of  fytn  to  denote  motion  from  the  speaker :  ©efjen 
<£ie  vubet  (for  fyetitber  instead  of  the  literary  fymiiber)  unb  fcrbevn  5ie  tlm  auf,  ec 
foil  beit  5Biefentt>eg  fofort  freigeben  (Halbe's  Haus  Rosenhagen,  iii,  p.  124). 

4.  Motion  from  the  speaker  either  in  a  general  way  expressed  by  bar  (see 
D,  below)  or  more  commonly  fytn  or  in  a  specific  way  expressed  by  a  prep,  in 
composition  with  Ijin,  very  frequently  with  contraction,  as  (f)i)itan',  (l)i)nauf, 
(t)t)nab',  (l)i)mm'ter,  (fytjnauS',  (()t)nein'  (the  one  prep,  tit  changes  its  form  in  these 
adverbial  compounds  to  ein),  (f)t)nu'bcr ;  with  preceding  adverb,  as  oben  fyin 
superficially,  touching  upon  a  topic  lightly  in  passing,  oben  foiitauei'  (see  example 
below),  trgcnb  toeljin'  somewhere  :    ©el)e  rec^tiJ  l)in  Turn  to  the  right.     (Sr  polterte 
etnett  Stein  in  bie  Stefe  fytnab  He  rolled  a  stone  with  a  great  crash  into  the 
chasm  below.    3d)  itetjj  nid)t,  nwauf  er  I)iitati(S  iri((  I  do  not  know  what  he  is 
driving  at.     (Sr  fyat  jtd)  nuv  fo  oben()tn  barubcr  geait^ert  He  did  not  express  himself 
fully  concerning  the  matter.  (SnnIlobenI)inau(3He  is  haughty,  gives  himself  airs. 

A.  Besides  fyin  also  Io<5  and  ju  can  be  used  with  reference  to  movement 
towards  a  goal,  but  with  different  shades.  -Spin  simply  points  to  the  goal, 
while  $u  implies  a  lively  unceasing  exertion  to  reach  the  desired  end,  and 
lc<5  emphasizes  the  beginning  of  the  action,  and  often  implies  that  up  to 
this  time  something  has  prevented  action  though  all  was  in  readiness,  and 

A  a  2 


356  ADVERBS  223.  1. 4.  A. 

hence  often  denotes  a  sudden,  violent  breaking  forth:  9hm  fd)iej5t  nur  l)in, 
t>ajj  eg  a((e  ttrirb  Now  fire  away  at  the  mark  that  the  matter  (as  to  who  would 
turn  out  to  be  the  best  marksman)  may  have  an  end  !  ©djtejjt  gu !  Shoot 
away  with  all  your  skill,  and  don't  stop  till  you  hit  it !  3uvmer  $u !  Go  right 
ahead  with  all  your  might !  <Ed)tejjt  log  !  Don't  wait  longer,  fire  away  !  @r 
tyat  Safyre  fang  bebad)tig  unt>  ftetig  auf  bteg  3iel  bingearbeitet ;  ttdfynft  bit,  ttenn  bu 
nun  ofnie  93ebad)t  barauf  log  arbeitejt,  eg  i(;m  gletd)  tun  ju  fonnen  ?  Set  3om  beg 
(Generate  brad)  log. 

B.  £m  may  not  only  denote  motion  from,  on  a  level  surface,  but  may 
also  denote  movement  downward  towards  a  point  at  some  distance  away 
from  the  speaker.      In  this  sense  it  is  synonymous  with  unter,  nieber,  and 
berab  or  fn'nab,  fyetunter  or  fjinunter,  according  to  the  relation  to  the  speaker. 

a.  Jpitt  simply  denotes  direction  downward  toward  a  point  at  some  distance 
from  the  speaker,  nieber  without  any  reference  to  the  speaker  emphasizes  the 
idea  that  the  direction  is  from  above  downward,  unter  adds  to  the  idea  of 
itieber  that  in  the  course  of  the  downward  motion  the  object  disappears  below 
something :  $)ev  Slpfd  pel  auf  tie  @rbe  fyin  or  nieber.     6in  ing  3Bafier  geworfenet 
@tein  jtnft  nieber  or  (to  express  out  of  sight,  below  the  surface)  unter.     93on 
bent  9lugenblicf  on,  tt?o  ein  (Seftirn  fulminiei-t,  feinen  $cfjeyunft  evreidjt  tyat,  jtnft  eg 
nieber ;  erfl  iwenn  eg  anfdngt  untet  ben  Jportjont  ju  tretett,  unb  bent  ®epd)tgfreig  ju  ent; 
fc^minben,  jtnft  eg  unter. 

b.  Moreover,  nieber  seems  more  suitable  for  elevated  diction  where  the  idea 
of  slow  and  gradual  motion  enters  into  it :  [35er  (Bdjijfenbe]  ftefyt  bte  93erge  fdjon 
blau,  bte  fd)etbenben,  jtet)t  in  bag  2Reer  fte  niebcifinfen  (Goethe). 

c.  (£t)nab'  or  (^e)rab'  simply  denote  motion  downward,  while  fytnun'tet  or 
berun'ter  add  to  this  conception  that  the  whole  distance  in  question  is  passed 
over :   @r  glitt  einige  ©tufen  ^erab,  fam  bann  ing  ©tuvjen  unb  pel  (o  bte  ganje 
Xveppe  fyerunter.     (St  ld§t  ft(^  I)erab  He  condescends  (lets  himself  down  a  little), 
but  @r  tjl  in  feinen  93erm6gengt3er^d(tni|Ten  ganj  fjentntevgefcmmen  He  is  in  very 
straitened  circumstances  (dropped  clear  down  from  wealth  to  poverty). 

C.  (^i)nan'  with  a  prep,  denotes  a  general  movement  forward  on  a  plane 
surface  with   the   intention   of  approaching  something,  with  an  adverbial 
ace.  it  may  also  add  to  the  idea  of  pushing  forward,  the  conception  of  an 
upward  movement,  and  can   refer  to  the  whole  distance  in  question  or  a 
part,  while  fytnauf  denotes  only  movement  upward,  and  implies  usually  that 
the  whole  distance  in  question  is  passed  over:  SBir  ritten  on  ben  5fi'tb  fyinan. 
(St  fufyr  ben  <2trom  In'nan  (up  stream).    3d)  flieg  bie  duabetntvepve  Ijinan  nnb  tvat  in 
eine  9Wf)aKe.     @t  gefyt  ben  23erg  liinan  (is  ascending).     @r  gefyt  ntandjmal  ben  S3erg 
^inauf  (to  the  top).     @r  ij^  auf  bag  Sad)  tyinaufgeftiegen. 

a*  (§e)ran'  denotes  near  approach  to  or  movement  toward  the  speaker  on 
a  plane  surface  or  with  upward  movement,  while  tyeraiif  implies  direction 
toward  the  speaker,  but  only  with  upward  movement :  3d?  hrinfte  ifyn  jit  ntir 
fjeran.  (It  fletterte  ju  mir  ^evan.  Jtcmmen  @ie  ^erauf  Come  upstairs  (where  I 
am). 

b.  2ln  and  (Ije)ran'  differ  in  that  an  denotes  a  contact  or  simply  movement 
forward  or  upward,  while  tyevau  denotes  a  movement  toward  a  definite  goal : 
3Wau  remit  unnorftdjtig  an  einen  $foftcu  an,  but  @t  remit  ang  3tcl  Ijeian.  3)ag 
3i>afier  fdjwillt  an,  but  (Sg  fdjwidt  jit  einet  geiviffen  ^cfje  Derail. 

D.  In  early  N.H.G.  bar  (O.H.G.  dara)  was  used  with  the  force  of  bafyin, 
i.  e.  with  reference  to  a  definite  place :  £>te  5)tener  aber  fanten  bav  (Acts  v.  22). 
To-day  it  is  employed  less  definitely  with  the  force  of  fn'n,  but  is  used  only  in 
a  few  compounds :   barbieten,  batbnngen,  bargeben,  barlegen,  barreidjen,  barfiellen, 
bartnn. 

5.  Motion,  action,  or  change  in  a  figurative  or  moral  sense,  without  expres- 
sion of  a  definite  direction  to  or  from  the  speaker,  or  at  least  with  no 
conscious  feeling  of  such  on  the  part  of  the  speaker,  is  always  expressed 
by  Ijcr  simple  and  in  compounds  :  (It  blicft  auf  ung  fyetab  He  looks  down  on  us. 


223. 1.7.  D.  ADVERBS  OF  PLACE  357 

(5c  Ijat  ben  $rei$  I)evaba,efe|jt  He  has  lowered  the  price.  (Sr  iji  (Ije)wrigefaf(en  He 
has  been  taken  in  (lit.  fallen  in).  Thus  also  many  other  figurative  expres- 
sions: ein  ''Bud)  fyerau&jeben  to  edit  a  book,  jrotanb  ecu  oben  fyerab  befyanteln  to 
treat  somebody  as  an  inferior,  eiitcn  fyerunter  ntad)en  to  take  somebody  down 
(from  his  high  horse). 

6.  Rest  or  motion  with  the  idea  of  distance  from  the  speaker  : 

a.  Rest  in  a  place  at  some  distance  from  the  speaker,  as  bertcn  (poetic) 
or  bort  yonder ;  in  connection  with  other  adverbs,  as  bort  oben  up  yonder, 
bort  iinten  down  yonder,  &c. 

b.  Motion  from  the  speaker  to  some  point  distant:    Sortfjin  yonder,  to 
that  place,  with  accent  upon  the  first  syllable  to  emphasize  the  place  and 
on  the  second  syllable  to  emphasize  motion ;   bort  (fyi)nauf  up  yonder,  bcrt 
(Oi)uunter,  &c.    Exs. :  SJort'fyin  ju  ftefyt  man  nod)  Xuvme  »on  3ftafcvib  Away  in  that 
direction,  one  still  sees  spires  of  Madrid.      £a  unvb  bortfyin'  bag  Dl)t  Ucblid) 
a,c$og,en  The  ear  is  charmed  and  attracted  in  that  direction.     Sort  fyinuntev 
mufTcn  nnr  We  must  go  down  yonder. 

c.  Motion  toward  the  speaker  from  some  point  distant :  SDovtfycr  (accented 
as  bortln'n  ;  see  b,  above),  or  con  bovtfyer,  or  v>on  tovtcn  (poetic)  from  yonder,  &c. 
^dj  fomme  bcvt'fjer.  —  Jfomtnjl  bu  nnrflid)  bottler'?  I  come  from  that  place.     Do 
you  really  come  from  there  ? 

7.  Rest  or  motion  without  expressing  definitely  nearness  to  the  speaker 
or  distance. 

A.  ©a  there,  bafelbjV  (demon,  and  rel.)  at  that  place,  at  which  place,  bafyer', 
euil)cv'  along,  von  ba  from  there,  ba()er'  (accented  upon  the  last  syllable  except 
to  emphasize  especially  the  place),  or  von  bafyer',  or  (in  elevated  diction)  »on 
banncit  from  that  place,  baljiu  (accented  in  the  same  manner  as  bafjer)  or  in 
early  N.H.G.  bar  (see  4.  D,  above)  to  that  place  :  @r  ift  fd)on  ba.     @r  eilt  bafyer' 
He  is  speeding  along.    3d)  fontme  cbcn  bafyer',  or  55 a  fomme  id)  ebcn  fyer!    Son 
9Bei$enfe(6  ?    SDa'fyer  bin  id)    Are  you  from  Weissenfels  ?    That  is  the  place 
1  come  from.     2)a'()cr  fommt  bie  gan$e  s-Bc«virrnng. 

B.  2)a  accompanied  by  adverbs  :  ba  oben  up  there,  in  heaven,  ba  nnten  down 
there,  ba  aitjjen  out  there,  out  of  doors,  ba  imten  inside  there,  baruben  (usually 
contracted ;  see  below)  over  on  that  side,  on  the  other  side  of  the  ocean,  in 
the  other  world,  £c. ;    the  preceding  very  frequently  contracted  as  broben, 
bnmteit,  branjjen,  brinnen,  bruben,  &c. ;  also  with  a  double  ba,  as  ba  b[a]roben,  ba 
buuttcn,  £c. 

C.  25a  (bar  before  a  vowel)  in  composition  with  prepositions,  with  accent 
usually  upon   the  prep.,  except  to  especially  emphasize  the  place,  hence 
usually    contracted    (see    141. 5.  A):    b(a)van',    babei',    b(a)ranf,    b(a)run'tev, 
b(a)vau«',  b(a)vcin',  b(a)nn',  b(a)ru'bcr,  bavov',  baf)in'ter,  ba§toifc|'ni,  b(a)rum',  &c. 
(§v  tntcj  eine  Jtette;  baran'  h?ar  eine  alte  SJKmje.     3d)  fa()re  I)ie'ran  unb  bu  fafyrft 
ba'ran  I'll  drive  up  here  and  you  drive  up  there. 

a.  Earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in  colloquial  and  popular  language  these 
compounds  are  separated,  and  often  the  ba  is  lacking  altogether ;  see  141.  5. 
A.  b.  Note. 

b.  The  O.H.G.  had  two  forms  corresponding  to  N.H.G.  ba,  namely  dara 
(now  bar,  still  preserved  in  the  group  in  4.  D,  above)  and  dar,  the  latter 
of  which  now  takes  the  place  of  both  in  this  construction,  usually  in  the 
reduced  form  ba,  but  in  its  former  full  form  in  compounds  the  second  element 
of  which  begins  with  a  vowel  :   bartu,  £c.     The  vowel,  however,  becomes 
short  when  the  accent  is  shifted  upon  the  second  element :  ba'rtn,  but  barin'. 

D.  The  relative  and  interrogative  \vo  where,  the  indefinite  mjenbtvofyet  from 
somewhere,  icaenbtoo  somewhere,  anbcr&vo  somewhere  else,  £c. ;  the  relative 
and  interrogative  too  (u?or  before  a  vowel)  in  compounds,  as  toobet'  near  which, 
njonm'tcr   among  which,  tt?ol)in'  whither,  toofycr'  whence,  £c.,  or  sometimes 
demonstrative  compounds  in  their  stead  :  babct',  barun'ter,  £c. ;  see  153.2.  B. 

Earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in  colloquial  speech  these  compounds  are 
separable ;  see  153. 2.  and  B  thereunder. 


358  ADVERBS  223. 1.  7.  D.  a. 

a.  The  O.H.G.  had  two  forms  corresponding  to  N.H.G.  too,  namely  war 
and  wara,  the  r  of  which  survives  in  compounds  the  second  element  of  which 
begins  with  a  vowel :  tootin,  &c.  The  modern  too  corresponds  in  form  only  to 
O.H.G.  war,  but  it  has  taken  the  place  of  both  the  older  words,  having  levelled 
out  the  toa  form  except  in  case  of  toarum,  which  survives  alongside  of  toorum. 
The  older  language  often  makes  no  distinction  between  toorum  and  toarum, 
using  both  forms  relatively  and  interrogatively  in  the  sense  of  for  or  on 
account  of  which,  what :  (Stfyabner  ©etft,  bu  gabfl  mtr,  gabfl  nttr  adeS,  |  toamm 
(now  toorum)  id)  bat  (Goethe's  Faust,  Wald  und  Hohle).  SSJarum  (now  tootum) 
foil  id)  bitten?  (Herder).  These  forms  still  occur  occasionally  in  elevated 
diction  without  differentiation,  but  present  prose  usage  distinguishes  sharply 
between  the  two  forms,  employing  toorum  in  the  meaning  for  or  on  account 
of  which,  what,  toarum  as  an  adverb  in  the  meaning  why. 

E.  The  adverbs  denoting  a  relative  position  or  direction  in  space  with 
reference  to  the  speaker :  oben  above,  unten  below,  aujjen  outside,  &c. ;  aufj 
todrta  upward,  ab'todtts  to  the  side,  fyetm'toarts  homeward,  &c. 

F.  2Beg  away,  disappearance  in  any  direction,  used  only  of  objects  in 
space,  fort  on,  forth,  movement  forward  in  time  or  space,  in  one  continuous 
direction  :  2>er  93rubev  fagt  jur  ©cfytoeftet  :  fefce  beine  SKalerei  je$t  toeg  (aside),  toir 
tootten  JUawet  ftrieten.     9lad]  etner  <£tunbe  aber  fagt  er :   @<3  tft  genng,  fejje  beine 
SJMeret  fort  (Go  on  with  your  painting).     However,  this  proper  distinction  is 
very  often  disregarded  :  2Keine  S3leijHfte  fontmen  ntir  ttnmer  fort  My  lead  pencils 
always  get  away  from  me,  get  misplaced. 

G.  Movement  from  a  place  is  expressed  by  ab  and  au3  with  different 
shades. 

a.  Sib  expresses  the  opposite  of  an  and  auf,  hence  movement  from  a  sur- 
face, while  au3,  which  is  the  opposite  of  in,  expresses  movement  out  from 
within  something :  SBer  auf  bera  $ferbe  ft£t,  fteigt  ab,  but  SBer  im  SSagen  jiifct, 
ftetgt  auS. 

b.  What  moves  from  the  surface  of  a  thing  leaves  it  altogether,  but  what 
comes  out  from  within  a  thing  may  still  remain  in  close  connection  with 
it ;  hence  ab  and  au3  may  sometimes  differ  materially  :  @t  bog  UttfS  »om  SBege 
ab  (left  the  road  entirely),  but  (Sr  bog  an3  (turned  to  one  side,  out),  urn  nadjljer 
nneber  in  ben  2Beg  etnjubiegen.     SBer  son  etnem  ©rttnbfa^  ait^ge()t  (Whoever  is 
guided  by  a  certain  principle)  fyaft  an  bemfelben  feji,  bet  aftem,  tt»a^  barau^  folgt, 
but  SBev  »on  bent  ©runbfa^  abge^t,  »ertapt  t^n. 

c.  9lb  expresses  sometimes,  from  the  idea  of  motion  from  a  surface,  super- 
ficiality or  incompleteness,  while  an3  expresses  completeness :  2)ie  »om  2ihtrm 
jernagte  Oiofe  btitt)t  ab,  cfyne  baf  fie  au^blu()t. 

H.  As  ab  and  au$  (see  G.  a,  above)  express  motion  from,  they  also  may 
naturally  express  separation,  to  which,  however,  a  third  adverb  or  inseparable 
verbal  prefix  must  be  added,  namely,  enf.  2tb  denotes  surface  separation, 
au3  separation  from  a  position  within  something,  and  ent  a  separating  some- 
thing from  that  which  entirely  envelops  it  and  is  closely  attached  or  inti- 
mately related  to  it.  One  says:  3d}  bafge  ba3  Xier  ab,  when  he  is  thinking 
of  taking  0^~the  pelt,  3d}  batge  e$  auS,  when  he  is  thinking  of  taking  the 
animal  out  of  its  pelt,  3d)  entbalge  c<3  when  he  is  thinking  of  the  rather 
difficult  task  of  stripping  off  the  tightly  fitting  pelt.  3d)  entgefye  enter  bvofyenbcn 
(Sefafyt,  bie  mid)  fafl  fdjcn  gepacft  fyielt.  (Snt  represents  also  a  more  complete 
separation  than  au3 :  2Ber  ftd)  anS  bent  <£taatS;  in  ben  JpauSrocf  gewovfen,  fyat 
fid)  au^gefleibet,  o()ne  bod)  entKeibet  jn  fein,  tote  ber,  bet  in3  Sab  ftetgen  totH.^ 

The  difference  between  au3  and  ent  is  sometimes  only  a  grammatical  one. 
?ltt0  is  used  in  an  adverbial  phrase,  and  ent  is  compounded  with  the  verb : 
ttnb  unfre  Jfieifenben  etttjUegen  intern  SSaggon  (Fontane's  Chile,  chap,  vii),  or 
iltegett  au3  bent  SBaggon.  Sometimes  au>5  is  used  where  there  is  only  one 
simple  case  object,  and  ent  where  there  are  two  simple  case  objects,  a 
dative  and  an  accusative :  £>er  Soo^eratot  gog  bie  £abe  fyetatlS  unb 


223. 1. 9.  b.  ADVERBS  OF  PLACE  359 

tfjr  einen  gtojiiett,  l)alb  befd)riebenen  23cgen   (Ebner-Eschenbach's  Glaubenslos, 
chap.  ix). 

I.  The  word  together  is  represented  in  German  by  three  words  with 
different  shades  of  meaning.  JBeifam'mcn  is  only  used  with  verbs  expressing 
rest  or  an  activity  which  is  confined  to  a  given  place,  and  never  with 
verbs  of  motion  to  or  from,  and  hence  it  merely  denotes  that  a  number  of 
objects  are  found  in  the  same  enclosed  space,  or  in  a  merely  local  sense 
near  together.  SKitfatn'mcn  adds  to  this  idea  that  of  common  participation 
in  an  activity  with  mutual  relations,  and  jitfam'men,  much  more  commonly 
used  than  either,  may  contain  the  meaning  of  either  or  of  both :  9ln  meinent 
©ebuttetage  loaren  alle  gteunbe  beifaminen.  3n  ben  @pinnjlitb«t  arbeiten  viele 
SKabdjen  betfammen  (working  in  one  room,  but  entirely  independently  at 
different  wheels).  (§3  fUefjen  roof)l  bte  2Be(len  tnitfantmen  in  bag  2JJeer,  |  es  fltegen 
roohl  mitfammen  bte  93oge(  btiiber  fyet  (Geibel's  Die  junge  Nonne).  2Bit  fasten 
mitfammen  (H.  Hoffmann's  Bogislaw).  9Jfan  fjat  fie  in  ein  ©tab  jjufammen 
getegt  (here  beifammen  could  not  be  used).  3tt>ei  @d)riftjW(et  atbetten  jufammen 
an  cittern  $8ud). 

8.  General  diffusion  throughout,  or  extension  through  or  around  a  given 
space  :  uberall'  everywhere,  burd)'»eg  or  butd)tt?eg'  throughout,  hence  usually  as  an 
adverb  of  degree  entirely,  rings  round  about,  umfyet'  around,  nitgenbs  nowhere. 

Caution.  Do  not  confound  fjerutn'  around  (in  a  closed  circle,  or  in  a  turn  or  curve 
bending  around  towards  the  speaker)  with  iintfyer/  around,  about  (from  one  place  to 
another) :  5JJand)et  jiefyt  Jveit  in  bet  SBelt  timber  Many  travel  about  considerably  in  the 
world,  but  £>ie  (Stbe  beroegt  ftd)  unt  bie  ©Oltne  fjetum  The  earth  circles  around  the  sun. 
@t  fam  Ultt  bte  @(fe  Return  ung  entgegett.  The  use  of  itmfyer,  however,  is  more  con- 
fined to  a  refined  style,  and  hence  in  common  language  fyeritm  has  largely  usurped  its 
place  :  3dj  I)atte  mid)  nut  eudj  ntd?t  fierum  I  shall  not  fight  with  you  fellows.  Thus 
also  :  ftdj  Ijevirmjanfen  to  fuss  about,  fid)  tyenmtftretten  to  dispute  about. 

9.  Rest  or  motion  within  a  given  space  are  expressed  by  in,  and  motion 
into  a  place  is  expressed  by  ein,  both  of  which  words  are  only  found  in 
compounds,  especially  with  adverbs  belonging  to  the  preceding  classes,  verbs, 
and  sometimes  with  substantives  :  3d)  rjabe  mid)  bavin'  geitvt  /  have  been  mis- 
taken in  that,  but  2W  ifd)e  bid)  nid)t  barein'  Do  not  mix  yourself  tip  in  the  affair, 
SBorin'  l)at  er  fid)  geuvt?     SBorein'  fyat  er  fid)  gemifd)t?     £er.  in'liegenbe  93ricf  the 
inclosed  letter,  but  (St  tcgte  ben  33rief  ein  He  inclosed  the  letter.     Sdbetn'  into 
the  fields,  H'albein'  into  the  woods,  Ija'fenctn  (accent  shifting  forward  in  dis- 
syllabics)  into  the  harbor,  jafyvano'  jat)vcin'  year  in  year  out ;  Snfyabev  bearer, 
3nfiatt  contents,  but  (Stntvitt  entrance,  @tnfu()V  importation,  £c. 

a.  In  M.G.  and  N.G.  dialects  in  is  used  for  both  in  and  ein.     <£d)(agen  @ie 
in  (instead  of  ein)   (Rauchhaupt  in  Hauptmann's  Der  rote  Hahn,  Act  4). 
From  this  failure  on  the  part  of  dialect  to  distinguish  different  forms  for 
the  different  meanings  there  have  also  arisen  in  the  literary  language  several 
cases  where  the  two  forms  have  been  confounded,  ein  being  used  for  in  : 
eingebenf  mindful  of,  (Singeiveibe  entrails,  and  earlier  in  the  period  still  others. 

In  some  dialects  we  find  the  opposite  usage  —  ein  for  in  :  Senfetttf  brv  SUpen 
ftcfyt  ein  @rab,  |  gegvaben  am  giiutcn  Oiiieine,  |  brei  unloc  9?efen  blufjcn  bvatif,  |  feine 
^tebe  licgt  baveine  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Werner's  Lieder  aus  Welschland,  v). 
'3  U'irb  bit  fdjter  btetn  ju  na^  fetn  (Anzengruber's  IVolken  und  Sonn'schein, 
P-  238). 

b.  Instead  of  N.H.G.  in  for  the  preposition  and  adverb,  M.H.G.  had  a 
differentiation   of  forms,  in  for  the  preposition,  and  imte  or  inncn  for  the 
adverb.      These  adverbial  forms  are  still  sometimes  found,  tnnc  especially 
in  compounds,  and  titnen  both  in  compounds  and  uncompounded  :  innefyalten, 
tnneljabcii,  inneirc()iien,  £c. ;  b(a)vimten,  von  innctt,  &c.     In  other  instances,  how- 
ever, the  adverbial  forms  have  been  contracted  to  in,  in  which  case  preposi- 
tion and  adverb  cannot  be  distinguished  in  form  :  in  (prep.)  bent  33ud) ;  bavin 


360  ADVERBS  223. 1.9.  b. 

(adv.),  common  N.H.G.  form  for  M.H.G.  barinnc  or  bavinneu.  In  M.H.G.  in 
had  already  begun  to  replace  tune  and  innen.  Later  the  long  forms  gradually 
kept  yielding  to  the  contracted  one.  The  form  #inne,  as  in  bartnne,  is  now 
restricted  to  poetry  and  popular  language,  and  nnnen,  as  in  b(a)tinnen,  is  only 
in  limited  use,  though  more  commonly  employed  than  iii\n(.  In  one  meaning, 
in  the  room,  in  the  house,  with  reference  to  some  inclosed  space,  briimm  is 
quite  common  :  Struwmann  (nad)  fytnten  toetfenb) :  @r  ijl  bvinnen  (Otto  Ernst's 
Die  Gerechtigkeit,  2,  4). 

c.  The  words  offen  and  auf  have  about  the  same  relation  to  each  other  as 
in  and  ein  :  S)te  £ur  tear  offen  The  door  was  open,  but  .£an<5  mad)te  bie  %\\\.  auf 
John  opened  the  door. 

10.  Place  with  its  varied  relations  is  also  expressed  by  the  case  of  a  noun 
or  by  a  preposition  with  its  dependent  noun  as  follows : 

a.  Place  where  or  position  are  expressed,  in  certain  adverbial  expressions, 
by  the  gen.  of  a  noun  (fern,  words  often  ending  in  $  after  the  analogy  of 
masc.)  or  by  some  expression  formed  after  the  model  of  such  :  gefyerigen  DrtS 
before  the  proper  authority,  fyofymt  Dvts  before  a  higher  authority,  linfer  £anb 
to  the  left  hand,  allevortS  (see  249.  II.  2.  A.  a)  everywhere,  feineg  Drt$  in  the 
proper  place,  itntettvegg  (an  incorrect  gen.  formed  after  the  analogy  of  the 
preceding,  now,  however,  replacing  the  older  correct  dat.  imtertvege  or  in  pi. 
form  utttenregen)  on  the  way  or  road,  feinerfeite  upon  his  part,  tnutterlid)cvfeit6 
upon  the  mother's  side,  anberfeitg  on  the  other  side,  beiberfettS  on  both  sides, 
fcitenS  (now  used  as  a  prep,  with  gen.)  upon  the  part  of.     3d)  befam  fin  Bintmer 
in  bet  23ud)ftrafje,  itadjfter  £uv  mit  JfingS  (next  door  to  King's).    Jpalben  2Bege<3 
gwifd)en  93rurfenberg  tinb  bet  Dbermufile  trat  et  von  bcm  tiefergelegenen  SSolfsfyaufyet  auf 
ben  eine  lange  @d)rdgtinte  btfbenben  Quljrnxg  (Fontane's  Quitt,  chap.  xiii).    3no3; 
lattjgfi  (name)  liejj  jtd)  aid  (Better  ertrag(td)  an  unb  fyatte  ben  ,,a(ten"  gafyrern  balb 
bte  ^ntffe  abgefehen,  mtt  benen  man  betm  Stadbienft  bte  sBcvgefe^ten  Jjintevgefyt,  aber 
tnt  Su^fXftJtcrtn  feljtte  eg  ader  @nben  (in  every  direction,  every  respect)  (Beyer- 
lein's  Jena  oder  Sedan  ?,  iv). 

Note.  Here  also  belongs  bteferljatb  (M.H.G.  halbe,  f.,  side,  direction]  on  (from} 
this  side,  but  in  N.H.G.  only  used  in  the  derived  meaning  on  this  account :  Slbet  .  .  . 
wber  3fi,nen  nod)  .fUttn  nod)  fonft  iro,enb  einejr  »on  tneinen  »ol)lgeftnnten  greunbinnen 
ill  e6  nod)  jemalg  ctngefaUcn,  fid)  rnit  angemenener  Seibenfdjaft  in  mid)  ^u  »erlieben  . . . 
(£$  ]al(t  nttr  nid)t  ein,  mid)  btefer^alb  etwa  ubet  bie  5rauen  gu  beffagen  (H.  Hoffmann's 
Der  DolcK).  9iur  biefer^alb  bin  id)  ^Iter  (Carl  Basse).  Earlier  in  the  period  the  form 
bet'Ijalben  (see  Isaiah,  xxi.  3),  which  is  also  a  gen.  sing.,  the  old  weak  gen.,  was  used 
here.  The  more  common  form  for  to-day  is  begfyalb,  which  is  of  a  different  construc- 
tion, the  beg  being  the  gen.  of  the  demonstrative  governed  by  the  prep,  fyatb. 

b.  Separation   is   expressed  by  the  gen.    with  certain  verbs.      For   full 
treatment  see  262.  II. 

c.  The  use  of  the  simple  dative  to  express  place,  once  frequent,  is  now  rare 
except  in  a  few  common  adverbs  whose  origin  is  not  felt :  allentbalben  (dat.  pi. 
of  the  M.H.G.  halb  side,  preceded  by  the  modifying  adjective  al(,  which  here 
has  an  excrescent  t  appended  to  its  regular  case  ending)  on  all  sides,  every- 
where.    For  other  examples  see  14O.  d.  Note. 

d.  In  earlier  periods  and  in  part  still  the  ace.  I)etm  home  is  used  with 
verbs  of  motion  to  express  the  goal.     The  dat.  fyeime  at  home  was  formerly 
and  in  dialect  is  sometimes  still  used  to  denote  the  place  of  rest  or  the 
place  where  an  activity  is  going  on.     The  modern  literary  form  of  the  older 
Ijetme  is  fyetm,  and  thus  dat.  and  ace.  are  not  now  formally  distinguished. 
This  has  led  to  the  use  of  bafyam  in  the   sense  of  the  older  fyeime.      Jpeint 
(ace.)  and  bafyetm  (=  older  fyetme)  are  in  common  use  in  S.G.,  but  are  in  N.G. 
more  commonly  replaced  by  nad)  £aufe  and  gu  -^attfe.     The  dat.  tjettn  still 
lingers  on  in  poetry. 

e.  The  place  where  is  often  expressed  in  colloquial  language  by  the  un- 
inflected  form  of  a  noun :  Scfe  bet  ©djabowjlrafje  ifi  bee  (Jingana,  jttnt  Slquartum. 


223.11.  I.E. b.  ADVERBS  OF  TIME  361 

©o  tocifynft  £>u  ?     Jpafbborffhafie  fun^e^n.    For  the  origin  of  such  expressions  see 
228.1.3. 

f.  The  place  where  and  the  goal  or  destination  are  more  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  means  of  some  prep,  with  its  dependent  noun  :  (Sc  ft£t  am  Sifdie. 
Sic  Jf  inter  gcften  jit  SBettc. 

II.  ADVERBS  OF  TIME  fall  into  the  following  subdivisions,  in- 
dicating : 

I.  Definite  time,  expressed  by  an  adverb,  the  ace.  or  the  uninflected  form 
of  a  noun,  a  prep,  phrase,  or  the  gen.  in  case  ofbet'jett  at  present  (with  a 
present  tense),  at  that  time  (with  a  past  tense) :  fyeitte  to-day,  je£t  now,  nun 
(see  A,  below)  now,  ncd)  (in  the  expression  nut  nod)  sometimes  replaced  by 
inefjr,  which  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  certain  grammarians  is  still  used  here 
in  a  meaning  once  common,  namely  further,  yet,  but)  yet  a.n<\.  a  number  of 
derived  meanings  (see  B,  below)  ;  ntovgen  (originally  a  dat.,  but  now  felt  as 
an  ace.)  to-morrow,  biefen  QRergen  or  fyeitte  morgen  this  morning,  bicfen  9lbenb  or 
fyeute  abenb  this  evening,  btefe  2Bod)e  this  week,  »crige  SBocfye  last  week,  SDJon- 
tag  9lbeub  Monday  evening,  SDlontag,  SDonncrStag,  SRontag  ben  9.  .(September. 
<£d)lief5lid)  Bcrabrebcte  id)  Cftent  1899  ntit  91.  ©can,  bet  mid)  £erbft  1893  gu 
enter  etneuten  JBefprcdjung  itber  {Rottoelfdj  Ijtcr  befud)t  fyatte,  gcmeiufame  Slvbeit,  abcr 
bee  Sob  entrtp  ben  fd)on  bama(3  farcer  letbenben  ©elef)vtcn  $>fhtgfteit  1899  (Kluge's 
Rotivclsch,  Vorw.).  £erb)l,  Ojievn,  $|5ftngilm  may  now  be  felt  as  accusatives, 
but  they  in  fact  represent  the  older  prepositional  expressions  given  below, 
which  are  still  much  more  frequently  used. 

To  mark  time  exactly,  the  hour  is  often  accompanied  by  uninflected  Sd)tag 
or  !$unft :  <£d)lag  (or  54>mtft)  ftebcn  seven  o'clock  sharp. 

With  prepositions :  u'bcrmorgen  (with  the  accent  shifted  upon  the  first 
element,  as  the  word  often  stands  in  contrast  to  simple  ntorgen)  day  after 
to-morrow,  gcgen  9lbent  towards  evening,  Ijente  fiber  aitt  Sage  a  week  from 
to-day,  in  yieqelnt  Sagen  in  two  weeks,  im  ^erbji  be^  nacfiften  3a!)re^,  jn  (at) 
Dftcrn,  511  5>nngften. 

9htr  nte()r  instead  of  itur  nod) :  Sir  fafyen  ben  $atf  nnr  nteljr  at^  etnen  bnnfeln 
Stecf  in  bet  %tmt  He^en  (Stifter).  58i^  jnm  Slnbrnd)  bc3  2Rcrgen3  fatten  bie 
Jvtammen  gelcbert,  nun  lag  nut  meljc  ein  ^aufen  von  vaud}enbem  <2d;iitt  (Jensen's 
Das  Bild  tin  Wasser,  p.  410). 

The  gen.  may  be  used  to  denote  the  definite  period  within  -which  in 
answer  to  the  question  how  often  or  how  much  ;  see  IV.  2.  B.  d,  below. 

A.  9lun  represents  the  present  in  the  light  of  its  relation  to  the  past  and 
its  complications  in  the  present,  but  je£t  calls  attention  only  to  the  present : 
3d)  I)abe  metn  SBcrfpredjeu  cvfudt,  unit  cvfullen  <£ie  bat?  3I)rigc,  uttb  tun  <gie  eg  je^t 
I  have  fulfilled  my  promise,  now  (since  I  have  done  this)  fulfil  yours,  and 
do  so  now.     3e£t  reguet  e3  //  is  raining  now,  but  SS}ac!  ifl  nun  ju  tun  V  What 
is  to  be  done  now  (under  these  circumstances)  ? 

B.  a.  9Jcd)  (or  negatively  ucd)  nid^t)  means  primarily  just  noiv,  now,  how- 
ever, usually  indicates  a  continuation  at  the  present  time  of  an  action  or 
a  state  of  things,  or  in  connection  with  a  past  or  future  tense  a  point  in  the 
past  or  future  at  which  some  act  or  condition  was  or  will  be  continuing,  or 
was  or  will  be  yet  possible.     It  is  translated  by  yet,  as  yet,  still,  up  till  now, 
only  or  but  (with  a  past  tense) :  £aij  alte  J^an-J  jW)t  fycute  nod)  (still).    !Tama(3 
lebte  man  95atcv  ucd)  (still).     (£r  befanb  fid)  nodi  nid)t  n?d)l  (not  well  yet),  a(3  id) 
il)it  jule^t  fat).    £a<5  unrb  in  dnrcpa  and)  nod)  SDlcbe  toetben  That  will  even  yet 
become  a  fashion  in  Europe.     Died)  ttcr  ciitcnt  3a()te  (only  a  year  ago,  or  but 
a  year  ago),  ba  er  fid)  bod)  gar  ntd)t  urn  cas  ©eineitncot)l  fummevte,  war  e<3  ba6 
fii^efte  Svaumbilb  fetncd  iSfjrgcijeS,  ttnmal  9Jatgf)cvr  jn  trerbeu. 

b.  From  the  idea  of  continuation  it  has  developed  the  idea  of  intensity, 
multiplication,  addition,  repetition,  survival,  contrast  to  a  former  situation : 


362  ADVERBS  223.  II.  I.E.*. 

nod)  einmat  fo  fdjctt  twice  as  beautiful,  nod)  etnmal  fo  ute(  as  much  again,  nod) 
gvc^er.  larger  still,  nod)  jlvei  3afire  two  years  more,  nod)  tnefyt  still  more,  nod) 
etnmat  once  more.  -ipaben  <£te  nid)t  nod)  2J?ttte{  ?  Have  you  no  means  left  ? 
!£et  J&unb  fnurrt  nut  nod)  ganj  leife,  er  befit  ntd)t  ntetyr  int  Jlauflaben  unb  bcnft  ntdjt 
von  fteitcm  antf  Seijjen. 

c.  From  the  idea  of  continuing  to  a  certain  point  of  time  comes  the  idea 
of  reaching  a  certain  limit  in  a  scale  or  a  certain  goal  :  iDad  ge()t  nod)  an  That 
will  work  all  right  up  to  this  point.     £u  unterftel)ji  bitty  nod),  ihit  ju  entfd)ulbigen  ? 
You  even  dare  to  excuse  him  ? 

d.  9todj  is  much  used  in  concessive  clauses  :  @et  e3  aud)  nod)  fo  ttenig  be  it 
ever  so  little  ;  fci  er  nod)  fo  »orjid)tuj  be  he  ever  so  cautious. 


e.  It  is  often  translated  by  very  :    nod)  btefe  2Bod)e  this  very  week. 
am  9lbenb  nad)  bet  @d)lad)t  (on  the  very  evening  after  the  battle)  Uefj  ®raf  Dtto 
bie  gcfangenen  (Witter  .  .  .  entfyattyitn. 

2.  Indefinite  time,  expressed  by  an  adverb,  the  gen.  or  in  a  few  cases  the 
dat.  of  a  noun,  or  a  prep,  phrase  :  bami  unb  toann  now  and  then,  bisweilen, 
gunjeifen  sometimes  ;  beutigegtagg  in  these  times,  jcbeqeit  at  any  time,  always, 
btefer  £age  recently  (with  a  past  tense),  within  a  few  days  (with  future  tense), 
le^tevjeit,  {caterer  Beit,  teutons,  le^tfyin,  or  lefctlid)  of  late,  nadjfiev  £age  some  time 
soon,  etneg  $ageg  one  day,  etne3  fdjcnen  S!age^  one  fine  day,  etneg  SJJitticcd)^ 
on  a  certain  Wednesday  ;  in  einev  bnnfeht  31ad)t  on  a  dark  night,  an  cittern 
t)errlid)en  (Sommevmorgen. 

In  the  classical  period  we  still  find  the  following  participial  gen.  construc- 
tion :  Slber  fo  tebteit  bie  .£>evven  tt>at)reu&eS  ft'rieged  (while  the  -war  was  going 
on),  afg  06  e»ig  .Krteg  bkiben  twiivbe  (Lessing's  Mtnna,  z,  z).  23itte  @te  tt)ab! 
ren&cr  Slrbeit  mic  tmmer  mand>mat  »a3  ju  melben  (Goethe's  Brief  e,  iv,  169). 

a.  This  genitive    is  often  used  in  a  general  indefinite  way  to  designate 
the  time  of  day  in  which  something  happens  :  Jlotmnji  bit  97  acfymittagg  (some- 
time in  the  afternoon)  juriicf  ?     Dlettt,  id)  fomme  evjl  8lbenb$  (sometime  in  the 
evening)  juvurf.     This  general  designation  is  often  accompanied  by  a  precise 
date,  day,  or  hour:  am  16.  Dftober  SlbcttbS  on  October  the  i6th  in  the  evening, 
um  ad)t  U()v  SWorgeng  at  about  eight  in  the  morning.     3d)  fam  2)tcnStag  9Jad)t3 
(old  gen.  ;  also  the  ace.  or  a  prep,  phrase  :  9lad)t  or  in  ber  9tad)t)  an. 

Note.  The  ace.  is  also  often  found  here,  as  the  idea  of  definite  (see  I,  above)  and 
that  of  indefinite  time  often  approach  each  other.  Between  gen.  and  ace.,  however, 
there  is  a  slight  difference  of  meaning.  The  ace.  indicates  the  time  approximately  by 
mentioning  the  day  or  the  date  of  the  action,  or  it  emphasizes  the  extent,  duration  of 
the  time,  while  the  gen.  emphasizes  more  the  beginning  of  the  period  or  some  point  of 
time  in  it.  Thus  §Vfitag  Slbenb  means  Friday  evening,  cither  the  given  date  for  an 
action  or  a  period  ot  time  extending  throughout  that  evening,  as  in  @r  fam  (or  atbettetc) 
^rettag  2lbenb  He  fame  (or  worked)  Friday  evening,  while  Sreitag  W&tvfo$Friday  evening 
calls  especial  attention  to  a  particular  part  of  the  day,  namely  evening.  Thus  also  to 
emphasize  a  point  of  time  in  a  given  period  we  say  fyat  Sltknbtf  or  Slbeitbtf  fpat  late  in  the 
evening.  JJ)a  ftnb  JtHt  &C§  2lbfltt>3  G^  Itfyr  (at  half-past  six  in  the  evening)  Jjtet 
gtudttd)  angefommen.  However,  where  the  adverb  cannot  either  precede  or  follow  the 
noun  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  but  must  precede  it,  the  accusative  of  the  noun 
is  usually  found  :  fyeitte  (or  gefteril)  abetlb  this  (or  yesterday)  evening.  When  an  article 
or  a  pronominal  adjective,  particularly  a  demonstrative,  modifies  a  noun  unaccompanied 
by  some  adverbial  element,  the  ace.  is  almost  always  used  to  denote  a  point  of  time 
whether  definite  or  indefinite  :  btefen  3)Jorgen  this  morning,  nod)  tiefe  2Bod)e  some  time 
yet  this  week.  <£>et  ^err  Seutnant  lajjt  fagen,  fie  fyitten  bie  9lad)t  etn  fletneS  SKabel 
befcmntett  (Ompteda's  Cacilie  von  Sarryn,  chap.  vii). 

b.  In  elevated  discourse  the  dat.  is  occasionally  found  in  accordance  with 
older  usage  instead  of  the  gen.  or  a  prep,  phrase  :  ?ftad)t  (old  dat.,  last  night, 
in  the  night}  tft  in  ttnfcrn  Srieb  |  bev  gtcijknb'  ©olf  gefaflcn  (Uhland's  Graf  Eber- 
hard,  4).     9lad)ten  (dat.  pi.  =  9lad;t)  faf)  id)  il)tt  tm  S;raitme  (Weber's  Dreizehn- 


223.  II.  4-  ADVERBS  OF  TIME  363 

linden).  The  gen.  ending  3  is  also  added  to  the  dat.  pi.  :  So  ftttb  tint  ndd?teng 
in  bteg  Sanb  gefommen  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  2,  z). 

3.  Relative  time,  expressed  by  an  adverb,  a  gen.  in  earlier  periods,  and 
still  in  a  few  expressions,  or  more  commonly  by  an  ace.,  or  a  prep,  phrase: 
»orf)ev'  before,  before  that  (with  reference  to  another  act  or  time),  before  hand, 
vorfjiu'  a  few  minutes  ago,  a  short  time  ago,  fytevauf  hereupon,  nad)()er'  (also 
colloquially  Ijernad)')  afterwards,  feitbem'  from  that  point  on,  feitfyer'  from  that 
point  to  the  present,  bigfyev'  up  to  the  present,  fcfyim  (see  a,  below)  ;  53nb  beg 
nefyeflen  tageg  famen  unr  gen  Milcto  (Acts  xx.  15)  ;  tagg  brauf  the  day  after  this, 
tagg  uorfyer  the  day  before  this,  anbevu  Sageg  the  next  day,  mittitt»eiU  in  the 
meantime  ;  ben  nad)ften  9Horgen,  ben  Sag  bvauf,  ben  Sag  uorJjcr  ;  am  nad)ften  SHovgen, 
am  Sage  Border,  am  anbern  Sag,  unterbef'fen  in  the  meantime,  tnbef'fen  in  the 
meantime,  but  now  more  commonly  with  adversative  force,  however,  yet. 

a.  The  adverb  fd)on  as  explained  in  222.  2.  E.  Note  was  originally  the 
adverb  corresponding  to  the  adjective  fd)cn,  and  hence  meant  beautifully. 
This  idea  led  to  that  of  completeness,  which  was  once  common,  and  is  still 
not  infrequent.  The  original  idea,  however,  is  now  somewhat  faded  or  in- 
distinct. We  often  translate  it  by  quite,  of  itself,  sufficient,  without  going 
further:  £)ag  roar  fdjott  (quite)  em  anDcr  Sing.  £>er  uon  ^ottevqnalen  gebrod)ene 
.Sorter  etneg  folcfyen  Dpferg  wurbe  fd)on  (of  itself)  euer  SKitleib  ervegen.  <8ie  fagten 
jttxir  nid)tg,  abet  fie  fyielten  bod)  fti((e,  bag  tvar  ber  33er$eil)ung  fdjon  (of  itself)  ein 
Hdjereg  Beidjen.  2)ag  ijl  fd)on  gnt  That  will  do  (enough  as  it  is  without  going 
further).  The  older  meaning  is  also  perceptible  in  the  uses  described  in  XI. 
A.  e  and  j,  below. 

The  older  idea  of  completeness  applied  to  time  led  to  the  newer,  now 
more  common  meanings  already,  yet,  even,  the  very,  as  early  as}  first,  often 
difficult  to  translate  by  any  word.  In  all  these  meanings  it  should  be 
noticed  that  fcfyon  often  only  strengthens  some  other  more  important  word, 
and  hence  is  then  unaccented:  3fl  bev  2h'tef  fd)on  fe'tttg?  Is  the  letter  ready 
yet  ?  but  3jl  ber  33rief  fdjc'n  fevtig?  Is  the  letter  ready  so  soon  ?  Jpatte  jtd?  bet 


SJJetftcr  »er()cr  fd)on  (strengthening  »orl)er;  translate  by  even)  un-nig  itm 
nnb  93eruf  befiimmett,  fo  tat  er  eg  jcfct  nod)  »icl  tueniger.  SU?tt  furd^tbavcnt  @d)eUen 
lintrben  jte  fytuauf  gnr  SRutter  gefd]trft  unb  bie  beifcen  ^nabcn  fd}eit  anbcven  Jaged 
(the  very  next  day)  bent  <Sd)itlmetfter  gut  fd}avferen  3nd)t  ufcergeben.  On  23evfailleg 
Ijaben  nid)t  nnr  bie  $tinjefiinnen  fd]cn  Vcu  yt\)\\  3a(;reit  (as  early  as  the  tenth  year 
of  their  age),  [unbent  fcgat  fcte  ^5npVcn  tfyven  Jpofftaat.  S)a  mu§  man  fcfyon  mit 
33icren  fallen,  in  ©elb  itnb  Seibe  gefleibet  fein,  lueim  jie  eg  ber  ^Sl\\\)t  trert  finben, 
cinen  tct  ju  fd)lagen  You  must  first  be  rich  enough  to  ride  in  a  coach  and 
four,  &c.  £>eba!  fcfycn  teuber?  Hollo  !  at  it  again  ? 

4.  Customary  time  or  repeated  occurrence,  indicating  the  time  at  which 
something  takes  place  according  to  custom  or  habit,  or  when  something 
is  repeated,  is  usually  expressed  by  the  gen.  or  by  a  prep,  phrase  :  3d)  effe 
3Jhttag<s  ju  £aufe,  9lbcnb$  $>flcge  id)  auS»art<5  jn  cffon.  SKttttvcd)  unb  Sonnabenb 
yiad)inittagg  (every  Wednesday  and  Saturday  afternoon)  ift  fein  Untcrridit.  3)e« 
Sages  or  Sags  in  the  daytime,  a?ormittaga  or  beg  ^onnittagg  in  the  forenoon, 
3Rotttag6  Mondays,  9lad;tg  (old  gen.)  or  beg  97ad)tg  (after  the  analogy  of  masc. 
nouns)  in  the  night.  Unb  alter  (also  ace.  here  ;  see  IV.  2.  B,  below)  9lngen= 
bltrfc  ntu|l  fte  fid)  jefct  fd)en  Ijinlcgcn  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschcn,  Act  4) 
Her  health  has  reached  such  a  state  that  she  must  lie  down  every  few 
minutes.  (Sin  nencg  ©d)(ag»ort  nad)  bent  (2»mbcltgmug  I»at  man  nod?  nid)t,  bie 
Sranjcfcn  fdjetnen  i()rc  *l>flid)t,  alter  bvei  Sal)re  fur  etng  jit  fcrgen,  biegntat  nidjt  erfuKt 
ju  Ijabcn  (A.  Cartels'  Deutsche  Dichtung  der  Cegenwart,  p.  276,  4th  edition). 
Also  prepositional  constructions  are  common  :  ant  Sage  in  the  daytime,  itt 
ber  9lad;t.  The  prepositional  construction  is  the  usual  one  in  im  Jperbfl,  tm 
grueling  (but  quite  commonly  ii>interg  or  beg  iBtnterg,  Sommcrg  or  beg 
Scmmevg),  and  in  the  more  accurate  designations,  as  um  jeljti  Ufjr,  um  3Kitteri 
nad)t. 


364  ADVERBS  OF   MANNER  223.  11.4. 

In  answer  to  the  question  how  often  a  given  action  or  event  takes  place, 
the  gen.  (also  the  ace.)  pi.,  as  in  the  examples  from  Hauptmann  and  Bartels. 
is  now  quite  frequent.  In  answer  to  the  question  at  what  time  or  period 
a  given  action  or  event  takes  place,  the  gen.  is  also  employed,  as  in  the  first 
two  examples,  but  it  is  thus  commonly  used  only  in  the  sing.,  and  is  replaced 
in  the  pi.  by  the  ace.  or  a  prep,  phrase  :  Unb  IHrnotb  war  fonfi  tie  S43ormtttage 
fbenfowenig  \\\  .Jpaufe,  nut  ba§  er  lie  an  bcu  2Bod)cntagen  tm  (Hester  nub  beg  (gonntagg 
im  2Birtgl)aufe  tierbradjte  (Spielhagen's  Sonntagskind,  I,  3).  <§te  wufjte  nid)t, 
ifyr  joldje  (Srinnerungen  gerabe  an  ©onntag  ^ormittagen  famen  (ib.). 


III.  ADVERBS  OF   MANNER  (manner,  specification,  conformity, 
fitness)  :  fo  so,  leicfyt  easily,  fcfynett  fast,  &c. 
Manner  is  also  expressed  by  : 

a.  A  noun  or  adjective  in  the  gen.  :   berart  or  bergefialt  (see  IV.  2.  A.  c, 
below)  in  such  a  manner,  to  such  a  degree.     <Eo  Ieid)ten  J?aufg  fommft  bit  nid)t 
fort  You  will  not  get  off  so  easily.    28it  fasten  britter  Jttaffe  (Storm)  We  travel 
third  class.      @ie  famen  inwrvid)teter  Sad)e  judicf  They  came  back  without 
accomplishing  anything.    @r  ifi  etneg  gewaltfamen  £obeg  geftorben.     Snbem  id) 
nad)  beften  Jtraften  bag  gvaulem  untetfyielt,  i)ord)te  id)  bed?  fietg  fjalben  Dfyvg  auf 
biefen  fd)Warjen  3Kol)ren  (Raabe's  Meister  Autor,  chap.  xxii).     (§t  bcitgte  fid) 
fyilben  Seibeg  fiber  bie  'Jfeling  »or  (Schulze-Smidt's  O  lannebaum,  I).    Svocfnen 
§u§eg   dry-shod,  begreiflid)er»etfe   as   may   easily   be  conceived,  glii(f(id)erivcife 
fortunately,  notwenbtgericeife  necessarily,  tovidjtcrnwfe  foolishly,  and  many  similar 
formations   in  iweife;    anerfannterma^cn  as  generally  acknowledged,  befagtet; 
ma^en  as  mentioned  before,  and  many  similar  formations  in   ;majjen  (wk. 
gen.  of  3JJa§e  ;  see  also  IV.  2.  A.  c,  below)  ;  farmer  Jpanb  or  fur^ertjanb  without 
any  formalities,  abruptly,    (it  liefj  fid)  beg  Uieiteren  bavuber  aug  He  explained 
himself  at  some  length.    3d)  banfe  beftene  I  thank  you  heartily.    The  examples 
in  this  group  might  be  greatly  increased. 

To  this  general  head  belongs  the  gen.  of  specification,  once  a  common 
construction,  but  now  reduced  to  a  few  expressions  :  <2eineg  3ftd)eiig  (with 
respect  to  or  by  trade,  profession)  ift  et  <Sd)iteiber,  Sitriji.  fB<$cr,  mem  liebetf 
Saubdjen?  |  2Bofjer  beg  Sanbeg?  (Gleim)  From  what  land  (lit.  whence  as  to 
land)  do  you  come?  SBefyet  beg  SBegeg?  Whence  do  you  come?  SBcfyer  ber 
ftaljvt?  (Lienhard's  Till  Eulenspiegel,  Der  Fremde).  Compare  these  last 
sentences  with  O.H.G.  :  "  Gidua  mih  sir  nu,"  quad  er,  "  wis,  |  wanana  Idntes 
thu  sis"  (Otfrid's  Evangelienbuch,  IV,  xxiii.  31).  Compare  M.H.G.  :  Der 
war  de's  llbes  schoene  with  <&o  K>at  jie  fd)on  feit  getjn  3o.()ven,  fd)tanf  non  8eib 
nnb  I)cd)  »cn  ffirufl  unb  blanf  von  Slugen  (Frenssen's  Jorn  Uhl,  chap.  viii). 
This  gen.  was  more  freely  used  in  early  N.H.G.  :  (^aulug)  fanb  einen  3iiben 
mit  namen  Slquila  |  ber  ©ebitvt  (=  bet  ©ebuvt  nad))  aug  ^onto  (Acts  xviii.  2). 
This  old  gen.  is  still  found  after  certain  verbs,  adjectives,  and  participles, 
although  its  force  is  no  longer  felt  ;  see  260  and  3  thereunder  and  262. 
II.  A.  In  compounds  it  is  still  quite  common  :  fegengreid),  fyinbelgflug,  geiflegfrnnf, 
&c.  Compare  with  M.H.G.  ein  ellens  (=  2Jiutg)  richer  man  {Nibelungenlied, 
1.7).  See  also  249.  1  1.  l.C. 

b.  A  noun  or  adjective  after  a  preposition  :  (Sr  fyvatf)  mit  ©etaffen^eit.     @r 
I)crte  mit  gcfvanntcm  D()ve  ju.    S)te  35cgel  jtttgen  beg  2)?orgeiig  am  fd)cnften  (114.  i). 
4>cflalcj5t  war  aufg  eifvigfte  (114.2)  bemiif)t,  feinen  avmen  SKtmntfi^en  gu  tjelfen.    ISr 
ifi  feincm  J&anbttcrfe  nad)  ein  (Sdjnciber.    (Sg  ifl  fed)g  nad)  meiner  llfyr.   @g  taugt  ^u  nidjtg. 

c.  A  dative  of  reference  indicating  the  thing  with  regard  to  which  some 
statement  is  made  survives  in  a  few  set  expressions  after  the  verb  fetit,  now 
limited  to  pronouns,  but  in  M.H.G.  of  broader  application:  SBcnn  bent  fo  ift 
If  it  is  thus  with  respect  to  that.      3  ft  bent  nun  fo  If  it  is  now  thus  with 
respect  to  that.     2Bie  bent  and)  fei  However  that  may  be.     3Xm  fei,  nne  i()m 
nwlle  Let  that  be  as  it  may.    £>tc  @efd;tdjte  ifi  gut  ;  u>mn  U)t  nur  fo  ware  (Raabe's 


223.  IV.  i.  b.  (2).     ADVERBS  OF  DEGREE  365 

Hoxter  und  Corvey,  chap.  ix).  In  M.H.G.  Wie  ist  disem  masre  ?  What  is 
the  state  of  things  with  regard  to  this  story?  In  all  these  sentences  eg 
understood  is  the  subject.  Usually  this  dat.  must  be  replaced  by  a  preposi- 
tion except  in  case  of  the  few  survivals  of  older  usage  mentioned  above : 
®ie  ifl  eel  mit  btefet  @efd)id)te?  (modern  expression  for  the  above  M.H.G. 
sentence).  There  is  another  somewhat  similar  dative  of  reference  which  is 
still  quite  common  ;  see  258.  3.  A. 

IV.  i.  ADVERBS  OF  DEGREE  (degree,  order,  measure,  extent, 
price) :  febr,  iiberaug  very,  fyocbft,  dufjerft  extremely,  311  too,  jiemlirt) 
tolerably,  faft  almost,  fester  (see  a)  well-nigh,  entirely,  enca  or 
uncjefdt)r  (in  the  South  also  fceilduftg,  which  in  the  North  has  the 
meaning  of  by  the  way,  in  passing)  about,  erfl  (see  b),  nur  (replaced 
often  in  the  North  colloquially  by  man ;  see  b.  (2)  Note)  only,  juerft' 
first,  £»iet  much,  rcenuj  little,  uberfyauipt  (see  c)  in  general,  &c. 

a.  (Scoter.    This  word  is  of  double  origin,  and  hence  has  two  different 
groups  of  meanings : 

(1)  <2dnet  (M.H.G.  schiereyfo/,  soon)  in  early  N.H.G.  soon,  now  almost, 
confined  largely  to  poetic  language. 

(2)  <Ed)ier  (Old  Saxon  sklri  clean,  pure)  common  in  N.G.  and  M.G.,  as  an 
adverb,  entirely,  thoroughly,  as  an  adjective,  pure,  clean,  nothing  but,  sheer : 
2)a3  leid)t  (Ivvungene  |  bag  itibevt  ntiv,  |  nut  ba<5  (Sqwungene  |  era,f{jt  mid)  fd)ier 
(Goethe's Faust,  II,  11.  5169-73).    ©ctb  bltcfte  tljn  tterbufct  unb  fd)ier  ofyne  35erftdnbm3 
an  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kiirfiirsten,  chap.  xi).     9hm  ftnbct  man  bid)  unb 
fveut  ftd)  frf)ier,  |  ba  fd)impffl  bit  uns?  $acf  unb  DiebSgelidjter  (Sudermann's  Die  drei 
Reiherfedern,  i,  6).    3)a  ifl  alleS  fo  flat  unb  fester  ttnc  .  .  .  in  3f)ret  junam  fubjelmj 
jdfyrigen  ©ecle  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  34).     <Sd)iere3  Sletfd)  pure  meat  (i.  e. 
without  bones  and  fat),  etne  fd)tere  UnnuH}lid)feit  a  sheer  impossibility. 

b.  The  adverb  w$.  first  has  a  number  of  derived  meanings : 

(i)  Not  until,  not  before,  no  further  back  than,  only,  but,  once:  @t  (bet 
Jpunb)  fd)Ud)  crjl  (not  until)  fpdt  uad)  ^aufe  jutucf.  (Sin  flattltd)cv  J^cljtan,  erfl 
(only  or  but)  »or  ge^n  3al)rm  won  ©runb  aus  nen  aufgefu()rt.  Unb  Ijat  cv  IIIKJ  erfl 
(once  or  only)  am  flcinen  Sinacr,  fo  I)at  cr  uti3  and)  gan^.  Often  still  more,  muck 
more :  @r  t|^  fe^r  jtol§  unb  erjl  fetne  ^ran !  (Sr  ijit  fd^ott  erbittert,  u>ie  unvb  ft  erfl 
toben,  toenn  et  bad  erfdljrt!  Especially  frequent  with  red^t  in  the  meaning 
all  the  more  :  3d)  rtef  ifytn  511,  er  folle  ^triuf  fommen,  abet  ba  lief  cr  erft  tfdit. 

(z)  The  adverb  erfl  only  should  be  distinguished  from  nur  only.  The 
former  marks  a  point  just  reached  in  a  supposed  progress,  while  the  latter 
represents  the  limit  as  fixed  or  final :  3d)  fyatte  evfl  ttenige  <£citen  gelefen  al«J  ev 
jururffam.  3d)  but  erfl  an  bet  btitten  <£ette  I  am  only  at  the  third  page.  2Barte 
nut  big  3JJova,fii.  (§3  foftet  nut  einen  Satet.  Thus  erjl  often  implies  that  there 
is  more  to  follow,  while  nut  suggests  that  the  progress  is  a  limited  one :  (5t 
ifl  etft  (only  as  yet)  Jpauvtmaitn,  but  @r  ifl  nut  (only,  which  is  not  much) 
Jpauptmann.  3d)  l)abe  erfl  (more  to  follow)  bret  93riefe  gclcfen,  but  3d)  tjabe  nut 
(not  many)  btci  33tiefe  exijalten.  9iur  and  erfl  may  be  combined:  3Bie  fUin.  ivie 
atmfeliij  ifl  bicfe  gro^e  SBelt !  Sie  fenncn  fie  nur  erjl  (as  yet)  von  i()tcr  glittetfeite 
(Lessing's  Minna,  5,  9). 

Note.  SJlur  is  a  contraction  of  O.H.G.  ni  (=  nid)t)  ivari  (=  N.II.G.  Jrdre,  past 
subj.)  and  thus  means  unless  it  were.  Its  original  use  can  still  be  found  :  (§t  ftefyt 
Hid)',  et  fyott  nid)'.  9lut  biefe  ^Jetfon  (Hauptmann's  Einsame Menschcn,  4)  He  sees 
nothing,  he  hears  nothing  unless  it  be  this  person.  From  this  original  use  has  sprung 
up  the  general  idea  of  limitation,  as  described  above,  and  also  the  common  use  of 
limiting  a  preceding  proposition  :  St  tnag  juf)6ien,  nur  foil  ct  fd)Weigen  He  may  listen 
if  he  desires,  but  he  must  keep  still.  The  adverb  fclojj  is  also  used  with  the  force  of 
nut  and  sometimes  both  are  combined :  Jtennfl  bu  meljf,  al3  nur  ben  9iamcn  blofj  »on 
ineinent  .£>aufe  ?  (Schiller).  In  N.G.  dialect  and  colloquial  language  man  blojj  are  often 


ADVERBS  223.  IV.  i.  b.  (2). 

combined :  (f 3  ig  |a  man  btof  son  ftrifce  33elfch>  ftegen,  bajj  id)  geftagt  gefjabt  !)abe 
(Wildenbruch's  Z>««  Quitzows,  I,  2). 

<:.  itfcerfjaulit  expresses,  as  its  parts  signify  (passing  over  without  counting 
the  heads,  used  in  buying  cattle  by  the  lot  without  counting  the  heads), 
a  statement  in  general  without  taking  into  consideration  the  limitations  and 
conditions  of  a  particular  case.  It  may  in  part  be  translated  by  in  general, 
generally,  as  a  rule,  anyhow,  really,  after  all,  in  any  event,  altogether, 
absolutely,  with  negatives,  and  after  toenn  translated  by  at  all  and  often 
difficult  to  render  into  English :  ®uteS  Setter  irate  ntd)t  nut  nnferer  {Reife  fvatbet, 
fonbern  uberl)aupt  (in  general)  ju  twinfd)en.  SBie  fann  man  ubetfyaupt  (anyhow) 
umtobt  »on  fo  iwlbett  ft tnbern  einen  jungen  Jpunb  erjiefyen  ?  (Loth)  (§S  jtnb  bte  (Srjien 
Slujtern,  bte  id)  ejfe  —  (Frau  Kruse)  3n  bat  (ber)  Seifong  (©aifon)  metn'n  (meinen) 
@e  (@ie)  ttofl  (ttofyl)  ?  —  (Loth)  3d)  meine iibetfyaupt  (absolutely)  —  Hauptmann's 
Vor  Sonnenaufgang,  i.  3d)  tyabe  iiberljauijt  (at  all)  fein  SSergnugen  an  bet  aKujif. 
Sit  fyaft  Idngjl  aufgefycrt  mid)  §u  lieben,  n>enn  id;  beine  £tebe  iibei^auvt  (at  all)  je 
befeften  Ijabe. 

It  is  often  used  after  mentioning  one  or  more  special  points  to  sum  up  the 
whole  matter  in  one  general  comprehensive  statement:  Sebet  33ittfd)e,  tt>avt> 
gemafynt,  follte  bte  9Sotlefungen  putrftUd)  ^oten  unb  iibet^aupt  fid;  butd;  3(«^  audjeidjneu. 

2.  Instead  of  an  adverb  of  degree,  the  ace.  of  a  noun  or  pronoun, 
less  commonly  a  gen.,  may  be  used  to  express : 

A.  Extent  or  degree :   2>a6  £>otf  liegt  etne  ©tunbe  (an  hour's  walk  or  ride, 
according  to  the  connection)  »on  bet  (Stabt.    ©efyen  ttnt  einen  @d;ritt  lueitet  Let  us 
go  one  step  farther.    £>et  <£ee  tft  einen  ^itcmetet  tang  unb  einen  Ijalben  breit.     (Sr 
jlanb  nut  einen  8u^  Von  mit  entfernt.     <So  ge^t  bag  »tet  enggefdjttebene  ©etten  fort 
(Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  138)  And  so  it  (i.e.  the  letter)  goes  on  for 
four  closely  written  pages.     3)a3  liimmevt  mid;  fein  -£>aaf  That  doesn't  worry  me 
in  the  least,    ©u  glaubjl  nid)t,trag  (to  what  extent)  bteS  Xiet  mein  gteiinC  gewotben 
ifl  (Morike).    S)ag  !I^ermometet  ijl  einen  ©tab  gefaKen. 

a.  The  simple  ace.  or  the  ace.  after  the  prep,  urn  may  stand  after  a  com- 
parative to  express  the  measure  of  difference :  ^mbrid;  ijl  einen  fyalben  Jto^f 
or  inn  einen  Ijalben  .ffopf  grcpet  ate  SMfyelm. 

In  early  N.H.G.  the  %en.  was  here  quite  common:  !Da  et  »ntet  bag  SSctcf 
trat  |  rcau  et  etnS  Ijenbtg  lenget  benn  alleS  SSohf  (i  Sam.,  x.  23).  It  is  still  occa- 
sionally used :  £>amtt  iji  gefagt,  bag  et  eineg  J&auvtcd  tauget  al3  al(e  votigen  Jpetbe* 
vietet  ift  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  III,  10). 

b.  The  gen.  is  used  to  denote  that  something  takes  place _at  fixed  intervals 
of  space :    Unb  namentlid)  in  Settungen  ift  atlet  \\\M  3ei(en   9l^nlid;eg  gn  ftttben 
(Theodor  Matthias's  Sprachlebeti  und  Sprachschaden,  p.  334,  ist  ed.).     The 
ace.  is  also  used  here. 

c.  The  gen.  of  extent  or  degree  is  found  in  a  number  of  idiomatic  ex- 
pressions :  bermajjen  (mafien,  an  old  wk.  gen.  sing,  of  SJJlajje)  to  such  an  extent, 
also  in  such  a  manner,  biefermafjen  to  such  an  extent,  sometimes  in  this 
manner,  eintgctmafjett  t&  some  extent,  fcldietmafjen  to  such  an  extent,  sometimes 
in  such  a  manner;  berart,  bergeftalt,  foldjetgejlalt  =  betmafjen,  fold)evmapen.    The 
gen.  is  used  here  under  the  influence  of  the  gen.  of  manner  which  is  employed 
with  these  words  when  they  denote  the  manner  of  the  activity.     In  most  of 
these  words  the  idea  of  manner  is  not  now  so  common  as  formerly  and  in 
some  cases,  perhaps,  not  found  any  more  at  al^  having  been  displaced  by 
that  of  degree.    Earlier  in  the  period  a  prepositional  construction  was  also  in 
use:   cin  ^otttnirf,  ber  in  geunffet  JDJafjen  (in  2nd  edition  of  1801  with  simple 
gen. :  gmnfjermafjen)  alien  anbern  €>eften  gilt  (Wieland's  Horaz,  i,  37). 

B.  Duration  or  measure  of  time  answering  the  questions  how  long,  how 
often,  &c. :  (Sr  Uefl  ben  lieben  langen  Jag  He  reads  the  whole  livelong  day.     @t 
ijl  jwanjicj  3a!)te  alt,    3iel;en  <Sie  auf  un$  2  donate  dato  (from  date)  fur  bie  £dlftc 


223.  IV.  3.  ADVERBS   OF    DEGREE  367 

beg  53etragg.     9U(e  Sage  every  day,  af(e  j»ei  Sage  every  other  day,  affe  adjt  Sage 
every  week,  alle  $md  Stunbcn,  einmaf,  jiteimal,  8cc. 

a.  We  not  infrequently  find  also  the  gen.  in    sentences  answering   the 
question  how  often  ?     See  II.  4,  above. 

b.  In  a  number  of  expressions  containing  numerals  the  gen.  is  only  seem- 
ingly a  gen.  of  measure,  while  in  fact  it  is  a  partitive  gen.  dependent  upon 
the  numeral :  $irei  ganjer  <£tunben  lang  (Schiller)  or  now  more  commonly  with 
the  numeral  after  ganj,  as  in  hne  er  benn  nod)  ganjer  brei  donate  ba  getoefen  ifi 
(Lessing).     The  words  jtt>ci  and  brei  are  here  in  reality  in  the  ace.  of  the 
measurement  of  time,  but  are  now  felt  as  attributive  adjectives  modifying 
the  genitives  ©tunbeu  and  SKonate.    Also  in  such  expressions  the  ace.  of  the 
noun  is  now  more  common :  ganje  vier  3al)te  tang. 

c.  The  gen.  is  also  used  in  a  few  set  expressions  denoting  duration,  as  in 
ben  Sag  ubec  or  Sagg  fiber  all  day  long :   Jpitnbevte  fyattcn  Sagg  fiber  ben  $pta$ 
itmlagert  (H.  Bohlau's  Adam  und  Eva,  chap.  i).     2Ber  bag  mat  gefefyen  fyat 
Vcrgifjt'g  feiner  [or  perhaps  more  commonly  feme]  Sebtag'  nid)t  (Halbe's  Der 
Strom,  p.  14),  also  fctne(r)  fiebtage  or  fein  Sebtag  (a  mutilated  or  contracted  ace. 
sing,  or  pi.). 

d.  In  answer  to  the  question  how  often,  or  how  much  within  a  given  time, 
the  gen.,  or  perhaps  more  commonly  ace.,  of  the  noun  expressing  the  given 
time  within  may  be  used  in  case  of  masculines  and  neuters,  with  feminines, 
however,  only  the  ace.,  or  both  construction?  may  with  all  genders  be  replaced 
by  a  prep,  phrase:  £)ag  €>d)iff  fafyrt  jtr»eimal  beg  Sagg,  or  jweimal  ben  Sag,  or  jeben 
Sag  jiTJCtmal,  or  an  jebem  Sage  gtoeimal.    £>r.  3Me  »on  JpUlerob  fprad)  brctmal  beg 
Sagcg  vor  (Fontane's  Unwiederbringlich,  chap.  xxiv).     ©inigemal  beg  3afircg  gcg 
bie  ganje  gamilie  tiad)  Stuoli  (R.  Voss's  Psyche,  chap,  xviii).    35iei^ig  9ieidjsta(er 
beg  SaTjreg  lief  en  fie  ifym  (Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap.  ii).     Not  jtoeimal  bet  SSod)e,  but 
jebe  SBodje  jn?eima(,  or  jweimat  bie  2L<ocfye,  or  jweitnat  in  bee  2Bcd)e     2)er  ^utfc^er 
ntuf  toenigfieng  160  m.  (2>?etev)  in  ber  Sfttnute  jnrurftegen. 

C.  Weight,  amount,  price :  (§g  ijl  einen  Bentnet  fd)»er.  J)te  (Recbnting  betrdgt 
einen  Salet  The  bill  amounts  to  one  taler.  ($g  fcftet  mtr  or  mid)  »ie(  ©elb. 
SBie  »iel  gift  eg?  ®g  gilt  metnen  Jtoyf  How  much  is  at  stake?  My  head. 
3d)  bin  tfym  10  Safer  fd)u(big  I  owe  him  10  talers.  SDfit  biefen  .Rirfd)fit  I)abe  id) 
brei  2Warf  ben  ^orb  »cvbient.  2)iefe  Jl irfdjen  fcften  bvet  9J?atf  ben  Jtcrb.  Jpaft  ®n 
mir  nidjt  itnmer  ben  tateinifdjen  Stuffa^  gemad)t,  eineit  Sttbergrcfcben  bag  ©turf? 
(J.  Rodenberg's  Klostermanns  Grundstiick,  p.  54).  Notice  that  in  the  last 
two  examples  we  have  the  accusative  of  price  and  also  that  of  amount  in  the 
same  sentence.  Instead  of  the  ace.  of  amount  we  often  find  the  nom.  when 
the  noun  denoting  the  material  in  question  is  in  the  nom.  :  3Mefe  .Rufdjen 
fallen  brei  3ftarf  bee  Jtcrb.  The  two  nominatives  are  in  apposition  with  each 
other,  the  nom.  replacing  the  older  partitive  gen.  The  construction  becomes 
clear  by  changing  the  word-order  :  ber  ^orb  Jlirfdjen  fcflet  bvet  9ftarf. 

Instead  of  an  accusative  of  a  noun  we  often  find  the  ace.  of  a  pronoun  : 
(£r  Itef,  irag  cr  laufen  fennte.  <Sie  (i.  e.  $IKI  reitenbe  Sbatterten)  vafen  ju  mir  Ijer,  >caS 
bag  ffitemjeug  fyalt  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovelleri).  Slber  tt»ag  faun  bag  (jelfen! 
(R.  Huch's  Aus  der  Triumpfgasse,  1). 

a.  Instead  of  the  ace.  the  gen.  is  still  used  in  a  few  expressions  denoting 
a  part  of  a  whole  :  teilg  in  part,  grc^tentcilg  in  most  part,  ©el)  tfym  gefdKig  fyalbtn 
SBegg  cntgrgen  (Goethe).  J&albwegg  entfd)(p(Ten  half-way  determined. 

Earlier  in  the  period  we  find  the  gen.  of  the  amount  or  price  also  else- 
where :  25a  gilt'g  ©dnueigeng  (Luther).  Sffiie  eg  fo  unfaglidjet  SKu^fat  gefcftet 
(Scheffel's  Ekkehard  [1855]  84).  With  geltctt  also  a  prepositional  construction 
was  used  :  iinb  follt'g  bcm  Senfcl  um  ein  Cljr  getten  (Schiller's  Rauber,  2,  3). 

3.  Degree  can  also  be  expressed  by  a  prepositional  phrase :  tells 
or  jum  Seit  in  part.  £>a§  @d)tff  irave  auf  etu  «^aar  gefcntert  The  ship 
came  within  a  hair's  breadth  of  upsetting. 


368  ADVERBS  223.  V. 

V.  ADVERBS  OF  CAUSE  OR   REASON,  usually  expressed  by  an 
adverb  or  a  prep,  phrase:   2»au  fann  bason  franf  reerten  One  can 
get  sick  from  that.     Gr  ijl  jornig  baruber  He  is  mad  about  it.     2)a$ 
Jttnb  gittert  »or  &rofl. 

The  following  five  classes  may  also  be  considered  as  subclasses 
under  the  general  class  of  cause. 

a.  A  gen.  of  cause  was  once  common  in  the  language,  and  still  survives  in 
a  number  of  expressions.  For  full  treatment  see  26O  (and  2.  A.  b  and  3 
thereunder)  and  262.  II. 

VI.  ADVERBS  OF  CONDITION,  usually  introduced  by  a  gen.  or 
a  prep,  phrase  :  nottgen  5afl§  if  it  is  necessary,  gunjltgen  §cift3  if  a 
favorable  opportunity  offers  itself,  fcfyltmmften  %M§  if  worst  comes 
to  worst.    31ur  fcei  grojjent  Srleijje  fannft  bit  ft-ortfdjrttte  macijen  You  can 
make  progress  only  on  condition  that  you  are  very  diligent. 

VII.  ADVERBS    OF   CONCESSION,   expressed   rarely  by   a  gen., 
usually  by  a  prep,  phrase  :    jebenfaflg  in  any  event,   in   any  case 
whatever,  auf  ntte  Sdtte  at  all  events,  by  all  means.     5ro$  manner 
SSMberrcartigfetten  ifi  ba3  Sefcen  bodj  reid?  ait  ftreuben. 

VIII.  ADVERBS  OF  PURPOSE  OR  END,  usually  expressed  by  an 
adv.  or  prep,  phrase  :  £>ci$u  (for  that  purpose)  fam  id?  nidjt  tyer.     2Kau 
fcefUmnite  ifyn  fcfyon  in  ber  3ugeitb  bafitr  (fitr  ben  @olbatenflanb).     @r  firebt 
uad)  6|)re. 

IX.  ADVERBS   OF   MEANS,  usually  expressed  by  an  adverb  or 
a  prep,  phrase  :    2)fau  fprengt  bamtt  (nut  $ul»«r)  bte  flarfflen  ^elfen. 
2)urd;  falfdjeg  3«ugni3  glaubt  er  ftcfy  jii  retten. 


X.  ADVERBS  OF  MATERIAL,  usually  expressed  by  an  adverb  or 
prep,  phrase  :  <Sd?6ne§  $ud?,  nnr  wotten  etnen  iJlocf  basjon  madden  Iaff«n. 

XI.  MODAL  ADVERBS,  which  denote  in  what  manner  a  thought 
is  conceived  by  the  speaker.     They  are  thus  adverbs  of  manner, 
and,  like  them,  are  sometimes  expressed  by  the  gen.  of  a  noun 
instead  of  a  simple  adverb,  but  they  differ  from  them  and  all  other 
adverbs  in  that  they  modify  the  thought  in  the  sentence  as  a  whole 
rather  than  any  one  word  in  it  :   fetnegrcegS  by  no  means,  nteine&= 
tctlS  as  regards  me,  as  for  me,  meineS  30Btfje"8  as  far  as  I  know, 
nteineS  (SradjtenS  in  my  judgment,  unfereS  SBebunfenS  as  we  look  at  it,  in 
our  opinion.     Of  these  adverbs  only  those  most  idiomatic  and 
difficult  of  comprehension   are   treated   below,  which   should    be 
carefully  studied,   as   each   gives   a   distinct    complexion   to  the 
sentence  in  which  it  stands  : 

A.  Expressing  an  affirmation  : 

a.  Tui  indeed,  truly,  why,  don't  you  see,  you  know  :  35a3  ijl  ja  nun  af(c£  »or&fi 
But  that  is  now,  you  know,  all  past.     JitoS  ifl  »or$ffallen  ?     ®ie  fdjen  ja  ganj 
bUid)  and   What  has  happened  ?  You  look  very  pale  indeed.     See  also  g. 

b.  (Einmar*  or  colloquially  mat  used  to  give  emphasis  to  a  statement  :  2>a3 
i|l  einmal  cin  SUb  !  That  is  a  picture  for  you  1  or,  I  tell  you  that's  a  fine 


223.  XI.  A.  h.  MODAL  ADVERBS  869 

picture  !  £tyrannijurcn  taffe  id)  mid)  cinmaf  nidjt  I  want  you  to  know  that  I  can- 
not be  tyrannized  over.  %lmi  einmat  cannot  be  helped :  £>af3  ifl  mm  einmat  Ijm 
That  is  lost  and  can't  now  be  helped.  9lid)t  einmat  often  occurs  in  the 
meaning  not  even,  making  some  particular  word  in  the  sentence  emphatic : 
(5r  vegierte  felbet  unb  nid)t  einmat  fein  Jlammerbienet  fonnte  jtd)  perfonlidjer,  (ftnfiiiffe 
rutjmen. 

c.  £>od)  has  a  different  force  according  to  the  word-order  used  :  (i)  In 
normal  or  inverted  order  it  has  the  meaning  of  after  all,  though,  just,  truly, 
surely,  in  any  event,  any  way.     It  is  used  to  strengthen  a  statement,  but  is 
employed  adversatively  to  state  something  in  contrast  or  opposition  to  what 
precedes,  or  it  may  be  used  in  elliptical  sentences,  the  bod)  expressing  a 
contrast  to   something  implied  or  understood  :    @ie  ijl  uid)t  une  tie  cmbent 
3Jldbd)en,  afccr  fte  tjl  bod)  nur  cm  2)?abd)en  She  is  not  like  the  other  girls  (afraid), 
but  she  is  after  all  only  a  girl.     @e£'  bicf>,  SRobevt ;  id)  mitjj  bit  bod)  ctwag  erjdljlen 
Be  seated,  Robert ;   I  have  something  which  I  just  must  tell  you  (although 
you  may  not  want  to  hear  it).    3d)  unit  bod)  fef)en,  ob  man  cutd)  mid)  tywausnnrft 
(The  last  man  I  sent,  they  put  out  of  the  house)  I  want  to  see  though  if 
they  will  go  so  far  as  to  put  me  out  too.     2Bo  bie  (SJitdjfe)  T)crumftet)en  mujj  ? 
35ie  Ijat  bod)  bet  9lnbrc3  mit  I  wonder  where  that  gun  can  be !     Andrew  has 
it  with  him    (didn't  you  know  that  ?).     More  about  this  use  in  g  below. 
(2)  It  is  also  used  in  sentences  with  question  order  to  make  in  form  of  an 
exclamation  some  statement  more  impressive :  .£>abe  id)  bod)  oft  fd)on  ttnbanf 
crfafyren !  I  have  indeed  and  in  truth  met  with  unthankfulness  often  enough 
already.    Jjoabe  id)  ben  SWavft  unb  bie  ©trajien  bod)  nie  fo  ctnfant  gefcfjcn!   I  declare 
I  never  before  saw  the  public  square  and  the  streets  so  deserted  \ 

d.  35enn  evidently,  as  is  well  known,  as  the  facts  indicate,  as  it  is  evident 
from  the  preceding,  as  I  learn,  perceive,  and  with  various  other  translations 

of  similar  meaning:  (§3  ttjar  bed  ©rafm  Saaffe  SB  tile,  bag  5>ntfd)tum  in  Dfterreid) 
itiebec  jit  T)alten,  unb  bag  Ijat  er  benn  (as  is  well  known)  and),  foweit  e3  in  feiner 
2)?ad)t  lag,  grunbUd)  beforgt.  (St  ijl  beitn  (as  I  now  perceive)  bod)  (after  all)  cm 
Starr !  ®r  fagt  c^  unb  fo  mnjj  id)  t$  benn  (seeing  that  he  says  it)  rco()t  glauben. 
Sa3  ijl  benn  (as  is  very  evident)  bod)  (and  it  is  contrary  to  my  expectation)  ju 
arg  (bad). 

e.  ©d)on  never  fear,  no  doubt,  surely,  as  a  matter  of  course,  used    to 
express  great  assurance  or  emphasis  :  (S3  unrb  ifym  fd)on  getiitgcn.     <£te  tt»erben 
fid)  fd)on  bort  tvcffen  They  will  no  doubt  meet  there.     @r  toirb  fd)on  !ommen  He 
will  doubtless  come.    S^t  §crnt  sorn  Jpanbtverf  fommt  in  alien  Sdnbern  Ijentm  unb 
f  onnt  f  d)on  (as  a  matter  of  course)  eqafylm.     Here  we  have  the  original  idea  of 
fd)on,  only  somewhat  faded.     See  II.  3.  a,  above.    Compare  j. 

f.  3a  Uiof)t  a  stronger  affirmative  than  ja,  but  often  used  without  any  differ- 
ence of  meaning  from  it,  merely  to  avoid  the  too  laconic  ja.     Sometimes  used 
after  a  question  expressing  doubt  as  to  a  matter  or  expecting  a  negative 
answer,  when  it  answers  strongly  in  the  affirmative  with  adversative  force  as 
bod) :  35u  fcminjl  icofyl  nid)t?     3a  u>ol)l.    You  are  not  coming,  are  you?    Yes, 
indeed  I  am. 

g.  As  bod)  is  nearly  synonymous  with  uiofjt  (see  h  and  D.  //),  so  it  often  has 
the  same  general  force  as  ja  in  a,  but  bod)  here,  as  elsewhere,  asserts  its  ad- 
versative nature,  and  thus  distinguishes  itself  from  ja  :  9JJit  9Jat  buvfen  (Sic  mid) 
bod)  nnterftu^en  You  might  certainly  (even  if  your  power  be  so  limited  as  not 
to  help  me  more  directly)  support  me  with  advice.     The  substitution  of  ja 
for  bod)  here  would  not  in  English  change  the  translation,  but  in  the  German 
implies  that  nothing  stands  in  the  way. 

h.  SiMjl  strengthens  a  statement  much  as  bod),  but  lacks  its  adversative 
force,  indeed,  certainly:  2Bcf)l  uwt  es  eine  lange,  falte  9Jad)t  (Uhland's  Ernst, 
I,  l).  In  popular  ballads  this  toofyl  loses  much  of  its  force,  so  that  its  meaning 
becomes  so  faint  that  it  can  scarcely  be  rendered :  (5'<5  gogen  brci  99urfd)e  tocfyt 
fiber  ben  Olljeiu  (Uhland's  Der  Wirtin  Tochterlein),  9!ut  strengthens  a  state- 

B  b 


370  ADVERBS  223.  XI.  A./*. 

ment  in  that  it  emphasizes  the  idea  of  urgency  :   3d)  tnufj  nut  balb  meinen 
armm  Jpevrn  auffud)en  (Lessing's  Minna,  i.  i). 

i.  An  uncertain  affirmation  may  be  expressed  by  an  adverb  or  a  noun  in 
the  gen.  such  as  teafyrfdjcinUd)  probably,  vnelletcfyt  perhaps,  ehra  possibly, 
perhaps,  perchance,  teofyl  used  to  modify  the  direct  categorical  tone  of  a 
statement,  likely,  probably,  I  think,  ttteglid)evttietfe  (gen.)  possibly.  (Sr  fommt 
teofyt  (I  think)  nod)  (jeute.  (Sr  tear  eg  tecljl  nid)t  It  is  not  likely  that  it  was  he. 
Compare  the  use  of  teofyl  in  h. 

Note.  SBcljt  is  much  used  in  the  narration  of  something  that  probably  was  accus- 
tomed to  take  place  under  certain  circumstances  without  positively  saying  that  this 
was  the  case  in  actual  fact  on  any  given  occasion,  -would  or  used  to  :  SBenn  er  nun  bort 
in  umber  qeftdjertem  93eft,agen  bet  feiner  Jpaugfrau  fajj,  ben  tteiten  bereitg  ergrauenben 
ju  ttiifjett,  bann  fprad)  ec  n>oi)t  ntandjmal  iifro. 


j.  The  following  adverbs  are  often  used  with  concessive  force  :  fdjcn  I  admit, 
ftofjl  may  be,  fveUid)  or  jtear  to  be  sure,  adetbutgs  it  must  be  admitted.  Exs.  : 
Sag  ifi  fd)cn  ridjttg,  aber  .  .  .  That  is  correct,  I  admit,  but  .  .  .  Here  we  have 
the  original  idea  of  fd)on,  only  somewhat  faded;  see  II.  3.  a,  (St  ifi  \voijl  ein 
gefdjtcfter  2J}amt,  bod)  traue  id)  ifi,m  tudjt  He  may  be  a  very  clever  man,  but 
I  don't  trust  him.  (§r  ifi  allerbtngg  reid),  aUein  er  ifi  nid)t  gliicflid). 

B.  Negation  is  expressed  by  an  adverb,  a  noun  in  the  gen.,  or  a  prep. 
phrase  :  nein  no,  ntd)t  (in  careless  colloquial  language  often  nit  in  S.G.  and 
nid)  in  N.G.)  not,  feinesteegg  by  no  means,  auf  fetnen  «yaf(  in  no  event,  nid)t  etn?a 
not  as  you  might  be  inclined  to  think,  by  no  manner  of  means  ;  the  adversa- 
tives  bod}  and  ja  bod)  (after  a  preceding  negative  proposition  or  a  question 
implying  a  negative  answer  to  affirm  the  contrary)  ;  bod)  md)t  (affirming  the 
contrary  of  that  which  is  expected  and  already  expressed  or  inferred  by  the 
preceding  speaker  or  questioner)  ;  ntd)t  bod)  (after  a  preceding  affirmative 
sentence  or  a  question  expecting  an  affirmative  answer,  for  the  purpose  of 
correcting,  denying,  disavowing  its  contents,  or  disapproving  of  the  thought 
therein  advanced)  ;  ®ott  beteafyre  !  befyiite  @ett  !  or  simply  bcwafjre  !  or  bet)iite  ! 
and  colloquially  i  ivo  !  (all  strong  negatives)  ;  id)  bddite  gar  !  (ei  or  ad))  wavum 
«id)t  gar  !  tiebev  gar  !  nonsense  /  what  an  idea  .'  ironically,  in  fact  branding 
some  statement  as  false  :  ©fauben  @ie  nid)t  chva,  bajj  id)  ntorgen  nneber  fomme 
Don't  think  (as  you  might  be  inclined  to  do)  that  I  shall  come  again  to- 
morrow. D  bitte,  eg  eilt  ntdjt  !  ©od)  ;  eg  eilt  Oh  please  don't  hurry  off,  there  is 
no  need  for  it.  But  there  is  need  of  haste.  S)it  geljfl  nid)t  ofyne  ntid),  Skater, 
bu  fannfi  nid)t  o^ne  ntid)  leben  ;  S3ater,  bag  fut)t'  id)  je^t  an  mir.  (2)er  abater, 
abwehrenb)  3  a  bod)  But  I  can  though.  (Etc  fyaben  itoijl  fetne  (SUe  ?  S)od)  You 
are  not  in  a  hurry,  are  you  ?  Yes,  I  am  though.  „  3fl,  @ic  benfen  auf  £ervn 
{Rabegaft  !  "  „  2)od)  nid)t,  ^»err  gfJibejaf)t  !  "  „  Sod)  ntd)t  ?  SSarum  bod)  ntd)t  ?  3<l 
an  bent  2ftann  irag  aiu^ufe^en  ?  "  —  „  &  unrb  wot)tregnen."  „  JJltdjt  bod),  bag  barometer 
ifi  fet)r  gcfitegen."  <£o((  id)  etne  9Ju§  aufbei^en  ?  9ttd)t  bod),  bu  Icnntefi  bir  einen 
betner  fd)onen,  Jretpen  Sa'fyne  abbred)en.  —  5D?einfl  bu,  fold)eu  _93urfd)en  fei  eg  baran 
gelegen  ?  ffiewatjre  !  2)ie  u>o((en  nut  3«t  geiinnnen.  —  Slber  Bier  Ijanbelt  eg  ftd)  urn 
etne  fredje  39efd)mu^ung  ntetner  (Sfyre.  9ld),  ivarum  nid)t  gar!  (Otto  Ernst's  Die 
Gerechtigkeit,  i,  Verwandlung,  3). 

a.  The  Latin  rule  that  two  negatives  make  an  affirmative  has  gained  the 
ascendency  in  the  literary  language,  but  in  the  language  of  the  common 
people  two  negatives  make  still,  as  formerly,  a  strong  negative  :  (Sr  tear  \\\it 
genbg  nicfyt  ju  ftnben  He  was  nowhere  to  be  found. 

Also  in  the  literary  language  of  the  classical  period  a  pleonastic  negative 
is  often  to  be  found,  especially  in  those  cases  where  the  clause  or  infin.  phrase 
is  logically  negative,  but  there  is  no  formal  sign  of  negation  :  SBir  muptcn  tt)ti 
mtt  ($e»alt  ^inbern,  bafj  er  ftd)  md)t  ein  Seibg  jufugte  We  had  to  keep  him  by 
force  from  laying  hand  on  himself.  Here  the  verb  tyinbern  has  negative 
force,  but  the  speaker  is  conscious  of  the  strong  desire,  which  he  had,  that 


223.  XL  c.  MODAL  ADVERBS  371 

his  friend  might  not  lay  hand  upon  himself,  and  hence  uses  nid)t  to  bring  out 
this  idea,  though  it  is  not  required  on  strictly  logical  grounds.  Thus  also  in 
infin.  phrases :  <2orgfa(tig  fyutctcn  toir  un3,  nid)t . . .  ung  umjufcljen  (Goethe).  This 
pleonastic  negative  was  formerly  common,  and  colloquially  is  still  sometimes 
found  :  (i)  After  verbs  containing  a  negative  idea,  such  as  abraten,  fid)  in  adjt 
nefymen,  ftd)  befovgcn,  ftd)  enrfyalten,  fid)  ertvcfyvcn,  fuvd;ten,  fyutcn,  vevbieten,  uerljinbern, 
»erl)fiten ;  after  eg  fe[)lt  tt>enig  (or  nid)t  »iel,  &c.),  c3  fann  nid)t  »iel  fefyten ;  for  like 
reason  after  the  prep,  ofyne  and  also  the  conjunction  cljne  bafj,  provided  it 
follow  a  negative  or  a  question.  Exs. :  SSerfyut'  c3  ©ott,  bajj  id;  nid)t  §iitfc 
bvaud)e  (Schiller).  35 a  id)  fyier  ganj  aftein  ofme  ©efrctat  unb  ofjne  nid)t3  auf  Urtaub  bin 
(Goethe).  35er  gcmeine  <£o(bat  fann  nid)t  tterurteilt  toerben,  oijne  bafj  nid)t  $tt>ci  feinev 
Jtamevabcn  $u  ©edd)te  fomtnen  (Mb'ser).  Examples  also  in  168.  II.  D  and  169. 
2.  D.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  after  fytiten  and  words  of  similar  meaning  the 
negative  is  still  quite  common  in  baft  clauses,  while  it  is  dropped  in  the  con- 
tracted infinitive  clause :  §ittc  bid),  bafj  bu  nid)t  fatlft,  but  Jpitte  bid),  p  fatten. 
(2)  In  clauses  of  manner  after  a  comparative  :  (§3  ging  beffer,  ats  toiv  nicfyt  badjten 
(Goethe).  Under  French  influence  this  construction  flourished  earlier  in 
the  period,  and  is  not  infrequently  found  even  in  the  works  of  the  classical 
authors.  It  has  now  almost  or  quite  disappeared.  (3)  In  clauses  introduced 
by  bt3  or  efye,  bc»or,  when  they  depend  upon  a  negative  clause :  3d)  luerbe  feine 
cmbete  2lrbeit  bcgiunen,  bis  id)  nid)t  bicfe  becnbct  t)abe.  Su  fcnnft  fie  ja!  (Sinfad)  nid)t 
ttegpfrtegett  au^  ber  ^ud)e  unb  ben  @tnben,  bis  nid)t  ade^  fo  feftlid)  at^  mcglid)  glanjt 
itnb  einlabet  iinb  gentutiid)  ift  (delle  Grazie's  Sphinx).  @()e  nid)t  feine  ^erfjdltniffe 
georbnet  ftnb,  fcmmt  er  nid)t  juc  Ohi^e  (Fontane's  Poggenpuhls,  chap.  xii).  (4) 
After  ($  ift  lange  Ijer :  (§3  ift  lange  t)er,  baf  unr  nid^t  OZegcn  getjabt  I)aben. 

b.  The  negative  nid)t  is  often  used  in  exclamations  with  the  force  of  a 
strong  affirmative :    2Ba3  bu  itid)t  al(c3  toeifjt !     I  declare  if  you  don't  know 
everything !  =  You  surely  know  everything.     The  negative  in  such  exclama- 
tions has  arisen  from  a  mingling  of  two  constructions.     From  SSie  vie(  tut  bie 
(SinbUbung  ?  and  £ut  bie  GnnbtUmna,  nidjt  »ie(?  (see  D,  b,  below)   has  come 
SBie  »iel  bie  Siubilbung  nid)t  tut ! 

c.  For  the  force  of  nid)t  in  questions,  see  D,  b,  below. 

d.  The  ace.  of  certain  words,  such  as  Confer,  Xeufet,  is  often  in  rather  coarse 
language  used  as  a  strong  negative  :  @c  ipetfs  ben  £enfer  bat>cn.    35a  fd)evt  man 
fid)  ben  Xeufet  urn  bie  3been  ber  Beit  (Sudermann's  Die  Hetmat,  I,  5). 

C.  An  imperative  may  be  strengthened  by  the  adverbs  etnmal'  (often  con- 
tracted to  tnal),  nut  (colloquially  in  N.G.  man),  and  bod).  (Sinmal  emphasizes 
a  request  or  command,  but  often  has  a  force  so  slight  that  it  cannot  be 
translated.  It  can  sometimes  be  rendered  by  just,  sometimes  it  merely 
serves  to  give  to  the  style  a  more  lively  conversational  tone  :  iScnfe  bir  einmal ! 
Just  think !  Jlcmm  einmal  I)cr!  Come  here  a  minute  !  £cr'  mal !  55ie  UladjtigaK 
fingt.  5)lut  and  bed)  are  used  to  urge  an  action  or  course  of  action,  the  former 
rather  persuasively,  and  the  latter  rather  more  firmly,  or  beseechingly  even, 
in  spite  of  evident  opposition  or  reluctance,  as  there  is  always  here,  as  else- 
where, adversative  force  in  bod) :  ftange  nut  an ;  C(J  tjl  ja  md)t  fd)tt>er  Do  make 
a  beginning ;  it  is  indeed  not  difficult.  <£d)onen  @ie  nuv  ben  Safer !  @eicn  ®ie 
red)t  aufmerffatn  auf  feine  Heinen  Sieb()abeveicn.  ©lit !  9iur  ju  Good  !  Keep  right 
on  !  9htt  nid)t  I)i^ig,  mcin  §err !  I  hope  you  will  not  lose  your  temper.  Xreten 
(Eic  man  (instead  of  mir)  cin.  (Si !  lafj  i^n  bod)  Let  him  alone,  I  say.  <2tarren 
Sie  miv  bod;  nidjt  fo  polijeUid)  tn3  ©cfid)t,t»ie  ivenn  id>  gefiol)len  Ijattc.  @c^  bid;  bod; ! 
O  do  be  seated  ! 

Though  bod)  and  nur  are  both  used  in  commands  and  entreaties  there  is 
a  marked  difference  in  their  several  meanings.  Sod)  implies  reluctance  on 
the  part  of  the  person  addressed,  while  nut  implies  that  the  speaker  desires 
this  course  and  urges  the  other  to  adopt  it.  Thus  as  this  desire  (nut)  on  the 
part  of  the  speaker  and  the  reluctance  (bod))  on  the  part  of  the  person 
addressed  may  both  enter  as  factors  into  the  case,  both  words  may  appear  in 

B  b  2 


372  ADVERBS  223.  XI.  c. 


the  same  sentence  :  9ld),  fo  fomm  bod)  nut,  bebte  eg  nod)  einmal  \>on 
Sometimes  bod)  and  einntal  are  combined  in  one  sentence  :  (StHdren  ®ie  bod) 
einntal  !  Come,  do  explain  !  Sometimes  in  lively  conversational  tone  all  three 
adverbs  may  be  combined  in  one  sentence  :  Jjpoten  @ie  bed)  nut  einmat  !  I  beg 
of  you,  do  listen  a  moment  ! 

a.  Admonitions  or  commands  are  also  often  strengthened  by  tt>ol)(,  especially 
such  as  have  the  form  of  a  question,  the  speaker  innall  cases  assuming  com- 
pliance upon  the  part  of  the  person  addressed  :   Ubettege  \vofyl,  roag  bn  fagfi. 
SBtdft  bit  ifoW  mad)cn,  bafj  bit  fortfommjt  ?  > 

b.  In  mild  commands,  direct  and  indirect,  also  in  granting  permission, 
immet  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  speaker  has  no  objection  to  the  matter  in 
question  and  sometimes  to  give  encouragement  :    2)ie  Scute  ntegen  eg  tmntet 
nnffcn,  bafi  id)  ntd)tg  ntef)t  fyabe  (Lessing's  Minna,  3,  7)  Let  the  people  know  for 
all  I  care  that,  &c.    8afj  jte  nut  tmtnet  toben  !  (Sage  eg  il)m  immer  !  Certainly,  just 
tell  it  to  him  !    35  u  batfft  ben  9tyfel  immet  nefjmen.    ©age  tfym,  et  moge  immct  tetfen 
Tell  him  he  should  go  by  all  means. 

D.  A  question. 

a.  !Deim  used  to  put  a  question  in  an  interested,  eager  manner,  inquiring 
after  the  cause  or  reason  of  some  fact  that  is  already  known,  or  often  only 
to  ask  3.  question  in  a  tone  of  lively  interest  or  of  impatience  :  SSatwn  fyafi  bu'g 
benn  tetfauft?    9Bag  ift  beun  paffiett?    Sie  fyctjjt  jie  benn?    €>ief)jt  bu  eg  benn  nid)t? 
Why,  don't  you  see  it  ? 

b.  yiidjt  expecting  an  affirmative  answer:  Jlomntt  er  ntd)t?  He  is  coming,  is 
he  not.? 

c.  (Stwa  uid)t  suggests  a  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  questioner  as  to  something 
which  he  once  had  thought  settled  in  the  affirmative  and  concerning  which  he 
now  asks  definite  information,  and  in  inverted  order,  ntd)t  etwa,  is  often  used 
politely  to  hint  that  the  person  addressed  is  in  the  wrong:  Jlommt  et  ctnxi 
ittd)t?     Is  there  doubt  about  his  coming?     .§aben  <£te  nut  ettta  bicfe  SMutnen 
nid)t  gefd)icft?    (Sudermann's  Heimaf,  I,  2)    Can  it   be  that   you   have  not 
sent  me  these  flowers?     Stren  <Sie  fid^  nid)t  ehca?   Don't  you  think  you  are 
mistaken  ? 

d.  (Stttxi  or  »ie((eid)t  in  questions  direct  or  indirect  marking  the  matter  in 
question  as  one  of  possible  occurrence:  ©tbt'g  ettoa  tjeute  Ofegen?  Can  it  be 
that  it  will  rain  to-day?     ^ontme  id)  ettra  unge(egen?  Can  it  be  that  I  come  at 
an  inopportune  time  ?    Stoeifelt  ettt>a  (or  wef(etd)t)  jcmanb  batan  ?  Can  it  be  that 
any  one  doubts  it  ?    §aben  @ie  etft»a  ©elb  bei  fid)  ?  Do  you  happen  to  have 
any  money  with  you  ?     3jl  Sfynen  cttoa  um  5  llf)t  gefdflig  ?  Shall  we  say  five 
o'clock  ? 

e.  3Bof)l  is  used  in  questions  in  the  following  constructions  :  (i)  In  rhetorical 
questions  (i.<e.  in  such  questions  as  need  no  express  response,  as  the  answer 
is  self-evident)  to  which  the  speaker  would  give  a  negative  answer,  it  is  used 
in  order  to  indicate  that  the   speaker  confidently  expects  a  confirmation 
from  the  hearer  of  his  own  negative  position  :    3fi  ft>ol)l  bet  ein  iciirbiget 
SWann,  bet  int  ©tucf  unb  Unglucf  fid)  nur  allein  betcnft?  Is  he  indeed  a  worthy 
man  who  in  fortune  and  misfortune  only  thinks  of  himself?     9iun  gtaubt  3fyt 
lt»o()t,  ©ott  H>etbe  eg  jugeben,  bafj  ein  einjiget  3Wann  in  feinet  SBett  rote  ein  SSuttid) 
I)aufe  unb  bag  Dbetfle  $n  untetfi  fe()re?  (Schiller).    This  use  is  similar  to  h, 
described  below.     (2)  It  is  also  very  frequently  used  to  ask  after  the  opinion 
of  the  person  addressed  as  to  some  doubtful  point,  and  also  often  without 
reference  to  any  person  addressed,  giving  to  the  question  the  character  of 
a  mere  enquiring  conjecture  :  SBev  tfl  roofyt  bet  fd)(anfe  S3utfd)e  ?  Who  do  you 
think  that  slender  fellow  is?     Jtcmmt  et  lrc{)(  I)eute  nod)?    Do  you  think  he 
will  come  yet  to-day  ?     2Bof)tn  fufytt  rcoljl  jene  £iit?  I  wonder  where  that  door 
leads  to.     Very  frequent  in  indirect  questions  :  Db  ioofyl  bte  S&etgolbungen  ed)t 
jtnb  ?  I  wonder  if  the  gildings  are  genuine. 

/  9lut  in  questions  or  exclamations  with  the  force  of  questions,  I  should 


223.  XI.  F.  MODAL  ADVERBS  373 

like  to  know,  much  used  in  questions,  prompted  by  the  desire  to  know  and 
understand,  and  very  often  mingled  with  surprise:  2Ba3  id)  nur  anfange? 
I  should  like  to  know  what  I  ought  to  do  in  this  case.  Slbcr  \va$  fyaben  Sic  nur 
»cr  ?  What  in  the  world  are  you  planning  to  do  ?  2Ba3  fud)|t  bu  nur  ?  What 
are  you  looking  for?  SScv  eS  nur  gefagt  fyat?  I  wonder  who  told  it  1 

g.  3)od)  with  its  usual  adversative  force  expressing  something  to  the 
surprise  of  or  contrary  to  the  wishes,  expectation,  &c.  of  the  speaker :  2Bo 
fyab'  td)'<3  bod)  ?  Where  is  it,  any  way  ?  (I  can't  find  it,  but  it  must  be  on  my 
person).  <2al)  cud)  bed)  niemaub  ?  .Rein  SWenfd)  But  did  not  somebody  see 
you  ?  Not  a  soul.  It  is  often  used  in  questions  put  to  one's  self  for  the 
purpose  of  trying  to  recall  something  forgotten  ;  3Ba$  tocdte  idj  bed)  eigentlid)  ? 
What  was  I  just  about  to  do,  any  way  ? 

h.  In  questions  having  the  form  of  declarative  sentences  bod)  and  iroljt 
are  used  to  state  the  opinion  or  idea  of  the  speaker,  and  ask  for  a  confirmation 
of  it ;  nid)t  nxUjr  and  in  the  South  gelt  expect  an  affirmative  reply  to  a  simple 
question  :  25 u  Ijajl'S  Umt  bod)  gcfagt  ?  I  suppose  you  told  him  ?  @te  Ijaben  bod) 
©efannte  fyier  ?  I  suppose  you  have  acquaintances  here  ?  @te  l)aben  je^t  n?ol)t 
Diet  ju  tun  ?  You  have  now,  I  suppose,  much  to  do  ?  @ie  iverben  ntitfommen, 
ntd)t  toafjr  ?  You  will  come  along,  won't  you  ?  9lber  ge(t,  cr  fterf te  btv  gennjj  @elb 
in  beinen  2kutet?  He  surely  put  money  into  your  pocket,  did  he  not  ? 

In  the  above  sentences  bod)  and  wofjl  have  the  same  general  meaning,  but 
bod)  with  its  usual  adversative  force  implies  (often  politely)  that  something  to 
the  contrary  may  possibly  be  urged  against  it,  while  toojjl  assumes  that  this 
will  probably  not  be  the  case.  Both  particles  can  be  combined  with  the 
combined  force  of  them  both  :  @ie  tnuffen  bod}  U)oI)I  anteortcn  ?  You  will  probably 
have  to  answer,  will  you  not  ? 

9itd)t  added  to  tod)  or  u?ol)t  in  such  sentences  expects  confidently  a  nega- 
tive answer :  25u  nnvft  bod)  nid)t  grditlein  ^>elcue  mit  ifyver  (Sdjnxfhc  »ergleid)en 
iDodeu?  You  certainly  will  not  desire  to  compare  Miss  Helene  with  her 
sister  ? 

9ttd)t  etira  added  to  bod)  in  such  sentences  express  the  hope  that  a  fear  or 
suspicion  may  not  be  realized,  or  may  be  without  foundation :  Slbcr  (et  jiefyt 
fid)  um,  leifer)  fie  n.nrb'3  bod)  wd)t  et»a  Ijorm?  But  (he  looks  around  him,  and 
speaks  more  softly)  I  hope  she  will  not  hear  it ;  you  certainly  don't  think  she 
will  ?  3f)t  ttcrfjaut  ben  §uub  bod)  md)t  etfta  ?  9Jetn,  er  fyaitt  un3. 

E.  An  exclamation  may  express  different  shades  according  to  the  adverb 
used.     Here  tod)  expresses  a  surprise  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  ;  nut  (collo- 
quially in  N.G.  man)  an  urgent  wish  that  the  person  addressed  may  comply 
with  some  desire  of  the  speaker,  or  look  at  something  from  his  standpoint ; 
bcun  impatience  ;  nid)t  (as  in  D,  b,  and  B,  b)  expressing  that  the  person 
addressed  will  agree  to  the  sentiment  uttered  :  25a3  itenue  id)  bod)  ui>d)  Jpitmor ! 
Well,  I  will  declare  if  that  isn't  even  humorous  !     @ie  fcdtcu  Ujn  intr  ()6reu  unb 
fefjen  !  You  ought  (I  do  hope  you  will)  to  hear  him  and  see  him.     2i£t  betm 
jtiK !  Sit  still  then  !     2Bte  gliicf  lid)  irareu  unv  nid)t !    How  happy  we  were ! 
2Ba3  ijl  et  ntd)t  fur  eiu  frcd)cr  23urfd)e !  What  a  bold  fellow  he  is  1 

F.  A  wish  may  express  different  shades  by  using  different  adverbs,  such  as 
bod)  or  nur  (colloquially  man)  only,  ttxun  bod)  or  nxim  nut  if  only  ;  much  less 
frequently  ftft  only,  alone  or  with  nur ;  man  nur  used  very  often  colloquially 
in  N.G.  for  nur.     Sod)  is  adversative,  and  shows  that  the  wishes  of  the 
speaker  do  not  harmonize  with  the  facts,  and  cannot  probably  be  made  to  do 
so.     ?Iur,  as  in  the  preceding  articles,  expresses  a  wish  that  can  be  or  could 
have  been  realized,  but  it  often  implies  the  fear  that  it  may  possibly  not  find 
realization.     Sikim  ev  bod)  Fame!  If  he  only  would  come  (1  fear  he  will  not)! 
2iknn  id)  nur  md)t  ju  fpat  fomme !  Oh  that  I  may  not  arrive  too  late  !     SBcim 
eg  nur  fo  gettefen  nwe !     SBare  id)  evft  ein  altcv  9D?aun !     2Iknn  id)  nur  erfl  fytubevt 
Saler  fyatte!      Here,  as  often  elsewhere,  erji  calls  attention  to  what  would 
follow  (223.  IV.  i.  b.  (2)). 


874  ADVERBS  224. 


COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 

224.  Few  genuine  adverbs,  from  their  very  meaning,  admit  of 
comparison,  but  the  many  adverbs  made  from  adjectives,  like  the 
latter,  can  be  compared.  The  comparison  of  such  adverbs  does 
not  differ  at  all  in  the  positive  and  comparative  from  adjectives 
except  that  the  adverbial  forms  are  not  inflected,  and  hence  their 
comparison  along  with  that  of  genuine  adverbs  is  treated  under 
adjectives;  see  114-118.  In  N.H.G.  the  adverb  has  developed 
new  forms  in  the  superlative  which  are  given  in  114. 


PREPOSITIONS. 

NATURE. 

225.  Very  closely  allied  in  nature  to  adverbs  are  prepositions, 
which,  like  adverbs,  limit  the  force  of  the  verb  as  to  some  circum- 
stance of  place,  time,  manner,  cause  or  reason,  purpose  or  end, 
means,  material,  modal  expression — in  short  the  same  circum- 
stances as  are  expressed  by  the  adverb  minus  degree ;  hence  the 
preposition,  unlike  the  adverb,  cannot  admit  of  comparison.  Thus 
a  preposition  in  connection  with  its  dependent  substantive  is  exactly 
equal  in  force  to  an  adverb,  but  a  preposition  and  an  adverb  differ 
in  this  that  the  latter  limits  the  force  of  the  verb  in  and  of  itself, 
while  the  former  requires  the  assistance  of  a  dependent  noun  or 
some  other  word.  A  preposition  does  not  only  serve  to  link  thus 
its  object  to  a  verb,  but  also  to  an  adjective,  a  noun,  or  a  sentence. 
As  this  connective  particle  usually  stands  before  the  dependent  word, 
it  is  called  a  preposition  (Latin  prae  before  and  positio  position). 

I.  a.  Sometimes  a  few  prepositions  and  adverbs  touch  each  other  so  closely 
that  the  prep,  can  only  be  distinguished  by  its  dependent  substantive,  and 
if  that  be  dropped  the  same  word,  which  was  only  a  moment  before  a  prep., 
becomes  an  adverb  :  3)a3  §au<3  Uegt  abtwrtg  (prep.)  be3  5utj]cS  The  house  lies 
back  from  the  river.  3)a8  -§au3  tiegt  dnravtS  The  house  lies  to  one  side. 

b.  As   the   distinguishing  mark  of  the  prep,  is   its   dependent   word,  it 
entirely  loses  its  identity  when  it  enters  into  composition  with  verbs,  and 
must  be  considered  as  an  adverb.    It  sometimes  changes  slightly  its  meaning 
when  it  becomes  an  adverbial  prefix  ;  see  229.  2  under  the  prep.  nacf»,/5  als° 
under  entgegen.     The  object  of  verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  is  some- 
times governed  in  case  by  the  preposition  contained  in  the  verb,  especially 
where  the  local  idea  is  prominent ;  often,  however,  its  case  is  controlled  by 
the  verb  itself  where  the  verbal  idea  is  conspicuous :  Ste  liefett  bent  3)iebe  nacf) 
They  ran  after  the  thief,  but  3d)  unit  bit  bag  4hf;eijnm3  ntitteUett,  bit  barftf  c*5  (ace. 
of  the  direct  object)  aber  nicfyt  uadjreben  I  will  tell  you   the  secret,  but  you 
must  not  repeat  it.     See  also  258.  I.  B.  a  and  262.  I.  b. 

c.  Sometimes  when  there  is  a  dependent  noun,  there  is  actual  fluctuation 
of  conception,  sometimes  the  particle  being  construed  as  an  adverb,  some- 
times as  a  prep.     This  is  true  of  an  or  gegen  about,  iibet  more  than,  ttntc:  less 
than  :  @$  ijl  an  (adv.)  or  gecjen  (adv.)  cin  Salet  or  an  (prep.)  or  gegen  (prep.)  eincn 


225. 4.  PREPOSITIONS  375 

£a(er  SSevtnft  bafcet  There  is  a  loss  of  about  a  thaler  in  the  transaction.  @<5  ijl 
fiber  (adv.)  ein  Staler  or  itber  (prep.)  einen  £ater  iBerluft  babci.  (Si  ift  untcr  (adv.) 
em  £aler  or  itntev  (prep.)  einem  £f)atcv  Qkrhtft  babci.  In  this  idiom,  notice  that 
the  prep,  iiber  according  to  its  idea  of  going  beyond  and  an  from  the  idea  of 
approaching  take  the  ace.,  but  the  prep,  untcv  the  dat.,  while  all  three  used  as 
adverbs  remain  without  influence  over  the  case. 

2.  Prepositions  approach  in  some  cases  the  nature  of  conjunctions,  and 
lose  their  influence  over  the  case  of  the  following  word.     This  is  true  of 
anftatt  or  ftatt,  au§er,and  earlier  in  the  period,  and  even  occasionally  later,  also 
cfyne  except,  which  is  now  replaced  here  by  auper  and  autfgenommen  :  (£r  fyat  eg 
mir  anftatt  ntctnem  23rubev  gcgeben.     (Sine  2)Jafcf)ine,  bie  bag  fteuev  treibt,  anftatt  ber 
guijrmann  (Rosegger).    3d)  win  mit  @tal)t  unb  Stein  bag  tUeiftg  $unben  |  unb  bieamat 
bit,  ftatt  Jperr,  ein  JDiener  fetn  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  3).     3a,  \\\t* 
ntanb  fanu  mir  Ijelfen  —  aufjev  id)  fclbft  (Fulda's  Die  Sklavin,  z,  8).     Sie  fanbcn 
adeS  aujjev  ben  2>cld),  or  aufcv  (prep.)  bem  2)cld).    <£te  u?ar  e<3  langft  nid)t  mcfyr 
genwfynt,  >va3  fie  bad)te  nnb  fitfytte,  gegcn  irgenb  cinen  SDlenfc^cn,  anjjet  ge^en  3uftu*5, 
fret  gn  aujjern  (Spielhagen's  Sonntagskind,  I,  4).    Sap  id)  md)t  nact)cenfcn  fann 
c()iie  ntit  ber  5fbec  in  bcr  Jjanb  (Lessing).     S3limmev  inc(;r  »oit  Stlfljetm  jii  fefji'cn 
au5  bent  Strett,  |  oftne  ntit  ?Uffcnneu  (Getoel'sjuntustieder,  339). 

a.  The  preceding  prepositions  connect  as  conjunctions  only  words,  but 
fcif,  bis,  U\V()renb  also  connect  sentences,  as  may  also  others  when  followed  by 
some  other  conjunction,  as  aitfjer  bap,  aufjec  loenn,  anftatt  bap,  &c. :  ^evfcnttd^e 
Savfcrfett  entfcfjeibet  irent^er,  feit  fid)  bie  §eere  ber  <2d)iepgcuie()ve  bectcnen.     5lBtv  gcfyen 
tagtid),  auper  iwenn  e<3  regnet.     Instead  of  aufer  ba^  we  also  find  the  simple 
connective:   S)asJ  fyufcftfye  S3erc5()aits3  I)at  (td^cr  ein  ©aftjimmer,  unb  bavin  will  id) 
mid)  —  an§er  <£ie  jagen  mid)  gcivaltfam  f)inau(5  —  voile  bret  Xage  feftfe^en  (Suttner's 
Im  Berghause,  p.  26).     Formerly  nna,ead)tet  ba^  was  common,  but  the  simple 
connective  is  now  preferred.     Instead  of  the  connective  [eit  the  form  fettbem  is 
also  used.     The  preps,  anftatt,  oJjne,  and  urn  in  order  are  very  commonly  found 
as  conjunctions  in  connection  with  the  infin.  with  jn  in  contracted  clauses : 
9lnftatt  ivea,  git  laufen,  fam  bcr  93a'v  t)eran.    Cfyne  fid)  umjufcfjctt,  lief  ber  2)icb  bavcn. 
&i?tr  Icbcn  uid)t  inn  jit  effen,  fonbcrn  icir  effen  urn  jit  tcbcn. 

b.  In  the  case  of  anftatt,  ftatt,  and  aufjer  when  they  connect  grammatical 
elements  of  like  rank  in  the  nom.  or  ace.,  the  words  can  usually  be  used  as 
preps,  or  conjunctions  without  difference  of  meaning :  S)ev  33aucr  bvad)te  batf  Jfalb 
anftatt  bet  J?it(),  or  ftatt  bie  Muij.    DUcmanb  fommt  miv  mtgcgen  aupev  ein  Unverfdjamtei- 
(Lessing's  Emilia,  4, 3),  or  auper  eincm  Un»crfd)dmten.     But  in  case  of  ftatt,  anftatt 
when  there  is  only  an  indirect  object  after  the  verb,  either  in  the  simple  dat.  or 
a  case  after  a  prep.,  there  is  a  sharp  distinction  between  the  prepositional  and 
conjunctional  construction.     In  the  former  construction,  the  noun  following 
anftatt,  ftatt  is  felt  as  the  subject  or  author  of  an  action,  while  a  noun  after 
these  particles  in  the  conjunctional  construction  is  felt  as  the  indirect  object : 
©ie  banfte  mtc  anftatt  beiiter  (instead  of  you  doing  so),  but  <£te  banfte  miv  ftatt 
bit  She  thanked  me  instead  of  thanking  you.     Sv  fyat  ftatt  bctncv  (instead  of 
you  doing  it)  an  mid)  gefdirtcbcn,  but  @c  Ijat  an  mid)  ftatt  an  bid)  a,efd)vteben  He  wrote 
to  me  instead  of  writing  to  you. 

3.  A  prep,  often  seems  to  show  a  relation  of  meaning  between  two  nouns 
where  in  fact  the  relation  is  between  a  noun  and  a  verb.     Thus  ©elb  jut 
{tfeife  money  for  the  journey  is  an  elliptical  expression  =  55a3  0clb,  batf  guv  Oieife 
bcftimmt  ift.    Thus  also  Jpcvr  itbcv  Xob  nnb  Sebcn  =  S)cv  £crv,  bcv  fiber  Scb  unb  Sebcn 
gcfc^t  ift.     In  other  cases  the  preposition  may  link  together  two  nouns,  the 
prep,  phrase  being  a  real  adjunct  to  a  noun  representing  an  older  simple  case 
form  :  ein  2)?dntc[d)cn  von  ©d)av(ad)  =  M.H.G.  ein  scharlaches  mentelin. 

4.  Sometimes  the  same  relations  are  expressed  by  a  prep,  and  case  as  by 
a  case  alone,  and  sometimes  by  changing  the  prep,  the  idea  may  receive  a 
new  shade:  2)?an  fvcut  ftd)  einer  <£ad)e,  or  an  einer  Sad)e  One  takes  pleasure  in  a 
thing  (which  one  has),  but  2ftan  fveut  fid;  auf  eine  ©ad)e  One  takes  pleasure  in 


376  PREPOSITIONS  225. 4. 

something  that  one  is  expecting  for  the  future.  Perhaps  the  prepositional 
construction  is  never  entirely  equal  to  the  case  construction,  as  the  prep,  often 
brings  out  more  prominently  some  circumstance  as  cause,  reason,  &c. :  3d) 
bin  mube  went  (from,  on  account  of)  Slrbetten,  but  3d)  bin  bcs  9lrbeiten3  tmibe 
J  am  tired  of  work,  do  not  care  to  work  longer. 

5.  Sometimes  the  prep,  is  followed  by  an  adverb  or  a  prep,  phrase  instead 
of  a  noun  or  pronoun :  von  fruij  bt3  fpat  from  early  till  late ;  Son  fyeute  auf 
ntovg:n  »cvfd)ieben  to  put  off  from  to-day  till  to-morrow.  (Sr  bad)te  an  ju 
(Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XXV). 


GOVERNMENT  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

226.  Originally  the  nouns  which  followed  prepositions  were 
not  governed  at  all  by  the  latter,  but  received  their  case  directly 
from  their  relations  to  the  verb,  the  preposition  likewise  limiting 
the  verb  by  adding  some  especial  explanatory  circumstance  of 
place,  time,  &c.  Thus  in  an  earlier  period  most  of  the  pure 
prepositions  were  in  fact  adverbs,  and  the  same  prep,  could  be 
followed  by  two  or  even  three  different  cases  according  to  the 
relation  of  the  noun  to  the  verb,  and  hence  possessed  no  governing 
power  over  the  noun.  But  in  course  of  time  a  closer  relation 
developed  between  the  prep,  and  the  noun,  and  the  former  gained 
governing  power  over  the  latter,  certain  prepositions  habitually 
requiring  certain  cases  after  them.  A  group  of  prepositions, 
however,  discussed  below,  still  allow  two  different  cases  to  stand 
after  them  according  to  the  relation  of  the  noun  to  the  verb,  which 
fact  shows  that  the  verb  has  not  entirely  lost  its  influence  over 
nouns  following  prepositions. 

The  improper  prepositions  (see  245.  V.  i.  B)  still  retain  in  good 
measure  the  power  of  governing  the  same  case  with  which  they 
were  associated  in  their  former  capacity  ere  they  became  prepo- 
sitions, but  also  from  the  crossing  of  different  conceptions  may 
take  another  case  without  any  difference  of  meaning,  as  is  discussed 
in  detail  below. 

For  the  construction  employed  when  several  prepositions 
governing  different  cases  stand  before  one  noun,  see  141. 5.  B.  b. 
Note. 


PREPOSITIONS  WITH  THEIR  DEPENDENT  CASES. 

227.  The  following  lists  contain  almost  all  German  prepositions, 
the  few  rarer  ones  or  those  needing  especial  treatment  being 
mentioned  in  the  following  articles.  Also  a  detailed  treatment  of 
each  of  the  prepositions  in  these  lists  follows  below.  Those 
marked  with  a  t  usually  govern  some  other  case,  but  those  with  a  * 
less  commonly  take  another  case.  Those  marked  with  **  govern 
different  cases  according  as  they  precede  or  follow  the  dependent 
noun.  Several  of  the  prepositions  have  several  forms,  the  more 
uncommon  being  inclosed  in  parentheses. 


228.  i.  a. 


ALPHABETICAL  LISTS 


377 


Prepositions  with  the  Genitive. 


abqcredjnct 

cnttang  f 

abfeits 

(ent(dngft) 

(abfeiten) 

erftuftve* 

(abfeitig) 

gcgemt)art(5 

abicdrts 

gelegentlid) 

abjugtid) 

gemd^f 

anbetrcff"(5 

Ijalb 

angeftd)t<5 

^albcn 

anldfUtd) 

^albet 

anftatt 

^albiueg^ 

antttertltd) 

i)e«rdrtd 

aufwarts 

5)infld)tltdj 

aitgfdjltefjtid) 

I)inftd)t3 

aufjerfyalb* 

Ijinterrurf^ 

aueweitfUd) 

I)tntern)drt3 

befjufs 

I)inivdrt3 

befage 

Ijuben  unb  bruben 

betreffr 

infctge 

bejuglid) 

tn^altltd) 

binnen 

tnfjaita 

banff 

inf(u(t»e* 

bteafettfS* 

inmitten 

einfdjliejiltdj 

tnner(t)t 

innert)atb* 

intrdrtfj 

jenfeits* 

fraft 

tdnggf 

(Idngft) 

Idnggfeit 

laut 

Unf3 

ntad)t 

mangeta 

mitte(3 

nttttelft 

namend 


cjHid^ 

cftlcdrts 
jmnfto 


rittling^ 


rutfwdrtd 
feitab 
feiten* 
fcitltd) 


ab 

cms 

bci 

bcncbil 

binnen 

banf* 


bt<J 

burcfj 

entlang 


an 

auf 

aufjer 


entgegen 

gegenuber 

gemap* 

idng^  (langft) 

ntit 

mitfamt 


erHitjioef 

fur 

gegm 


norblid) 

norbtodrt^ 

cbt 

cberljalb- 

cberttdrtg 

cfien* 

With  the  Dative. 

ndd)il 

nebjt 

nib 

cb* 

famt 

With  the  Ace. 

gen 

b,tnburd) 

tnflufiuet 


ftatt 

fubtid) 

fubirdrts 

trofe* 

um  —  hnh'en 

unangefeljen 

unbefdjabet 

imerad)tet 

unfern* 

ungead}tet 


ungercdjnet 
unterfjatb* 
untcrtodrts 
itnn?ett* 


»ermittclfl 
»ermoge 
»on  fetten 
»on  Jregen 
»orbel)altlid) 


Irdljrenb* 
tocgcn* 


ipeftwdrts 
geit 

gufotge** 
gugunften* 


?u  fetten 


feit 
trcfct 


»orgdngig          jufamt  mtt 


jiifolge** 
juna^fl* 


lang  (colloq.)     fonber 
ot)tu  um 

per,  Jjro,  »ia,  i    teiber 


With  Dat.  and  Ace. 


Winter 

in 

inner(t) 


mang  (N.G.) 
neben 
cber  (S.G.) 


iiber 
untet 


»ot 


Note.     For  contractions  of  these  prepositions  with  the  article,  see  57.  B. 


ORIGIN,  MEANING,  AND  USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS  WITH  THE 
GENITIVE. 

228.  i.  The  use  of  the  genitive  after  prepositions  is  easily  explained  by 
the  substantive  nature  of  a  large  part  of  them,  for  when  one  noun  depends 
upon  another  the  dependent  noun  is  in  the  gen.  The  prepositions  governing 
the  gen.  are  in  fact : 

a.  Nouns  in  the  adverbial  gen.,  or  expressions  formed  after  the  model  of 
such,  often  presenting  in  this  form  an  abbreviated  construction  for  an  adverbial 
phrase.  Thus  instead  of  a>on  Q3etltn  au3  licgt  SDJagbcburg  auf  jcncc  Sette  bet  (Slbe 
we  say  more  briefly  jcnfctttf  bet  (Slbc.  Thus  also  instead  of  burd)  ba3  SKittd  bcs 


378  PREPOSITIONS  228.  i.  a. 

(HteuerniberS  we  can  more  briefly  say  nttttets  beg  ©teiterruberS.  This  adverbial 
gen.  in  such  prepositions  usually  ends  in  S,  also  in  fern,  words  after  the 
analogy  of  masculines  :  bioSfeite,  fcttenS,  &c.  Many  such  prepositional  forms 
are  still  written  with  a  capital,  as  the  original  relation  to  the  parent  substan- 
tive is  still  vividly  felt :  SlnSgangS  btefcr  obet  Slnfangs  ber  nddjften  2Bocfye,  (f ingoings 
ber  fdcfyjtfdjen  @d)ttieij.  There  is  here,  however,  much  caprice  as  to  the  use  of 
capitals. 

b.  Nouns  in  an  oblique  case  after  a  preposition  expressed  or  understood  : 
in  Jtvaft  adein  be3  (Rings  (Lessing's  Nathan,  3,  7),  more  commonly  without  'the 
in,  as  in  fraft  ntctneS  Slmtes  by  virtue  of  my  office ;  ftott  or  anfiatt  metneS  fflruberS 
for  an  mcineS  93rubev3  ©tart ;  urn  beg  5«unbeS  hritten  (ace.  after  urn)  for  the  sake 
of  my  friend  ;  »on  (now  usually  omitted)  ftegen  (dat.  pi.)  beS  Bergofietien  SMnteS  ; 
in  23etradjt  fetner  Sugenb.     Slnfang  in  the  beginning  of,  2JJitte  in  the  middle  of, 
(Snbe  the  last  of,  toward  the  close  of,  (Me  on  the  corner  of,  are  now  frequently 
used  as  prepositions  dropping  the  preceding  preposition  and  article,  or  both 
preposition  and  article  may  be  retained  :  Sie  £riw»ellt,  Slnfang  (or  tnt  Slnfang) 
ber  2)vetfjig,  ftarf,  ntannlid)  unb  »on  auSgefprodjen  fyumcrijHfdjent  S^puS,  fyatte  ben  @cfaj 
61)renv>ta£  innegeljafct.     Sdj  fterbe  3Jhtte  (or  in  bee  Sftttte)  nad)ftet  SScdje  »erreifen. 
@t  irar  ein  atfytettfdj  gebantet  SWann  (Snbe  (or  ant  (Stibe)  ber  3ft>an}tger.    (Me  (or  an 
ber   Grcfe)  ber  @c^abon;ftfafe  (in  Berlin)  ifl  ber  Stngang  junt  5lquartum.    These 
prepositions  are  in  different  stages  of  evolution,  and  hence  do  not  all  stand 
in  the  same  relation  to  the  nouns  from  which  they  come.     Some  have 
thrown  off  the  preposition   before  them,  some  retain  it  occasionally,  some 
always,  some  drop  it,  but  can  be  replaced  by  nouns  with  both  preposition 
and  article.     In  general,  however,  these  prepositions  differ  from  pure  nouns 
in  dropping  the  article,  and  in  the  more  or  less  set  form  and  position  they 
assume  in  the  sentence,  usually  admitting  of  no  adj.  modifiers,  and  standing 
always  before  the  dependent  genitive,  thus  having  no  freedom  of  position. 

c.  Adverbs  and  participles,  the  former  in  some  cases  also,  like  the  adverbial 
nouns  in  a,  ending  in  3  :  UnfS  be3  3ufdjauer3  to  the  left  of  the  spectator ; 
ncvbwdrts  to  the  north  of,  etnfdjltejjilidj  inclusive  of,  &c. ;  toaljrenb  (pres.  part.) 
during,  imgeadjtet  (past  part.)  notwithstanding,   abgerecfynet  aside  from,   not 
counting,  ungeretfynet  not  counting. 

2.  The  double  construction,  gen.  or  dat.,  after  some  of  these  prepositions  is 
explained  by  the  crossing  of  two  or  more  conceptions.  On  the  one  hand, 
when  one  noun  depends  upon  the  other,  the  dependent  one  must  be  in  the 
gen.  Thus,  as  can  be  seen  from  i.  a  and  b,  above,  a  number  of  these  preposi- 
tions, being  in  fact  nouns,  require  the  dependent  noun  to  stand  in  the  gen. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  idea  that  is  contained  in  some  nouns  suggests  the  use 
of  the  dative  after  the  analogy  of  other  similar  constructions.  Thus  we  say 
SenfeitS  beg  S'hiffcS  fteljt  etne  afte  ,f?apefle,  but  we  also  find  sometimes  jenfettg  bent 
ShtJif,  as  the  idea  of  rest  is  so  often  associated  with  the  dative.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  few  prepositions  governing  the  dative  are  also  found  with  a  genitive, 
as  their  originally  substantive  nature  is  felt,  or  they  are  influenced  by 
prepositions  which  were  once  substantives.  Thus  we  say  tre£  ben  93efel)len 
bc3  JtcntgS  in  analogy  with  man  bietct  ben  93efefjten  beg  ,Ronia,$  £rc£,  but  we  also, 
and  now  more  commonly,  say  trcfe  ber  S3efeJ)te  bcS  .ftcnigS.  The  form  gcma{$  is  in 
fact  an  adjective  governing  the  dat.  and  can  still  be  inflected  and  compared, 
but  it  has  become  associated  in  meaning  with  the  prepositional  formations  in 
©emajsfyett  and  $ufc(ge,  so  that  it  likewise  sometimes  governs  the  gen. :  bent 
93efef)l  gemdfj,  or  gemdfj  bent  93efe()l  or  beS  SefeWs. 

«.  We  sometimes  find  non-inflection  or  the  dat.  after  prepositions  governing 
the  gen.  on  purely  formal  grounds  :  (i)  We  not  infrequently  find  an  unmodi- 
fied substantive  uninflected  after  these  prepositions :  ©am&etta  fcfgte  tfjncn 
ebenfaKs  bevtljtn,  inbem  er  $aris  mittelft  fiuftballon  (instead  of  the  more 
correct  gen.)  tterlicfj  (Deutsche  Rundschau],  Thus  also  in  a  number  of  ex- 
pressions, especially  in  popular  language,  such  as  toegen  ScbfSfall  on  account 


228<4.  WITH  THE  GENITIVE  379 

of  death,  frcgen  Slb6ru<!)  on  account  of  the  tearing  down  of  the  building,  &c., 
instead  of  the  more  correct,  and  in  choice  language  more  common,  ftegen 
2obce>fa(l3,  9lbbnid)i?,  &c.  After  biesfeitd,  jcnfeits,  cberfyalb,  unterljalb,  aufjerfyalb, 
umrcit,  unfcrn,  nerblicb, ,  fublicfc,  cftlid),  J»cfl(tcf>  we  often  find  non-inflection  before 
names  of  places,  although  these  words  elsewhere  more  commonly  govern 
some  case:  eberfyalb  beg  £cicf)Cfj,  but  rberfyalb  33evltn<?  or  Serlin. 

Non-inflection  in  case  of  unmodified  words  is  especially  common  in  lists 
of  words,  where  the  repetition  of  3  would  be  unpleasant :  ($8  War  cine  fd)ier 
verttevte  (9etneinbe,bie  uonmegenb  nxgen  S3etrug,  9iaub,2)iebjkl)(,  Sinbtucfy  fyict  gefangeu 
fap  (Marriot's  Seine  Gottheit,  chap.  ii).  Others  employ  here  the  regular  gen. 
ending :  5)ann  itf  uedj  eincr  ivegen  Settdna,  £anbjheid)enf3  unb  9lddjtigen3  im  greicn 
ttcrbeftraft  (Beyerlein'sy^tf  oder  Sedan  ?,  II). 

(2)  The  use  of  the  dat.  instead  of  the  gen.  is  especially  frequent  where  the 
latter  is  not  clearly  marked  in  form :  ludfjrenb  fitnf  Sagen  (instead  of  Sage, 
which  is  not  clearly  marked  as  a  gen.).     The  dat.  is  quite  common  in  case 
of  the  masc.  and  neut.  sing,  of  the  relative  and  interrogative  pronoun  irclcf)tr, 
which  has  a  gen.  sing,  exactly  like  the  nom.  and  ace.  neut. ;  see  irdfyrenb  under 
4,  below.     The  dat.  is  likewise  common  in  case  of  other  pronouns  which 
cannot  distinguish  a  gen.  from  the  nom.  and  ace. :  tuegen  mand)em  (R.  Schwei- 
chel's  Verloreri).    See  also  anftatt,  taifyrcnb,  i»egen,  below. 

(3)  The  use  of  the  dat.  instead  of  the  gen.  is  sometimes  preferred  when 
a  dependent  gen.  stands  between  the  prep,  and  its  object  :    Unmut  iregen 
Jpcgelci  immct  fteigenbcm  Shiftmen.    The  dat.  is  sometimes  similarly  used  when 
a  dependent  gen.  follows  the  object  of  the  prep. ;  see  ivegeit  under  4,  below. 

(4)  Spielhagen  in  his  Herrin,  p.  29,  uses  the   dat.  to   prevent  a  clash 
between  different  numbers  of  the  same  case  :  ftdfyrcnb  bcr  ganjcn  jwei  unb  ctneut 
fyalben  3al)te. 

3.  These  prepositions  are  constantly  increasing  in  number,  much  more  so 
than  all  other  classes.     It  can  be  seen  from  the  above  that  it  is  impossible  to 
include  in  the  list  all  such  prepositional  particles  which  govern  the  gen.,  for 
many  nouns,  as  in  I.  a  and  b,  above,  and  others  are  occasionally  pressed  into 
service  as  preps.,  though  they  still  retain  their  initial  capital.     In  most  cases 
only  such  are  given  in  the  list  as  are  usually  written  with  a  small  letter  and 
pass  generally  for  prepositions. 

4.  The  treatment  of  prepositions  governing  the  genitive  as  to  their  meaning 
and  use  follows,  the  prepositions  being  arranged  alphabetically.     In  some 
cases  the  mere  definition  will  suffice,  as  these  prepositions  do  not  enter  into 
so  many  idiomatic  combinations  as  prepositions  governing  other  cases. 

abfliTcrijurt  aside  from,  not  counting :  abgmdmet  ctnigcr  Stdfcte  (Ausld., 
38,  821  a),  liberal!  fenft,  ivo  bcr  ©fitf  fycute  fhcng  mdcfctig  unb  cfyne  galfdjmungmt 
am  SBerfe  ijl,  entbdjrt  er  je£t  uberfyaupt  be<3  3beal3  —  bet  pepuldve  9lu3briirf  fur  bicfe 
Slbjhncnj  tft  „  3UT}eigmu3  "  —  :  abgerec^tict  feincS  2Bi((en3  jur  aSaT)vf)cil  (Nietzsche's 
Zur  Gcneahgie  der  Moral,  p.  480).  The  absolute  construction  in  connection 
with  an  absolute  ace.  is  more  common  here :  9tarctfja,  tfyrcn  @to(j  abgered)net, 
icar  cin  ItcbcuSUMtrbtgcS  SBefen. 

abfcitctt/  see  fcitenS  and  abfetts. 

obfcit^p  abtt>(irt«,  and  the  now  rarer  forms  flbfcit,  flbfdtctt/  nbfctttg 
off  to  one  side,  aside  from  :  ?lfcfcit3  be3  il^cgea  ticgt  ba^  ipauiJ.  ?lbn\irt(?  bc(5  Qtngang^. 
95ergfbeiie*()atteberlefctcvcgcgcnbcnjungen  Senator  Ijervergcljefccii,  bag  ,,fraftfetne3tragenben 
Slmteg,  abfciten  bc$  $lnfef)en^  bet  gamtiie,"  bie  9luaen  ber  gan^en  ©tabt  auf  i()ii  gerid)tet  feien 
(Storm's  Sbhne  des  Senators,  p.  301).  They  sometimes  occur  with  the  dat. : 
tS'tnxiS  abfcitsJ  bcm  Slccfen  unb  barubcr  cr^6()t  tag  eiti  cinjetnc<j  £dj(c|3cJ)en  (Hans 
Hoffmann's  Die  Totenhochzeif),  9lbivdrt3  is  also  used  in  the  meaning  of 
below,  downward,  down  stream  from,  usually  with  the  gen.,  but  often  with 
non-inflection  before  names  of  places :  abn?drt>5  ber  Skiifi,  abrcdrtd  Jpambuvg  below 
Hamburg  (on  the  Elbe). 

)  deducting :  abjiiglid)  ber  £ran$pcrtfojten. 


380  PREPOSITIONS  228. 4. 

anbetreff*,  betreffS,  in  SBetrcff,  in  Stnbetreff  concerning,  as  regards  : 
Sftein  $lan  betreffg  einet  (Betfe.  These  prepositions  are  very  closely  related  in 
meaning  to  In'nfidjtttcf),  Ijinftdjta,  begiiglicj) :  @eine  (Sr^lung  bebarf  in  03etreff,  or  in 
Slnbetreff,  or  betreffg,  or  fynftdjtg,  or  J>tnftrf)tlidj,  or  bejiiglidj  jnandjer  ^ttnfte  ber 
ffiericfytigung. 

anocftrijtS,  Slngeftdjt  ju  Slngeftd)t  in  the  face  of;  angeftdjtg  ber  geinte.  Singe; 
ftd)t  ju  Slngeftcfyt  ifyreg  unbejdfytnbaren  Ubermutg  fajj  ber  grcfje  *]Seffimift  ftumm,  faft 
regunggfog  ba. 

anldfslif^,  auf  or  aug  Slnlafi  spurred  on,  impelled  by  the  occasion  of, 
upon  the  occasion  of:  antafjlid}  beg  90.  ©eburtgtageg  beg  bcrufjmten  ©eleljrten 
erfcfyten  eine  geftfcfynft. 

attftatt  or  ftatt  instead  of:  Slnftatt  (or  ftatt)  beg  SSaterg  erfdjien  bie  2J?utter. 
Sometimes,  especially  in  popular  language,  with  the  dat. :  9Jnftatt  bem  5?ater 
erfdjim  bie  2J?utter.  Also  sometimes  in  the  literary  form  of  speech :  ftatt  einem 
fcfcfyen  ©teine  (Lessing's  ant.  Br.,  23).  Xut'g  benn  fiatt  mir  (Grillparzer's  Ein 
treuer  Dtener,  2).  Statt  ^tuc^en,  ©df)nen  imb  bem  fc^lutfenben  ©c^rttte  ber  Xragfyett 
fiorte  tnan  auf  btefem  £ofe  wtebet  ben  rafc^en,  freubtgen  Xritt  beg  gtet^eg  (H.  Seidel's 
Der  Schatz,  VI).  Especially  when  the  gen.  form  has  not  an  ending  which 
clearly  marks  it  as  a  gen. :.  2)af  ftatt  S3cfem  (the  gen.  33ofen  would  not  be 
a  clear  gen.)  ©uteg  baraitS  gehjonnen  itirb  (Rudolf  Hildebrand's  Vom  dentschen 
Sprachunterricht,  p.  117).  3)orf)  iuie  ftaunten  fte,  |  altf  fie  ftatt  jenent,  ben  fte  I)ier 
gcfuc^t,  |  nun  cinen  fitter  fa^en  int  fc^Ui^ten  ^teibe  (M.  Greifs  Heinrich  der 
Lowe,  2,  i). 

For  the  conjunction  anftatt  or  ftatt,  see  225.  2  and  a  and  b  thereunder. 

nnttoprtltrf),  in  SBeantrccrtung,  in  Crmnberung  in  reply  to :  ainht)crtli(^  3^re^ 
geefirten  Se^ten  (93riefeg)  tei(e  id^  3f)nen  ntit,  &c. 

aufroartS  up,  above  (on  a  river,  &c.),  with  gen.,  and  often  non-inflection 
in  case  of  names  of  places  :  aufwdrtg  beg  ©tvomeg.  Slufwdvte  Stfc^ang  (place) 
ftnbct  man  Stellen,  iuo  bag  Jpocfywaffet  Jpdufct  .  .  .  fjtntoeggefcfyrcemint  ^at  (Beilage 
zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  Oct.  2-  1902). 

nu6fd;lict)Iirf)  exclusive  of,  cillf4)He^Iic^  inclusive  of,  always  with  the 
gen. ;  also  instead  of  the  former  erfluft'tfe,  and  instead  of  the  latter  influfi'ue, 
both  words  governing  either  gen.  or  ace.,  more  usually  the  latter  when  the 
noun  has  no  article  or  other  modifying  noun,  rarely  with  the  dat. :  @o  Ijabe 
id)  inftuftue  ber  {Rente  metncS  Jlavitafg  etn  jd^rtic^eg  (Sinfommeu  son  giemttdj  genau 
ac^ttaufenb  SKarf.  2>te  ^reife  finb  eiftuft»e  Xrinfgelb.  3nfluft»e  9  ober  10  ^afiiagieren 
fcetrug  bie  fdmtlid^e  @^tffggcfe[(fc^aft  30  unb  eintge  ^c^fe  (Ausld.^  38,  821  b). 

aufJcrljaH)  outside,  iuncrljalb  inside,  obcrl)alb  above,  untcr^alb  below, 
also  sometimes  with  the  dat.  and  sometimes  with  non-inflection  in  case  of 
articleless  names :  aufjerfyalb  ber  ©tabt,  unter^atb  beg  £)orfg,  inner^alb  eineg  3a^r« 
taufenbg,  tnnertjalb  je^n  Jagen,  tnner^alb  einem  Xage  (Lessing ;  more  commonly 
cincg  Sageg),  auper^alb  S3a^erng  (Hamburgischer  Correspondent,  27.  Feb.  1903), 
aufjerljalb  Berlin  unb  ^otgbam  (Curtius).  Instead  of  the  preceding  constructions 
we  sometimes  find  the  preposition  followed  by  fcon  w.  dat.,  especially  when 
there  is  no  word  which  can  clearly  mark  the  case :  innerfyalb  Don  »ier  SSdnben 
(Raabe's  Pfitzers  Miihle,  XIX).  The  prep,  construction  is  the  rule  with 
pronouns:  SBdr'  ber  fDurdjbrudb,  'ne  ^albe  3J?eite  unter^alb  »on  ung  t»afftcrt,  bann 
rcnnten  nnr  no^  ^eut'  auf  unfcrm  ^>of  fi|en  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  15). 

atl$ft>ei$Iid>/  itat^  Slugtt)eig,  befage  (rare)  as  shown  by  the  documentary 
evidence  of:  2>ajU  ftnb  @ie  augreeigltc^  (or  befage)  beg  Sertragg  verpflic^tet. 

(a)  Synonymous  with  these  words  in  so  far  as  the  referepce  is  to  docu- 
mentary or  written  evidence  are :  gemdfj  in  accordance  with,  tnfyattg  or  tnfyaltltd) 
(in  official  style),  taut,  jufolge  (with  the  dat.  when  it  follows  the  noun),  and  the 
very  frequent  form  nad?  (with  the  dat.)  according  to ;  see  also  each  of  these 
words. 

bdmfcv  Sum  33ef)Uf,  $tt>ecf §  for  the  furtherance  of,  with  a  view  to,  for 


228.4.  WITH  THE  GENITIVE  381 

the  purpose  of,  much  used  instead  of  the  more  simple  but  not  so  explicit  ju 
(w.  dat.)  :  befyufg  SBafyrung  beg  *preftigeg  ber  ttalienifcfyen  Sfogge  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  the  prestige  of  the  Italian  flag.  Sim  2.  bg.  (bicfcg  Sftonatg)  brad)  bie 
Jolbentlange  jum  jtoetten  2J?ale  unb  bag  @d)iff  tnufjte  infolgebcfjen  befyufg  ber  Slug* 
beffcrung  41  @tunben  jlill  liegen.  @r  ift  bee  *)MijeibeIj6rbe  gur,  or  befjufg,  or  $lr>ecfg 
Ginfpemmg  ftbertweftn  trorben.  2)te  ©djulerinnen  fallen  jwecfg  <Sd)onung  ifyvcr  Slugeu 
adjt  Sage  worn  ltnterrid)t  btgpenfiert  nxrben  unb  bann  jtcerfg  erneitter  Unterfudjung  jtd) 
hneber  in  ber  ©diule  etnftnben. 

befage,  see  augireiglid). 

betreffS,  see  anbetreffg. 

I>f  }iii}Itrf)  or  in  Scjug  auf  (w.  ace.)  with  reference  to  ;  see  anbetreffg.  Some- 
times instead  of  the  gen.  after  bejiigUd)  we  find  the  prep,  auf  (w.  ace.)  :  feme 
93emcrfungen  bejugtic^  auf  garben  cvganifd)er  ^crpcr  (Goethe). 

binucit  -within,  inside  of,  of  space  and  time,  more  commonly  the  latter, 
often  with  dat.  like  in  and  also  often  with  the  gen.  like  inncrfyalb  :  btnnm 
Sante3  gemacfyt  (Moser),  binncn  iljrcn  nohrenbigcn  ©rettjjen  (Immermann)  ;  btnneu 
^iet  unb  ctnem  3a(;r  (Lessing),  binncn  ben  na^jlen  bret  Stunben  (Raabe),  btnneu 
furjem  (Marriot)  within  a  short  time;  btnnen  etne3  2J?onat!3  (Schiller),  binncn 
trcnigcr  2JZonate  (Curtius),  binncn  JtJeniger  2Bcd)en  (Spielhagen),  btnnen  ftenigcr  2Bod)cn 
(Marriot),  btnncn  wenigcr  3at)vc  (Felicie  Ewart),binnen  ivcnigcv  Xage  (G.  Frenssen). 

t>ailf  thanks  to,  sometimes  with  gen.,  more  commonly  with  dat.  :  ban!  be<J 
fitt  bie  3a()ve^cit  befonberS  fd^oncn  SBettevS  (Schubin).  25  a  giug  ^ctm  In'nubcr  wnb 
fc^te  ftd)  miter  jte  nnb  ivar,  ban!  bciS  {yeftraufd&efS,  bev  anc^  tf)n  crfapt  fyatte,  fvo()(ic^  mit 
ben  5rc()li($en  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  chap.  7).  S)anf  bc5  9ln()ang3  won 
Sltwertoanbten  unb  Sreunben  .  .  .  gelang  eg  balb,  eine  2#et)ri)ett  jn  gcwtnnen  (R.  Huch's 
Teufdeien,  p.  46). 

bicSfcit  or  now  more  commonly  bie§feit$  on  this  side  of,  jcttfeit  or 
now  more  commonly  jcilfcttd  on  that  side  of,  ljubcn  Uttb  btubctt  on  both 
sides  of,  lit.  on  this  side  and  that  :  biegfeits  beg  8UtJTe3,  jenfetts  bc^  ©rabcg,  I)uben 
unb  briibcii  ber  ©ren^e.  Sometimes  Don  is  used  in  connection  with  the  regular 
form  :  Senfett  won  beg  Drug  3Bogen  (Riickert's  Morg.,  i,  251).  Earlier  in  the 
period  the  dative  sometimes  occurs  instead  of  the  gen.  :  Stcgfeit  ben  SUpcn 
(Lessing).  In  case  of  proper  names  non-inflection  of  the  noun  is  not  in- 
frequent :  jenfcitg  93ar. 

eiiifdjliefcUcf;,  see  aiwftltefltdj. 

rntlnun/  see  entlang  under  229.  2. 

egflufi'se,  see  augfcf)tief(i^. 

0cQcittt)art§  in  the  presence  of,  or  more  commonly  in  ©egemr>att  :  gegen* 
toarts  ber  J&erren. 

gclcflcittlid)  or  bci  ©eleeenfait  as  to  the  topic  of,  apropos  of,  embracing 
the  favorable  opportunity  of,  upon  the  occasion  of  :  gclcgcntltd)  bicfer  @cbid)tc 
trill  id)  bcmcrfcn  uftu.  ®e(cgentUd)  fetncr  9lnn?cfenheit  in  ber  @tabt  madjte  er  einige 
U3efuctye.  ©elegentlid)  (upon  the  occasion  of)  mcineg  le^tcn  33cfu(^ci5  auf  JfraSi 
nawoba  (the  name  of  a  village)  lenfte  fid}  bag  ©efprad)  auf  einige  neuerfdjtcnene 


(see  augireiglidi)  in  accordance  with  (the  request,  instructions,  com- 
mand of),  sometimes  w.  gen.  or  more  commonly  and  correctly  w.  dat.  when 
standing  before  the  noun,  and  w.  dat.  when  following  the  noun.  For  explana- 
tion of  the  gen.  see  2,  above,  toward  end.  The  g  found  in  compounda 
such  as  fianbcggcmafj  in  accordance  with  one's  station  in  life,  iwaljrfyettggemd'jj 
in  accordance  with  the  facts,  &c.,  is  not  the  gen.  ending,  but  the  connecting  g 
so  often  found  in  compounds  after  the  analogy  of  gen.  compounds,  as  in 
ftanbegunbrig,  tnafyrfyettggetren,  &c.  Compare  gemajj  in  229.  2. 

Ijalb,  ^albeit,  Imlbrv/  ftcgeit  express  : 

I.  a.  A  motive,  cause,  reason,  with  the  general  translation  on  account  of  , 
sometimes  with  the  dat.  in  case  of  icegett  :  3d)  bleibe  beg  fdjled^ten  SBettevg  tcegen 


382  PREPOSITIONS  228. 4. 

(or  Ijalber,  Ijalben)  ju  Jpanfe.  2>er  <£trauf$  fanit  iwgm  fetncr  ju  fuqett  gtugcl  indjt 
fliegen.  Of  these  words  nxgcn  is  the  most  common  in  this  meaning.  The  older 
form  von  n>cgcn  (dat.  pi.  of  2Beg)  is  still  quite  common  in  popular  speech,  and 
not  infrequent  in  colloquial  language :  Sieber  parfe  id)  bir  nod)  ein  }>aat  woKene 
(Strumpfe,  'ue  watme  ttuterfyofe  imb  erne  9Jefctvenad)tntujje  ju,  von  tocgen  tncglid)er 
(SvfaUung  bd  biefer  Grjjifcung  fiirg  aKgcnteine  bentfd)e  ffiatertanb  (Raabe's  Gut- 
manrfs  Reisen,  chap.  i).  For  the  dat.  see  toegen,  below  in  the  alphabetical 
arrangement. 

b.  A  concern  for  a  thing  or  that  in  regard  to  which  some  action  is  to  be 
taken,  or  a  regard  for  the  interests  of  some  one,  translated  by /or  the  sake  of, 
on  account  of,  with  regard  to,  concerning,  as  far  as  it  concerns  (me,  you,  him, 
&c.) :  SSegen  (with  regard  to)  vcrgeffcnet  <£ad)en  nxnbe  man  fid)  an  bag  „  Bureau  fur 
gefunbme  <£ad)en."     3nnfd)en  tent  SLScKbauev  (possessor  of  a  hide  of  land)  griebvidj 
<2d)imbt  von  fyict  unb  bcfTcn  Jltnbcrn  ifl  fotgenbet  j?ontraft  tvegen  (in  regard  to)  iibev* 
laffung  beg  tjier  betegenen  93auerguteg  aba,cfd)tof[en  ttovben.    3>g  <£d)eine<3  I)a(ber  for 
the  sake  of  appearances,  bet  (Sfjre  fyalber,  bc3  93etfpicl6  ^atber.     This  meaning  is 
also  quite  common  in  compounds  (see  140.  ^/and  Note  i)  which  these  preps, 
form  with  the  personal  pronouns :   (Seien  @ie  meinetiuegen  (on  my  account) 
itnbcfcrojt.   SKctnetivcgcn  (as  far  as  I  am  concerned,  for  ought  I  care)  faun  cr  geljen. 
Gr  fyat  (6  memcti)alben  or  nteinctTjalb  (out  of  regard  for  me)  getan.    2Ketnet^alben 
(as  far  as  I  am  concerned,  for  ought  I  care)  fannft  bit  c3  tun.     The  form 
fyilben  is  more  common  in  these  compounds  than  fyalb.     Feminine  nouns  often 
take  the  gen.  ending  3  after  the  analogy  of  the  masculines,  and  are  then 
written  as  compounds  :  -!g>cf(id)feit6»egcn  or  sfialber,  ©cfunbfyeitdtwgen  or  ;l)atfcer. 

This  meaning  in  case  of  n?cgen  is  especially  frequent  in  the  language  of  the 
common  people,  where  the  original  form  ton  —  loegen  (see  a,  above)  is  still 
much  used:  <§$  ijl  man  (=  nut)  »on  ivegcn  bag  SSief)  (ace.  instead  of  gen.  in 
popular  speech),  bafi  id)  fragen  frcUte  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows,  i,  2). 
Earlier  in  the  period  this  form  was  also  used  in  the  literary  language  :  ©ebt 
9led)enfd)aft .  .  .  ton  n>egen  beg  wergopnen  93tnteg  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  I,  n). 

c.  The  source  or  direction  from  which  something  comes,  or  the  instance 
or  occasion  which  calls  forth  some  act,  by,  on  the  part  of,  in  pursuance  of,  on 
the  authority  of,  by  the  order  of.     In  the  literary  language  this  meaning,  once 
so  common,  only  survives  in  the  form  von  —  »vcgen  in  a  limited  number  of 
expressions :  von  Oied)tg  lucgcn  by  rights,  v>cn  Slmtg  tixgm  officially,  ton  <Staat3 
iDcgen  by  the  State,  »on  Dbrtgfeita  ujegen,  von  9}egtmtng3  luegen,  Bon  SBenifg  itegen 
professionally,  von  ^oUjet  u^egcn  by  order  of  the  police  authorities.    Dfyne  mir 
cinm  i>or»3urf  gn  cr(auben  —  id)  mcinc,  Surd)taud)t  foltten  bit  £wubamente  bcS  ©taateg, 
^n  beffen  Jputec  Sie  »on  ©ebitrt  unb  ty&vtti  iivgett  bcrufen  finb,  cin  irentg  jfiofjcr  ctn; 
fdja^cn  (Sudermann's  Es  lebe  das  Leben,  p.  21).     Sn  ivgenb  einer  ai^eife  nxrbeu 
ipic  ton  jjtafttong  ivegen  (as  a  party}  tocfyl  Stedung  ba^u  ne'fymcn  ntuffen  (ib.,  p.  52). 
3d)  ftatte  gwei  obcr  brei  entferntc  ^erlvanbtc  won  93aterg  n>egcn  (upon  my  father's 
side)    (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,   III,  2).      Notice   in  the   preceding 
examples  that  the  fern.  gen.  sometimes  takes  the  ending  $  after  the  analogy 
of  the  masculines. 

Colloquially,  and  especially  in  popular  speech,  this  usage  is  not  confined 
to  the  group  of  expressions  given  above :  <Sag'  ifyut  von  ineimtwegen,  bap,  &c. 
(Goethe)  Tell  him  "for  me"  (as  coming  from  me)  that,  &c.  @3  ijl  ja  man 
(=  nur)  btojj  von  Srifce  93dfoir>  (ace.  in  popular  speech  instead  of  the  gen.) 
ftegen,  bajj  id)  gefragt  geljabt  t)abe  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows,  I,  2)  It  is  only 
at  the  instance  of  Fritz  Belkow  that  I  asked. 

2.  £alb,  featben,  Ijatber  always  follow  the  noun  or  pronoun,  while  toegen  may 
precede  or  follow :  toegen  feineg  gletjj eg  or  feineg  gletfjeg  Wegen,  iinfevcc  greunbfd)aft 
^alben  or  l)alber. 

Jpatb  is  now  only  found  in  composition  with  beg  and  toeg,  and  the  personal 
pronouns  (see  140.  d.  Note  i) :  besljalb  on  account  of  that,  fcegfyalb  why,  meinets 
ijatb  for  my  sake,  &c. 


228.4-  WITH  THE  GENITIVE  383 

fjatfcen  (but  never  fyalber)  like  fjafb  enters  into  compounds  with  personal 
pronouns,  and  both  fjatbcn  and  fyalber  (now  evidently  the  favorite,  although 
fyalben  is  common  earlier  in  the  period)  follow  substantives,  the  latter  often 
entering  into  a  compound  with  them :  mcinetfjalbcn,  eiueg  Hctncn  3tt>ttff3  utit 
(Ecfynctbcr  83ufd)  fyalben  (Raabe's  Pfisters  Miihle,  IX),  bc3  licbcn  5rieben$  fyalbcr, 
Drbmtng/fyatbcr  (even  fern,  nouns  taking  6  after  the  analogy  of  masc.  in  set 
expressions)  for  the  sake  of  order,  Jtranffyeittfljalbev.  £>et  Unrufyen  unb  bcr  Un; 
jtdjcrfyeit  fyalbcr  iranbcrtm  side  (Simocfynct  au3. 

I)albtt>cfl3,  sometimes  fyalbtDCfJ  or  l)albtt>fflO/  halfway  to,  up,  through, 
between,  with  gen.  except  before  names  of  places,  where  non-inflection  is  the 
rule :  9Kan  mujj  bas  £rinhi>afiev  IjalbwegiS  bc3  SBcrgcg  helm  (Auerbach's  Joseph, 
chap,  i)  One  must  go  halfway  to  the  mountain  for  water.  5)ie  $liid)t(inge 
erfufyrcn  jc£o  erft  sent  aiklbvanbe  ausJ,  bag  fie  \vcfy  fyalbrcegS  (halfway  up)  bcr  Jjjcije 
bcr  SBovfyugct  bc3  93cgtfr3  ftc^  bcfaitbeit  (Raabe's  Odfcld,  chap.  xv).  ^alhncg3  bc<5 
©ebanfeiNS  fa((t  if)m  etn,  &.c.  (Hebel,  3,  101)  When  he  is  halfway  through  the 
thought  it  occurs  to  him,  &c.  3)cr  S&moaltcr  son  ntcincm  ^Bcvwcrf  fyalbrwg 
(Fulda's  Zwillingsschwester,  2,  8)  halfway  to  Padua.  55ec  S3atcr  unb  bcr 
S3cf)rcnb  fiub  fc^on  Ijalbwege  Sdtmecf  (Eckstein's  Familie  Hartwig). 
unb  Hamburg  halfway  between  B.  and  H. 

=  btc^feits,  i)tnu)drtS  =  jenfetts,  with  gen.,  dat.,  or  non-inflection  as 
in  case  of  biegfeitS. 

I)iufid)tlid)/  l)iii(id)tiv  i«  Jpiltftdtjt  with  regard  or  reference  to,  in  con- 
sideration of  (see  anbctrcfft?  and  vucffidulid)) :  $m{t$t(id)  fcincS  $i(i$t3  faun  id)  nid)t 
ii bee  i^n  ftagcn.  Synonymous  with  these  preps,  are  rurffidHlid)  and  bqfio,ltd). 
Sometimes  I;tnftd)tUd)  takes  after  it  auf  (w.  ace.)  instead  of  the  gen.  as  in  case 
of  bqiiglid). 

behind  the  back  of:  fyintcrrucfS  bcr  SJlutter. 
back  of:  fymtcroartt  bicfesJ  5Bautt)crf3 
see  ^crttidrtg. 
I)iibcn  unb  britbcit/  see  bte$feita. 

illfolgc  and  less  frequently  Jiifolge  in  consequence  of:   tnfc^e  or  jufofge 
Befonbcrer  Umjidnbc.    3nfotgc  cincr  abcnnaligcn  fd)lcd)tcu  (Srnte  unb  argct  Untcrtaffungd; 
fiinben  bcr  Drt^bc^cvbcn  tyerrfd't  in  Sdjarbrinef  (in  OJuptanb)  J&ungcrdnot.    Compare 
this  use  of  gufclge  with  that  in  229.  2. 
inljnltlid;  or  inljnltc',  see  au&ccislid)  and  laut. 
inflilfi'wc,  see  auSfdtftefcUd?. 

ittmtttett  in  the  midst  of,  between,  sometimes   also  w.  dat.  and  w.  son 
and  dat. :    3nmittcn  bc<3  2MDc$  fianb  cin  a(tc5  gorftf}au«.    D  sl'atevlanb  (Austria)  ! 
3nmittcn  |  bent  ^inb  Stalicn  unb  bcm  aJJanne  Scutfd)Ianb  |  licgft  bit,  bcr  wangenvote 
Sungling,  ba  (Grillparzer's  Konig  Ottokars  Gliick  und  Ende,  3).     Sninitten  son 
Jlummer  unb  (Slenb. 
imier(t),  see  inncr(t)  under  231.  II. 
imterfwlb,  see  au^crljalb. 
=  inncrfyalb  or  in. 
,  see  biesfeits. 

Iraft  by  virtue  of,  by  dint  of:  fraft  tmincS  Sltntc<5.  For  synonyms  see 
vctmcgc,  Note. 

and  langft,  see  IdngS  under  229.  2. 

alongside  of:  2)a«  SJoot  glitt  mit  uicbcrgch^orfencn  ©egctn  IdngSfcit  bes 
Sanbungcftcgc!  (Deutsche  Rundschau,  August,  1898,  Heft  n,  xxiv).  Also  with 
dat. :  Unfer  Sect  Icgtc  ftd)  laugfcit  bcm  cnglifdjcn  Sautvfcr  (Gerstiicker). 

lant  according  to  (the  purport  of  a  letter,  command,  law,  agreement,  &c.), 
w.  gen.  and  sometimes  also  the  dat.,  especially  when  the  noun  is  without  an 
article  or  other  modifying  word :  2aut  unfcrcr  33cvabtebung,  laut  fetnca  SJricfetf. 


384  PREPOSITIONS  228.  4. 

Saut  alter  23ertrage  tjl  Ungarn  ntit  Dfterreid)  iintcr  eincm  §etrfd)er  vereimgt.  Saut 
Seridjt,  taut  Ubereinfommen. 

(a)  Synonyms  of  laut  are  infyattS  or  infyattttd)  (in  official  style),  pfbtge  usually 
following  the  noun,  nad)  (see  nad),  e.  (2).  Note  in  229)  usually  before,  but  also 
after  the  noun  :  JDaS  bejidtigt  fid?  laut,  or  jnf)alt3,  or  tnfyaltltd)  neuerer  9tad)rid)ten, 
or  nad)  ncueren  9lad)rtd)ten,  or  iteueten  STZad^idjten  nad)  or  jufctge. 

UnfS  to  the  left  of,  tecf)t$  to  the  right  of,  both  with  gen.,  also  with 
von  +  dat.,  and  always  so  in  case  of  a  pronominal  object  :  Itnfo,  red)t3  ber 
£itt,  or  von  bcr  Xiir.  Sinfs  von  ifym  fat)  man  mefyrere  Ijolfteinifdje  ©efdn'd)tg»erfe 
anfgefd)fagen  iiberetnanber  (Frenssen). 

macf;t  (rare)  =  haft. 

maiiflfl'8  out  of  lack  of,  for  want  of,  in  default  of:  (£r  ivurbe  mangels  bet 
SSrtveife  freigefyrod)en.  2#angetg  Batjlung  in  default  of  payment. 

tttittelS/  »erillittel§/  or  more  commonly  the  corrupted  forms  with  excre- 
scent t  ttcrmittelft,  mittelft  by,  by  means  of:  SSiele  Sampffdjiffe  tterben  mit- 
tel3  enter  <Sd)raube  beftegt.  SDJittels  9tad)tmarfd)e3  irar  mcrgen  frii^  »ter  Uf)r  bte  18. 
Sbifioit  »om  Itnfen  auf  bent  ted)ten  CDiofetufer  etngetroffen  (Moltke).  We  not  in- 
frequently find  non-inflection  of  the  noun  here  ;  see  2.  a,  above. 

(a)  Synonyms  of  mittet^,  vevmittetg  are  von,  burd),  ntit.  The  direct  source 
of  an  act  is  expressed  by  von,  hence  limited  chiefly  to  a  living,  thinking 
agent.  The  indirect  means  by  which  the  aim  is  attained  is  expressed  by 
burd).  The  instrument  which  produced  the  immediate  result  is  expressed  by 
ntit  :  (Sr  ttmvbe  von  (by  —  the  agent  and  author  of  it  all)  bem  {Ridjtet  vernvteilt, 
burd)  (as  the  indirect  means)  ben  -§en!er  ntit  (the  instrument  which  produced 
the  immediate  result)  bem  93eil  f)ingertd)tet  jit  toerben.  Of  these  buvd)  approaches 
the  nearest  to  mittefe,  but  the  latter  has  a  much  more  narrow  range  of  useful- 
ness. 3Jhttel3  is  only  used  of  some  force  as  a  means  or  a  dead  instrument  that  is 
purposely  utilized,  directed,  employed  to  lead  to  a  certain  definite  end,  while 
burd)  is  used  of  a  force  that  in  itself  has  in  some  degree  self-acting,  trans- 
forming power,  which,  however,  need  not  necessarily  act  toward  some 
definite  end  :  2KuT)(en  toerben  mittetg  be3  2Binbe3,  be3  3Bafier$,  ber  3)ampffvaft  bewcgt. 
2)a3  <£d)iff  unrb  burd)  bie  <£ttcmung  abgetvieben.  In  (ver)mittet3  there  also  lies 
something  of  the  technical,  which  does  not  ndmit  of  its  use  in  elevated 
language  so  much.  See  also  vevntoge,  Note.  3JJit  is  also  used  to  express 
means  and  differs  from  bnvd)  in  that  it  does  not  necessarily  point  to  a  result  : 
@r  ivi((  un3  bamit  antocfen,  but  (Sr  fyat  nn3  baburd)  verforft.  In  some  cases  either 
mit  or  burd)  can  be  used,  the  former  calling  attention  to  the  effort  and  the 
means  employed,  the  latter  emphasizing  the  effective  means  and  the  result  : 
etnen  mit  Shorten  or  burd)  SBorte  antretben. 

ttamen§  or  im  9?amcn  in  the  name  of:  2)a3  forbere  id)  namens  beg  JtonigS. 

ttic&ertDortS  below. 

norblirf)  to  the  north  of,  most  commonly  with  gen.,  also  with  von  +  dat., 
sometimes  with  non-inflection  in  case  of  articleless  names  :  norblid)  beg  9?ljcin3 
or  vom  Oiljeitt  ;  ba3  Heine  ©efed)t  bet  Sunbbi)  norbtid)  -§obro. 

ltorbtt)art§  =  norblid),  now  most  commonly  with  gen.,  also  with  »on  +  dat., 
and  sometimes  with  the  simple  dat.  :  an  einjelnen  Drten  norbwarts  ber  9Ui?en 
(Ziircher  Zeitung,  n.  Jan.  1903),  ncrbtcdrtS  vom  {Rf)etn,  occasionally 
bcm  OJIjein. 

ob/  see  ob  under  229.  2. 

obcrfjrttb  above,  see  auf  erljalb 


often  =  cfnr>art3  with  the  same  construction,  rare  :  SSo  einfi  ojlen  bem  £)orfe 
cin  ^afen  ber  gefurd)teten  SSitattenbruber  gewefen  fein  follte,  fal;  man  je^t,  &c. 
(T.  Storm's  Renati,  p.  i). 


228.4-  WITH  THE  GENITIVE  385 

oftlicf?  to  the  east  of,  with  gen.  or  prep.  »on  +  dat.,  or  sometimes  with 
non-inflection  in  case  of  articleless  names,  as  in  case  of  norblid). 

ofttt>art$  =  pfUid),  with  the  same  construction  as  notbnxirtg. 

putt?  to  or  in  puncto  (ablative  of  Latin  punctum)  =  loegen  on  account  of, 
with  reference  to,  especially  a  legal  term  :  „  35u  meinft,  ber  ©enerol  tjl  aUen 
geijUid)en  Seuten  auffdffig  ?  "  „  9l(len  cl)ne  2lugnabme,  feit  ev  punfto  gottlofet  JHeben 
projefftert  unb  um  etne  fdjroere  ©umme  gebufit  nntrbe  "  (C.  F.  Meyer).  @o  megen  <Sie 
fid),  liebfter  Sreunb,  ben  2Beil)nad)tgtrube(  »orfie(len,  bem  id)  unb  metne  ftrau  550  jtt>ar 
freubig,  after  bod)  mit  ctner  genjtffeit  @crge  in  puncto  itnferer  alten  Jtopfe  unb  fonfligen 
ntit  feinen  Sfteruen  gefegneten  ©lieber  entgegenfefjen  (T.  Storm  an  G.  Keller,  23. 
Dezember  1880). 

tecijtS,  see  Unfg. 

ritifl$  round  about  (rare):  ringg  ifjreg  Heinen  ©rabtyugelg  (Ense'sDenL,  6,  558). 
25a  ru()en  bte  ©djie  ring3  ber  SSa(begn?u)1e  (Lenau).  We  usually  find  rings  um 
(with  ace.)  here. 

tittlittflS  astraddle  of,  across  :  £>ie  Snfanterie  entnjidelte  ftd)  rittfing^  ber  ©trafje 
(Moltke). 

viiif  (trl)tlirf)  with  respect  to,  in  consideration  of  (see  fjmfidjtltcf:))  :  3Me  Slrbett 
serbtent  Scb  ^inRd}^  beg  3n^alt3,  aber  ^tnfic^tUd),  or  rucfjtdjtti^,  or  bejiigtid)  beg  3lug= 
ijl  tttand)e$  ju  tabeln. 


Note  i.  The  difference  between  Ijinftdjtltdj  and  rudffldjtUdj  sometimes  becomes 
more  prominent  when  a  motive  enters  as  a  factor  into  the  case.  Then  the  ritcf  back 
in  nictftditlui)  requires  this  word  to  be  used  in  case  of  circumstances  that  are  already  at 
hand,  passed  or  finished,  while  the  Ijtlt  in  J)infid)tltdj  points  to  a  future  act  or  state  of 
things:  3d?  tat  eg  in  9iucffid?t  or  riidrfidijtltd)  beg  SSorteilg,  ber  miv  baraug  erttud&fe 
I  did  it  out  of  consideration  of  the  advantage,  gain  that  might  come  to  me.  3d)  tue 
eg  f)tniid)tlid)  or  in  £tnftd)t  ber  guten  gctgen,  bte  baraug  entfprtngen  toerben. 

Note  2.  Sometimes  ritdftdjtltd)  takes  after  it  the  prep,  auf  (with  ace.)  instead  of 
the  gen.,  as  in  case  of  fyinftdjtlid)  and  bejugltd). 


back  of:  feine  ©tettung  rucfwdrtg  beg  redjten  Sfugetg  (of  the  army). 

fcitab'  to  one  side  of:  (Sine  Same  fytcft  aflein  in  ber  (Sinfamfeit,  aud)  auf  einem 
faultier,  feitab  beg  SBegeg  auf  einem  gelfen&orfyrung  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome, 
chap.  iii). 

feitcttS,  »oit  fei'tett,  aKeirten  on  the  part  of  :  @g  jlcfit  feiteng,  or  »on 
feiten,  or  less  commonly  abfeiten  beg  2J?agiilratg  nid)tg  entgegen.  The  first  of  these 
forms,  although  a  new  formation,  is  now  very  common. 

fcitltrf)  alongside  of  :  !Jtad)benfu'd)  gelje  id)  ben  (angen  ^orribor  ^inunter,  in  beffen 
gtdnjenb  gebotjnten  ©treifen,  feitUd)  beg  gtiinen  ?duferg,  fid)  bte  gelben  9Weffinggriffe  ber 
Xuren  ttjieberfpiegeln  it>ie  golbene,  fd)toimmenbe  Slumen  (Anselm  Heine's  Bis  in  das 
dritte  und  -vierte  died). 

fcittO(irt§  to  the  side  of,  most  commonly  with  gen.,  also  with  tton  -f-  dat., 
and  usually  so  in  case  of  a  pronominal  object,  sometimes  with  simple  dat.  : 
feitrodrtg  beg  fyeiligen  fflejirfg  (Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  5.  Dec.  1901), 
feitwdrtg  »on  imferm  §ofe  (Storm),  feitwdrtg  »cn  ihm  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen, 
chap,  iv),  feitwdrtg  biefem  tyity  (Stifter's  Stud.,  I,  290). 

ftatt,  see  anjlatt. 

f  li&l  tci)  to  the  south  of,  now  most  commonly  with  gen.,  also  with  won  +  dat., 
sometimes  with  non-inflection  in  case  of  articleless  names,  as  in  case  of  norblid). 

fii&tt»art$  =  fiiblid),  with  the  same  construction  as  norbtndrtg. 

ttolj  in  spite  of,  originally  with  dat,  now  also  with  gen.,  and  perhaps  more 
commonly  so,  but  in  the  sense  of  as  well  as,  almost  excelling,  beating 
usually  with  dat.,  as  also  in  the  expressions  trofcbem  in  spite  of  that  and 
tro$  bem  unb  adebem  :  tro|s  alleg  SBibcrfirebeng  (Raabe's  Zum  ivilden  Mann, 
chap,  ii),  trofc  feiner  fd)necn?etj$en  §aare  unb  fetner  too^tgeid^tten  fcd^tg  Sa^re  (ib.)  ; 
tro^  ihrem  SUter  unb  i^ret  SUliibigfeit  (Raabe's  Hoxter  u.  Corvey,  chap.  i). 

C  C 


386  PREPOSITIONS  228. 4. 

©cfunb  bin  td)  jcfct,  trofc  etnem  I  am  now  as  well  as  anybody,  (St  lugt  trcfc 
(almost  excelling,  beating)  cittern  Seitunggblatt,  or  trofc  etnem  2Rund)f)aufen  (the 
famous  liar  of  fable).  (§t  mufj  etnett  Sikfytfagergeift  fyaben  ttojj  (equal  to)  bet 
SWagb  in  bet  9li>ojWgefd)td)te.  See  unangefefjen. 

Sum  Xtcfc  also  governs  the  gen.,  but  it  may  stand  after  the  dependent 
noun,  and  governs  then  usually  the  dat. :  3d)  unit  bod)  etiten  grcfjen  2Jhtftfug 
aug  bit  madden  jum  S'rcfc  euteg  jeben,  bet  mid)  baratt  fytnbern  im((,  but  a((em 
2J?enfd)etwrjhttb  jutn  £w£  (contrary  to).  Sometimes,  however,  the  gen.  is 
found  when  the  dependent  noun  precedes  :  aden  Slbrebeng  feittet  giitett  greunbe 
jum  £rofc  (Raabe's  Deutscher  Adel,  chap.  vii). 

lint  —  tDiUcit  for  the  sake  of,  on  account  of:  urn  ©otteg  untfen,  um  beg  Iteben 
ftttebeng  un((cn.  The  younger  form  unHen,  as  in  ifyret  felbfl  Kitten  (Rosegger),  is 
not  yet  so  common  as  the  older  um  —  ttn((en,  while  on  the  other  hand  the 
younger  form  toegen  has  supplanted  in  most  cases  the  older  von  —  iregen ;  see 
Ijalb,  above. 

intaugcfcf)cit  setting  aside,  notwithstanding,  heedless  of,  now  rare,  and 
usually  replaced  by  tttl(jead)tet  or  lllieracf)tct>  or  the  rarer  forms  of  c^tu 
geadjtet,  o^nerad)tet,  either  preceding  or  following  the  noun,  usually  with  gen., 
but  sometimes  with  dat.,  when  the  prep,  stands  after  the  pronoun  or  sub- 
stantive :  ungead)tet  beg  SBetterS,  beg  SBetterg  ungead)tet,  befientingead)tet,  or  some- 
times bemuttgeadjtet  (Marriot's  Seine  Gottheit,  chap,  ii)  notwithstanding  that, 
a((etperf6nttd)en(§rlebmffeunb  ^ummetntffe  unerad^tet  (Wildenbruch's  Vice-Mama], 
atten  Unfatten  ungead^tet  (Lessing),  ottem  Slbmaljnen  !£tubg  unerad^tet  (Fontane's 
Crete  Minde,  chap,  iii),  aKet  SMrbeijjtgfett  of>ngead)tet  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome, 
chap.  viii). 

Urofc  is  a  synonym  of  itngead)tet,  but  is  a  much  stronger  word  implying 
a  more  forcible  resistance  to  obstacles  :  (St  gefyt  ungead)tet  or  tro£  beg  fd^lcd^ten 
SSetterg  fpajieten,  but  only  @t  Iduft  tro|  fetneg  ©tetjfu^eg  (wooden  leg). 

Itttbefrfjflbet  without  waiving,  without  detriment  to,  with  gen.  usually,  but 
sometimes  with  the  dat.,  usually  found  before  the  noun,  but  sometimes  after 
it:  itnbefd)abet  tnetneg  9lnfptud)g,  tnehtet  9Jed)te ;  unbefdjabet  5BerHd)ingen  (dat.) 
nnb  unfetet  SSerbinbung  (Goethe's  Gotz,  2,  7) ;  bem  9ln0bru(fe  unbe(cf>abet  (Les- 
sing). 

nitcracfrtcf,  see  unangefe^cn. 

lUtfcrit  or  Ulttoeit  not  far  from,  usually  with  gen.,  not  infrequently  with 
dat.,  sometimes  with  son  and  dat.,  or  in  case  of  names  of  places  with  non- 
inflection  of  the  noun :  itnfem  beg  geuerg  (Goethe),  wweit  beg  2)orfeg  (id.),  eine 
vertoffene  ©fagfyutte  tm  ©cbirge  uttweit  bet  <£d)neegruben  (G.  Hauptmann),  unfetn 
betn  £aff  uttb  bem  Dftfeegeftabe  (H.  Hoffmann),  nnfetn  »ott  !I)oua^  (Ranke), 
wttoett  t»on  metneg  Saterg  ©tube  (T.  Storm),  imwett  *pif(att  (Moltke). 

HitflcadJtct/  see  unangefe^en. 

Jllt(jprcrf)iict  not  counting:  uttgetedjnet  beg  Cluatmeg.  Sanders  gives  a 
number  of  references  in  his  Erganzungs-worterbuch,  p.  409.  The  absolute 
construction  with  an  absolute  ace.  is  more  common  here  :  £>ag  23ud)  fo|let,  ben 
(Stnbanb  ungeted)net,  fiinf  SDlatf. 

uittc rljalb/  see  auficrdalb. 

uittcrtpnrte  down ;  itnterhjattg  beg  <stromg,  untettodttg  (at  the  foot  of)  beg 
S3ergeg. 

uuiDctt,  see  nnfern. 

»crmittel§  and  »ermittclft,  see  mtttelg. 

vcrmbgc/  earlier  in  the  period  nad)  93evmoge  (old  noun,  now  obs.),  in  virtue 
of,  through,  by  means  of,  in  consequence  of,  by  reason  of,  only  rarely  with 
dat. :  »ermoge  (through)  fetnet  9Jebltd)feit.  9U(e  Jtorpet  ilreben  uermcge,  (in  conse- 
quence of)  tfjret  @d)were  nad)  bem  g»tttfl»>untte  bet  (Srbe.  JDte  Sanbe  D|lcrrcid)  intb 
@teiet  fallen,  wermoge  bem  SWaiejlatgbrief  .^aifet  grtebttd)g,  ttol)(  an  beg  lefctcn  Scfinbei 
jt^etg  Softer  (Grillparzer's  Konig  Ottokar,  2). 


228.4-  WITH  THE  GENITIVE  387 

Note.  Synonymous  with  ttermege  are  fraft  and  ntttteta.  SSermege  and  fraft  have 
much  the  same  range  of  meanings,  and  are  often  almost  identical.  The  latter,  however, 
often  emphasizes  the  actual  exercise  or  employment  of  power,  be  it  a  natural  force  or 
power  invested  in  one  from  without,  while  »ermcge  denotes  an  inherent  natural  force 
or  power  which  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  nature  of  a  person  or  thing,  and  is 
conceived  of  as  self-acting,  as  all  natural  forces :  @t  felbft,  ber  nur  mittetmdfjig 
Seqabte,  fjatte  auf  feinem  yfetbe  {RufymlidjeS  geleitfet,  aber  fraft  (by  dint  of)  feiner 
ftmicbm  (Sigenfdjaften,  nidjt  burdj  eine  gentale  2lnlage  (Meyer).  Jhaft  (by  virtue  of)  ber 
©ewalt,  bie  tnit  gelieljen  tfl,  fraft  (by  virtue  of)  ntetned  Stmtes,  unfereg  93ertrage3. 
(Sin  (Stein  fallt  »crmoge  feiner  ©djtoere  gu  93oben.  93ernt6ge  beg  Skrftanbeg  bilbet  man 
33egriffe.  JDie  2J?afd)tne  toirb  »ermoge  (or  more  commonly  sermtttels)  be3  £>ampfe6 
be»egt.  Here  ttermoge  touches  cermtttefe,  but  differs  from  it  in  that  it  represents  the 
power  as  a  natural  force,  while  tterttttttelg  represents  it  as  controlled  and  operated  by 
some  one ;  see  a,  under  mttteld. 

»on  fdteit,  see  fettens. 

ttoit  tt>egeit  has  not  the  full  causal  force  of  toegen,  but  only  the  original 
meanings,  by  the  way  of,  on  the  part  of,  concerning,  at  the  instance  of. 
SBegen  without  son  has  developed  causal  force,  and  in  this  meaning  is  widely 
used,  while  uon  foegen  is  now  only  found  in  a  few  set  expressions  (see  fyalb,  I.  c) 
in  the  literary  language,  usually  with  its  original  force,  but  it  is  still  often 
employed  by  the  common  people  in  both  the  old  and  the  new  meaning  (see 
also  halb  I.  a,  b  and  c). 

tJorbefjaltlid),  vorbcfwltlirf),  tutter  23ori>e1jalt  with  reservation  of, 
upon  the  condition  of:  @te  (bie  33ertrdge)  toutben  ttcn  ber  £reufjtfd)en  Ofeojeruno, 
vorbefyaltltd)  ber  Bnftimmung  ifirer  3o(l»erbunbeten  am  2.  Qlugujl  1862  unterjetcfynet. 

i)0ttt)rtrt§  in  front  of. 

ton  form  &  during,  usually  with  the  gen.,  but  also  occasionally  the  dat., 
especially  when  the  gen.  does  not  differ  in  form  from  the  nom.  and  ace. : 
SBdfyrenb  beS  Jtrtegcg  fd)»eigen  bie  ©efefce.  3Bdf)renb  fitnf  i£agen,  lyahrenbbeficn,  or 
quite  frequently  wdfjrenbbem.  3Bdl)renb  usually  takes  the  dat.  in  case  of  the 
masc.  and  neut.  sing,  of  the  relative  and  interrogative  pronoun  h?etcf)er : 
(Srtnnerft  bu  bid)  nocfy  jeneg  ©ejvttterg,  n>dt)renb  iwet^em  ici^  bid)  bort  traf  ganj 
itnter  bem  ffiorfprung  gebrudt  ?  (Raabe's  Friihling,  chap.  v). 

UKflcit,  or  in  colloquial  language  also  still  in  the  older  form  von  toegen,  on 
account  of,  with  reference  to,  concerning  (for  other  meanings  see  rjalb,  i.c, 
above),  usually  with  gen.,  but  colloquially  not  infrequently  with  dat.:  3d) 
fd)dme  nttd)  »cn  Jt»egen  bem  enngen  Sng  unb  Xrng  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap.  xxiv). 
The  dat.  is  most  common  in  the  literary  language  where  a  gen.  depends 
upon  the  governed  noun,  or  where  the  gen.  form  has  not  an  ending  which 
clearly  marks  it  as  a  gen. :  tuegen  Umban  be3  -£aitfe<5.  <Ste  will  mid)  ivegen 
©ommerfotfumen  (the  gen.  would  not  be  different  in  form  from  nom.  or  ace.) 
um  Ofat  fragen  (Fulda's  Diewildejagd,  3,  2).  SBegen  etrca<3  anberem  (also  the  wk. 
gen.  anberen,  but  not  anbereS,  as  it  would  not  be  felt  as  a  gen.)  on  account  of 
something  else.  Sometimes  before  unmodified  nouns  :  S)te  93ud)er  liegcn  hter 
bto^  ftegen  Srtebeberg,  ben  id)  ber  beigegebenen  3ctd)nungen  i»alber  fragen  iut(( 
(Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap.  6).  @o  ift  btr  »telletd)t  Ueber,  bu  Idjjt  bid)  abenbS 
iregen  Slu^bfeiben  con  betnem  25ater  nnb  bciner  3Jlutter  bnrd)^rflgc(n  (Raabe). 
,,4aft  bit  Summer  ?"  @te  nicfte.  „  ,f  nntmer  ivcgen  Sater?"  (Ompteda's  Syl- 
vester von  Geyer,LXll).  Sometimes  with  non-inflection:  SBegen  bteg  unb 
ba3  !  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  III,  i).  See  also  I)atb,  above. 

iDcftli^  west  of,  with  gen.,  sometimes  with  non-inflection  in  case  of 
articleless  names,  or  prep,  son,  as  in  case  of  norbtid). 

tPcftttwrtS  =  »eftlid). 

tuillou,  see  um  —  nntten. 

jcit  in  the  time  of,  in  a  few  expressions  :  jett  meineS  Sebene,  jettlebenS  in  one's 
lifetime. 

C  C  2 


388  PREPOSITIONS  228.4. 


see  tnfolge,  above. 

jil  ©iiliftctt,  sugunfiett  in  favor  of,  for  the  sake  of,  Jll  Ituflunfirn, 
JU  Ultgunftcit  against,  with  gen.,  but  with  dat.  when  the  preposition  follows 
the  word  :  Set  OHd)ter  fyat  gu  ©unften  beg  SSerftagten  unb  gu  Ungunfien  beg  JUagerg 
entfdjteben.  2>er  9iuf)m  etner  Untoerfttat  foffte  ntcfyt  fotocfil  in  ber  qrcjjen  3af>t  bunt 
burd)etnanber  genntrfelter  £6ret  unb  tnffrtbterter  ©tubenten,  alg  m  ber  nadwetg; 
baren  ©ebtegenfyett  tljrer  Setyrerfctge  unb  btefen  gugunflen  in  bcr  Borneljmen  Slblefynung 
gujetfelfyaftet  $efud)er  tfyreg  9lubttortumg  gefudjt  toerben  (H.  Keferstein,  in  Beilage 
zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  28.  Oct.  1901). 

SUttacfcft,  see  nacfyfl  under  the  dative  in  229.  2. 

511  fctteit  along  the  sides  of;  bie  Saume  ju  fetten  beg  SBegeg. 

VA  //%«  addition  of,  opposite  of  abjugltdj  :  jujiigltd)  bet 
see  belufS. 


MEANING  AND  USE  OF  PREPOSITIONS  WITH  THE  DATIVE. 

229;  i.  The  prepositions  that  properly  govern  the  dat.  govern  also  other 
cases  only  in  a  few  words,  as  they  are  in  large  part  old,  and  usage  has  at  last 
definitely  fixed  their  construction.  On  the  other  hand,  a  goodly  number  of  the 
preps,  governing  the  gen.  govern  also,  as  can  be  seen  by  a  study  of-  the  pre- 
ceding article,  the  dative.  The  reason  of  this  partly  lies  in  various  ana- 
logies in  meaning,  as  laut  according  to  in  analogy  with  nadj  according  to, 
umvett  not  far  from,  jenfettS  on  that  side,  &c.,  expressing,  in  general,  rest 
as  in  case  of  bet  by,  neben  near,  £c.,  may  take  the  dat.  instead  of  the  more 
correct  gen.  There  is  also  a  decided  feeling  against  a  too  frequent  occurrence 
of  the  &  in  the  gen.,  which  leads  often  to  the  choice  of  the  dat.  instead  of  the 
more  correct  gen.  ;  see  228.  2.  a,  2nd  paragraph.  This  same  feeling,  on  the 
other  hand,  helps  to  preserve  a  dat.,  where  there  is  in  general  a  tendency 
away  from  it,  as  after  twfc  in  the  following  passage  from  JpanS  -£>opfen  :  !Dte 
taufye  2Bett,  batin  man  fein  33rot  tm  (Sdjwetfje  beg  Slngefid)t$  §u  uerbtenen  Ijat  unb 
oft  genug  ntdjt  etnmal  toetft,  itte  man  bag  anfangen  [oft  trofc  3Jtut,  unb  gletjj,  unb 
BatgniS  unb  35ty(om  (from  the  university). 

2.  The  following  are  the  prepositions  with  the  dat.  with  their  leading 
meanings,  the  preps,  standing  in  alphabetical  order. 

ab  (a)  from,  of  time  or  place  =  Bon,  now  replaced  by  the  latter  except  in 
S.W.  dialect,  where  it  is  still  frequently  used,  also  in  the  literary  language  in 
the  set  expression  abfyan'ben  misplaced.  It  is  used  quite  frequently  in  business 
style  before  local  adverbs,  names  of  places,  and  before  nouns  or  adverbs  of 
time,  where,  however,  it  may  be  the  Latin  prep,  ab  :  grad)t  ab  fyter  fojiet  10 
3Jlarf.  Unfranfiert  ab  fyter  charges  of  transportation  from  this  point  not  paid 
(by  the  sender)  ;  ab  93erltn,  7  the  train  leaves  Berlin  at  7  o'clock  ;  $u  »ermteten 
ab  Djiern  for  rent  after  Easter  ;  ab  fyeute  in  14  £agen  gu  Itefern  (to  be 
delivered). 

(b)  In  a  number  of  common  commercial  expressions  ab  has  quite  a 
different  meaning,  with  the  force  of  at,  usually  found  before  the  name  of 
some  city,  or  some  definite  place,  as  33a()n  railroad  track,  ©cfytff  ship,  23afynl)cf 
depot,  J?  afyn  boat,  &c.,  indicating  that  the  prices  of  goods  quoted  apply 
only  to  their  delivery  at  the  place  mentioned,  and  that  all  future  expenses  in 
transportation  must  be  born  by  the  purchaser.  The  word  fret  to  be  delivered 
free  is  often  found  before  these  same  places  to  indicate  that  free  delivery 
is  only  to  the  mentioned  place  :  fret  ab  S3erUn,  fret  ab  93al)nf)of. 

Note.  Often  the  prep,  ab  is  entirely  dropped  after  frei  or  franfo  delivered  free  of 
charge:  %%  Itefere  ben  SBeigen  f.  (franfo)  Berlin. 


(a)  movement  from  the  inside  of,  out  of,  from  :  (St  gefyt  au3  bent  $aufe, 
au3  bem  Sanbe. 


229.2.  WITH  THE  DATIVE  389 

(b)  Origin,  source,  from  (see  Note  under  von,  tf) :  (St  ftommt  aug  gutet 
gamilie.  (St  ifl  aug  bet  <Sd)wetj  He  comes  from  Switzerland,  ©in  2Betb  aug 
bent  93olf  (common  people),  ang  SJerfefjen  by  mistake.  Origin  of  knowledge, 
feeling :  3d?  toeifj  eg  aug  (Srfafitung.  9Utg  bent  Singe  fdjlUjjt  man  aufg  £erj  From 
one's  eye,  we  judge  of  the  heart.  (St  bettieg  eg  aug  bet  SBiM. 

(<r)  Material,  <?«/  tf/":  aug  toeidjem  £on  gebilbet.  ©ranit  beftef)t  aug  ffdbftxii, 
Duarj  unb  ©Itmmet. 

Note.  With  materials,  Bon  is  used  before  nouns  without  an  article,  replacing  the  gen. 
case,  and  thus  forms  with  its  noun  an  adj.  element,  standing  attributively,  or  as  a  predi- 
cate adj.,  while  and  with  nouns  of  material  forms  an  adverbial  element,  representing 
the  object  as  being  fashioned  out  <*f  the  mentioned  material :  ein  (Ring  Von  ©clb  a  gold 
ring.  JDer  (Ring  ifl  von  ©olb,  but  2)et  ©olbfdjmteb  vetfertigt  SRinge  aug  ©olb.  Com- 
pare von,/ 

(tt)  Motive,  from :  Slug  iteld)em  ©rnnbe  tat  er  bag  ?  (St  fyanbelt  aus  Siebe, 
£afj ,  £ro{j.  (St  tat  eg  aug  fteien  ©tiicfen  (from  his  own  free  will). 

(e)  Figuratively  in  many1  ways  corresponding  to  the  above  lit.  meanings  : 
(St  Ijat  mid)  aug  (out  of)  manner  Stolegenheit  gertffen.  <Sr  lacbte  ang  vollem  ^alfe 
He  laughed  heartily.  9Bag  lotrb  aug  tfim  luerben  ?  What  will  become  of  him  ?  (Sin 
2JJar$en  aug  alten  Betten,  bag  fommt  mtr  ntdjt  aug  bent  ©inn  (from  a  poem  by  Heine). 

(/)  Synonymous  with  aug  is  tton,  and  sometimes  »or.  In  aug  lies  the  idea 
of  movement  out  of  or  from  within  something,  while  won  merely  states  that 
the  movement  begins  near  or  from  something :  £>te  £lue[(en  fommen  oft  aug 
ben  33ergen,  but  £>te  gliiffe  fomnten  »on  ben  93ergen.  6c  ftetgt  aug  bent  SBaffer, 
but  ($t  bri^t  ben  Styfel  Bom  S3aume.  35et  OMter  ftetgt  aug  bent  ©attel,  but  »om 
^ferbe.  When  we  desire  to  express  movement  from  something  that  threatens 
personal  safety,  then  »or  is  the  word :  @r  errettete  fetnen  greunb  aug  bem  ©efangnig 
unb  bamtt  vot  (from)  bem  Jgenferbeil. 

fcei  I.  Now  usually  with  dat.  expressing  nearness  to  some  object  in  a 
general  and  indefinite  way,  but  neighborhood  or  conjunction  without 
contact,  thus  differing  in  part  from  ueben,  which  denotes  close  approach  to 
the  side  of  an  object  but  without  contact,  and  differing  from  an  in  that 
the  latter  denotes  a  closer  approach  and  very  often  contact  with  the  side 
of  the  object  in  question  :  (Ir  ftanb  bet  or  ueben  bem  93aitme,  but  2)er  Slpfel 
fyangt  am  33aume.  Only  rest  Can  be  expressed  by  bet,  and  for  motion  we 
use  an,  neben,  ju,  of  which  an  expresses  motion  close  up  to  an  object,  often  till 
it  touches  it,  ncbcn  direction  toward  the  side  of  an  object  without  contact,  \\\ 
movement  toward,  much  as  an,  but  differing  therefrom  in  that  it  expresses 
a  close  arid  intimate  relation  between  the  persons  and  things  thus  brought 
together :  @t  fefcte  jtdj  an  (at)  ben  Stfdj,  or  neben  (near)  ben  Sifdj,  but  ju  (by) 
nttr  (in  order  to  chat).  See  Note  under  jn. 

(a)  Especially  frequent  is  bet  in  the  sense  of  bordering  upon,  in  the  vicinity 
of:    ©acfyfenfyaufen  bet  granlfurt,  Sinben  bet  J^annover.    2)te  ©djlacbt  bet  Setpjta, 
the  battle  of  Leipsic. 

(b)  Nearness   applied  to  things  in  its  metaphorical  use  (l)  expressing 
usually  a  condition  of  things :  (Sr  iji  nod?  bet  Seben  He  is  still  alive.     (St  ifl 
fdjon  bet  Sahren   He  is  already  quite  old.      <§r  ifl  ntdjt  mefir  bet  Jtrdften   He 
is  no  longer  strong.     @t  tft  ntd)t  bet  ©elbe  He  is  out  of  money.      Gg  bleibt 
beim  alien  The  old  order  of  things  still  remains.     (St  tjl  bet  gutem  SDJut,  gutev 
©efnnbl)eit.     93et  ©ertd)t  at  court,      (z)  fn,  in  connection  -wt'tA,  in  case  of: 
58et  biefem  ©efdjdft  fommt  ntdjtg  fyeraug  In   this  business  there  is  no  money( 
made.    35tefeg  ^rd^arat  ifl  bercttg  von  fielen  §"lr$ten  alg  ein  f^ejtftfd)eg  ^cilmittel  bet 
(in  case  of)  gtd)ttfdjen  Seibcn  erfannt  tvorben.    (3)  A  succession,  after :  ^fetler  bei 
*$feiler  flurjte  uieber.   (4)  Occupation,  at,  busied  with,  over,  all  wrapped  up  in  : 
(Sr  ifl  bet  (at)  ber  Slvbeit.     (St  ifl  beim  9ln}icfmt  He  is  dressing.     (St  ftjjt  unmet  bei 
ben  SBudjern  He  is  always  poring  over  his  books.     @ie  fafjen  ^laubernb  beim  S3ier. 
©ie  tvat  mit  gan^et  ©eele  bet  bet  <£ad)c  She  was  all  wrapped  up  (deeply  interested) 
in  the  affair.    (St  bleibt  bet  bet  @adje  He  sticks  to  the  point. 


390  PREPOSITIONS  229.2. 

(c)  Nearness  to  persons,  at  the  house  of,  place  of  business  of,  upon  the 
person  of:  bet  (at  the  house  of)  bem  £ernt  <£cfjmibt,  bet  mtr  at  my  house,  bet  (at 
the  store  of)  bem  Sud^dnbfer,  bet  einem  ^rofeffor  fyeren  to  attend  the  lecture  of 
a  certain  professor.     £ag  befommen  <£ie  bet  ©djmibt  You  can  buy  that  at 
Schmidt's  (store).    (Sv  f)at  ein  Jlcnto  bet  (at)  ber  Sanf.    3dj  tyabe  feinen  pfennig, 
fern  ©djnupftudj  bet  mir  (upon  my  person). 

(d)  Nearness  applied  to  persons  in  its  metaphorical  use,  with,  in  the 
case  of,  in,  to,  in  the  works  ;  of:  3d)  fyalte  eg  bet  ifjm  ntdjt  aug  I  can't  get  along 
with  him.     @r  gttt  ttiel  bet  ifym  He  passes  for  a  good  deal  with  him.     Sd)t 
tteiblidje  9laturen  ftnb  jebod)  in  ber  OJegel  entfcfylcffenen  ©etfteg  ;  fo  war  eg  aud)  bet 
(in  the  case  of)  bem  fanften,  befdjeibenen  grdittetn.    Sei  bit  (in  your  case)  hnrb 
bie  §dlfte  geniigen.    Sei  eud)  Sungen  mufj  man  ftreng  fein  In  case  of  or  with  you 
boys  one  must  be  strict.    Sei  ung  $u  Sanbe  in  our  country.     @r  beflagte  fid)  bet 
mir  He  complained  to  me.    (§r  fann  ntd)tg  bet  (to)  fid)  befyalten  (keep).    2)ag 
9Bort  fcmmt  bet  (in  the  works  of)  ©oetfye  ntci)t  »or. 

(e)  93ct  often  marks  a  conjunction  or  near  association  of  two  things,  of 
which  the  one  denoted  by  the  object  of  bet  : 

(1)  Marks  the  time  of  the  other,  at,  upon  the  occasion  of,  at  the  time  of, 
when,  in,  by  :  Se^  etnet  £od)$ett  lernte  tdj  tfyn  fennen.    9Jad)  ndfyerer  geftfteHttng 
ftnb  bet  ben  lefcten  Uberfc^tt?emmungen  500  Sote  aufgefttnben  toorben.    (Sr  ^atf  beim 
Slu^fleigen  He  helped  us  when  we  were  getting  off  the  train.     S9et  jtemltd) 
jungen  Safjren  iuurbe  er  jitm  .^arbtnat  befcrbert  When  quite  young  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  a  cardinal.     S3et  (in)  ber  Unterl)altung  ijl  er  etn  gutet  ©ef  eft  f  Rafter. 
9io(^  bet  SDJenfd^engebenftn  within  the  memory  of  man,  bet  Xag,  bei  9lad)t  by  day, 
by  night. 

(2)  Marks  the  cause  of  the  other:  Set  be'r  £eiterung  fann  tdj  ntc^fg  faitfen 
I  can  buy  nothing  when  or  since  everything  is  so  dear.    S3et  folcfKm  5fet£  mup 
eg  tf)m  ge(tngen  With  such  industry  he  must  succeed.     93et  giinftigem  SBtnbe 
fegett  man  fcf)nef(.    (Sr  jtttert  bet  etnem  ©emitter.    S3et  jwei  gegcn  eing  iji  bte  ^artte 
lingfetdfj  Two  against  one  is  not  fair. 

(3)  Marks  a  concession  in  spite  of  which,  however,  the  other  statement  is 
true,  with,  in  spite  of,  usually  followed  by  a((*  :  Set  after  ftitten  <£anftmut  tljreg 
SBefeng  mar  fte  beef}  duperft  fcfyarfbltcfenb  In  spite  of  all  the  gentleness  of  her 
nature  she  was  nevertheless  keen  of  observation.    Set  aUem  Steip  tji  eg  tfjm 
bo^  nti^t  gefungen. 

(4)  Marks  the  means  of  accomplishing  the  other:  Grr  tteft  bet  £td)t.     ©rnennt 
tf;n  betm  IRamen. 

(5)  Marks  an  accompanying  circumstance  of  the  other,  along  with,  to- 
gether with,  in  :  (Sine  Sitdjbtnberet,  toetdje  ebenforoofyl  bte  letcb,teren  etnfacf^en,  a(g  bte 
fc^njiertgen  eleganten  (Stnbanbe,  in  gebiegener  unb  gefd)madf»o[(er  Slugfiattung  bet  un; 
ubertroffener  £altbarfett  ju  liefern  im  <Stanbe  tft.    Unb  bei  folc^en  ^ameral»erf)dltniffen 
retfen  @ie  in  @urp>?a  Ijerttm?  And  when  you  are  in  such  a  state  of  finance  you 
travel  about  in  Europe  ? 

(6)  Marks  the  condition  on  which  the  other  can  occur  :  SKeine  $retfe  fur  bag 
^Jrapavat  ftnb  85  $fg.  (pfennig)  per  ©ramm,  bet  (on  condition  that  the  purchaser 
buys  as  much  as)  10  ©ramm  75  $fg.,  bei  100  ©ramm  70  $fg.    Set  20  2)1.  franfo 
delivered  free,  if  purchased  to  the  amount  of  20  marks. 

(7)  Marks  the  manner:  @ie  Fommen  bet  (or  ju  or  in)  ^aaren,  or  5paar  unb  $aar. 
2J?an  verfanft  etwag  bei  or  nad)  §unberten. 

(f)  In  oaths  and  kindred  strong  statements,  by,  upon:    3d)  fd?lwre  bei 
©ott.    ©r  »erfid)erte  eg  mtr  bei  (upon)  feiner  (Sfjre.    Scim  -Sjimmef,  biefeg  ^inb  tft 


(g)  Fixes  the  penalty  :  @g  tft  bei  8etb  unb  Seben  serboten  It  is  forbidden  at 
the  penalty  of  death.  In  threats  :  Sei  Seibt  nidjt  !  Not  if  you  value  your 
life  ! 

(h)  With  numerals  to  express  approximately  distance,  quantity,  £c.  :  bei 
mefyreren  ©djritten  (Sntfernung  at  a  distance  of  several  paces. 


229.2.  WITH  THE  DATIVE  391 

Note.  Sometimes  without  governing  a  case,  after  the  manner  of  an  adverb,  when  it 
is  synonymous  with  gegen  (about,  not  much  less),  an  (very  little  less,  perhaps  reaching 
the  number),  auf  as  high  as  (the  highest  limit),  but  differing  from  them  in  that  it  ex- 
presses indefinitely  an  approach  in  general,  perhaps  more,  perhaps  less,  and,  moreover, 
is  not  used  so  often :  3)a3  foflet  midj)  gegen,  an,  auf,  bei  30  Safer.  Of  these  gegen 
also  approaches  iiltt,  but  they  differ  in  that  the  latter  means  rather  not  much  more 
or  less. 

(t)  The  measure  of  difference :  ($r  tji  bet  frettem  (by  far)  bet  fafyigfie. 

(/)  53et  expresses  sometimes  a  closer  approach  and  even  contact,  espe- 
cially in  case  of  a  part  of  the  body  with  verbs  of  seizing,  and  a  few  set 
expressions  :  (Sr  fajjte  ifjn  beim  (by)  Jtcpf,  bet  bet  §anb;  bet  ben  |>aaren,  beim  9tccf; 
jipfcl.  SBit  fangen  beim  erften  Jtapttct  be<3  23ud)e$  an.  (£r  fyat  a((c<5  bei  Belter 
itnb  pfennig  bejafylt  He  has  paid  everything  up  to  the  last  penny. 

2.  33ct  now  rarely  takes  the  ace.  except  in  a  few  set  expressions :  bet  feite 
gefien  to  go  to  one  side,  etnen  bet  [cite  nehmen  to  take  somebody  to  one  side,  ettva3 
bei  feite  brtngen  to  take  something  secretly  away.  However,  in  the  North  the 
ace.  is  often  heard  with  verbs  of  motion  in  colloquial  language,  and  hence 
often  appears  in  literature  :  ^err,  toen  ber  fyeute  5lbenb  $u  fetuer  <£uwe  etnldbt,  bent 
ivirb  et  and)  etnen  fdrtimmen  Scffct  bei  ben  9iapf  legen  (Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap.  iv). 
3cf  mnjj  bet  een  «§errn  itff'n  SBahnfyof  jefjn  (Fielitz,  in  Hauptmann's  Der  rote  Hahri). 

Earlier  this  ace.  was  common,  and  is  especially  frequent  with  Luther: 
2)a  aber  <Saulu$  gen  Serufatem  fam  |  serfudjte  er  ftd;  bey  bie  Suttgcr  ju  ntadjcn 
(Acts  ix.  26). 

bdiicbft,  see  nebfl. 

btitHi'U  within,  sometimes  with  dat.,  sometimes  with  gen. ;  see  btnncn  in 
228.  4. 

ban?  thanks  to,  usually  with  dat.,  sometimes  with  gen. :  3d)  bin,  ban!  3fyrcn 
93emuhitngen,  gerettet.  See  also  banf  in  228. 4. 

cutflcflcu  against,  contrary  to,  either  following  or,  perhaps,  more  commonly 
preceding  the  dependent  word :  entgegen  nnferem  Stbfcntmen  or  imfercm  ?lbfcmmen 
entgegen.  3hre  ^>aare  ivaren  ein  tventg  gottig,  »a3  id)  aber,  entgegen  nteincr  fcnfiigen 
®efd)macfgrtd}tnng,  fefir  liebreijenb  fanb  (R.  Huch's  Erinnerungen  -von  Ludolf 
Ursleu,  chap.  iii).  Sometimes  it  must  stand  before  the  noun,  so  that  it  can 
be  distinguished  from  the  adverb  entgegen,  which  follows  the  noun,  and  has 
sometimes  quite  a  different  meaning":  (St  fant,  entgegen  nteinen  JBunfdjen  He 
came  contrary  to  my  wishes,  but  (Sr  fam  meinen  S&itnfd^cn  entgegen  He  met 
my  wishes  (complied  with  them). 

For  full  description  of  its  use  as  a  prep,  and  adv.  see  a,  under  its  synonym 
jun)iber,  below. 

etttlaitg,  see  Iang«. 

flcflemibcr  over  against,  opposite,  standing  before  the  dependent  noun,  or 
following  it,  the  latter  almost  always  in  case  of  pronouns  :  ©egenuber  bent  @cfa, 
or  ©em  @cfa  gegenubet  l)tng  ein  gro$e$  3Mlt>.  ©egemtbet  ber  ftefiung  Sfyrenbreitfiein 
ttegt  bie  <Stabt  Jtobtenj.  (Sr  naT)tn  i()m  grab  gegenuber  $(a^. 

(a)  gegenuber  (see  its  synonym  gegen,  d)  in  its  figurative  use  is  translated  by 
•with  respect  to,  towards,  in  the  face  of,  in  contrast  to:  SHcfent  jWlett  SBiihtett, 
$lanfd}mieben  unb  93orbereiten  feiner  3unftbruber  gegenuber  (with  respect  to)  ml)telt 
ftd^  @crt)arb  OJid)tt.nn  fait  unb  jweibeutig.   @r  fa^  »crau$,  ba^  fcine  SteHung  (attitude) 
bent  3ujit$rat  gegenuber  (toward)  red)t  argerlid)  n?ar.    ©cgcnubcr  (in  the  face  of) 
biefen  £atfad)en  fann  nid)t<5  mef)C  befdjcntgt  Herbert,      ©egenubet  (in  contrast  to) 
bent  feit  Sinfitfyrung  be3  (5()riflcntumi5  ftnfenbcn  Satein  trtcben  auf  anberer  <£d)id;t  unb 
Itnterlage  bie  9Jontanfprad)cn  (Romance  languages)  em^or  (Grimm). 

(b)  Earlier  gegenuber  was  separated  into  its  two  component  elements  :  3d)  fal) 
mtd^  gegen  bent  ijofycn  9BaI(  iiber  ^Goethe).    Also  the  poetical  form  genubet  is 
used  :  SSie  oft  n?at  fte  an  Stfifn  mit  cjenuber  (Grillparzer). 

(c)  Sometimes  the  gallicism  gegenubet  »on  instead  of  gegeniiber  is  found :  ($$ 


392  PREPOSITIONS  229.2. 

gibt  fo  fyibfdje  £aufer  am  Sollwerf,  etng  jimfdjen  tfonful  SWarteng  unb  Jlcnful 
©rufcmadjer  unb  eing  am  SOJarft,  gerabe  gegenitber  »on  ©iegfyubler  (name)  (Fontane's 
Effi,  chap.  x). 

flcutrtft  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of,  in  accordance  with  the  command, 
instructions,  &c.  of,  either  preceding  or  following  the  noun ;  in  the  former 
sense  uniformly  with  the  dat.,  in  the  latter  sometimes  also  with  the  gen. 
when  standing  before  the  noun,  after  the  analogy  of  in  ©emdfjfyeit  and  jufelge 
(see  gemdfi,  228. 4) :  (Sr  lebte  fetner  ©eftmtung  unb  feinem  ©tanbe  gemag  fefyr  einfam. 
©emiii  beinem  SBunfdje  or  beinem  SSunfdje  gemdjj.  3eber  ©taatgburger  (oil  ben 
©efefcen  beg  Sanbeg  gemafj  fid)  tterfyalten.  ©emafi,  or  in  ©emdjjfyeit,  or  more  com- 
monly jufotge  bed  erfyaltenen  Sluftragg,  or  very  commonly  £>em  erfyaltenen  Stuftrag 
gemdjj  or  jufotge  uberfenbe  id)  31)nen  bie  tterlangten  2Berfe. 

lattg$,  rarely  Idngjt,  along,  with  gen.,  or  perhaps  more  commonly  the  dat., 
preferring  the  position  before  the  noun  ;  entlang,  rarely  entldngfl  =  Idngg,  some- 
times with  gen.,  usually  with  the  ace.,  less  commonly  with  the  dat.,  more 
frequently  following  the  noun :  Idngg  bem  lifer  or  beg  Uferg,  tdngft  beg  ©ttterg 
(Schnitzler's  Die  Gefdhrtin,  p.  69),  bag  £a{  entlang  or  bem  £al  entlang,  entlang 
beg  SSalfcgebtrgeg  (Schiller),  beg  SBegeg  entlang  (Frenssen's  Die  drei  Getreuen,  III, 
7),  entlang  etnem  SBalbfleig  (Rosegger),  entlang  bem  unteren  Otanbe  beg  ©egelg 
(T.  Storm),  entlang  bem  ffl3a(begranbe  (id.),  entlang  bte  tange  ©trafje  (Ruckert). 
Instead  of  these  forms  tang  with  ace.  is  often  heard  in  N.G.  dialect  or  collo- 
quial speech  :  @r  ijl  bte  ©trajje  lang  gegangen. 

Originally  enttang  was  an  adverb,  and  is  still  so  used  :  %t\\f,  bte  Jpdnbe  in  ben 
Xafcfyen  (eineg  furjen  ^augrocfeg,  fam  entlang  (Junghans).  ©r  fam  am  93ad)  entlang. 

tttit  corresponds  to  Eng.  "with  very  closely  in  its  varied  meanings,  and 
hence  is  not  treated  here  in  detail :  35et  SSater  gefyt  mtt  ben  ^inbern  aug.  <2ie 
(predien  mtt  etnanber.  @te  arbetten  mtt  gletg. 

(a)  When  events  or  ideas  stand  in  close  relation  with  a  person  or  thing, 
mtt  may  mean  with  reference  to'.  SBag  gtbt'g  mtt  bem  @d?metht>i^?  What  is  that 
matter  with  reference  to  (Mr.)  Schmettwitz?  9lun  fag',  tttie  fyajl  bn'8  mtt  bet 
Religion?  How  do  you  stand  with  reference  to  religion  ?  Sag  mtt  bem  93rtef 
muffen  ftir  ting  nod)  iibertegen  We  must  reflect  over  that  plan  we  have  concerning 
the  letter. 

(b}  In  many  idiomatic  expressions  mtt  is  used  where  in  English  other 
words  are  found,  or  it  is  not  used  where  the  English  requires  with  :  (Sr  tji 
mtt  metnem  SBrttber  gletcf)en  Sllterg  He  is  of  the  same  age  as  my  brother. 
3d)  U)oJ)itte  mit  ifyt  in  bemfelben  Jjjaufe  I  lived  in  the  same  house  that  she  did. 
SDteine  €>d)tteftet  hjoljitt  ^tar  in  bemfelben  J^aufe,  fogar  an  ein  unb  bemfelben  $luv  mtt 
vfim  (Ertl's  Der  Handschuh).  5)er  ©artner  reift  bie  5pfl!an^e  mtt  (by)  ber  SBuqe! 
aug.  3JHt  etnmat  (all  at  once)  fprangen  bte  Sfuget  auf.  (Jr  traf  mit  (on)  bem  lefcten 
3ug  ein.  2)ag  ifi  fetn  gall  That  is  the  case  with  him._  6r  necfte  mic^  mit 
(about)  ifyt.  3d;  icar  tmmer  ein  unf)eimlid)er,  garjliger,  brummiger  Jfetl,  mit  bem  man 
bie  Heinen  ^inber  furdjten  madjen  fonnte.  9ftit  etnem  ©dotage  at  one  blow,  mit  einem 
SBorte  in  a  word,  mit  bet  erften  ©elegen^ett  by  (at)  the  first  opportunity,  mit  ber 
$ofl  by  mail,  mit  ber  (Stfenbafyn  by  rail,  tternxmbt  mit  related  to,  mtt  &orfa£  on 
purpose.  3<^  bin  ©efdjftijterfinb  mit  if)tn  (if)r)  We  are  cousins.  6  mit  (by)  3 
multipli^iert  gibt  18.  (5r  fprid^t  mit  (to  or  with}  ifyr  baruber.  SKtt  bem  (in  his) 
fitnften  3af;re  lentte  er  lefen.  SBag  meinen  @te  mit  (by)  biefen  SBorten  ? 

(c)  For  the  relation  of  mit  to  its  synonyms  mittelg,  »on,  burd),  »eimcge,  see 
mittetg  in  228.  4. 

(d)  With  verbs,  in  the  function  of  an  adverb,  mit  has  a  different  meaning 
according  as  it  is  accented  or  unaccented.     Under  stress,  mit  implies  a  close 
union  and  cooperation  in  the  activity  expressed  by  the  verb,  while  unaccented 
it  relinquishes  the  accent  to  the  verb,  and  hence  expresses  mere  contem- 
poraneity or  indicates  that  the  main  stress  lies  in  the  activity :  333 tr  tt>oflen 
mi'tarbetten  We  desire  to  work  along  with  you.    2Bir  toctten  mit  a'rbetten  We 
desire  to  work  too  (at  the  same  time  as  you  work).    2Ber  nid)t  mit  o'rbettet,  foil 


229.2.  WITH  THE  DATIVE  393 

aud)  ntd)t  mit  e'Jien  Who  does  not  join  with  us  in  working  shall  also  not  join 
with  us  in  eating.  An  accented  mit  is  often  used  where  we  use  the  pro- 
nominal adj.  one  :  (Sr  toar  mit  babet  He  was  one  of  the  party.  @r  n?ar  mit  ber 
bejie  <Sd)iUet  in  bcr  JUaffe  He  was  one  of  the  best  pupils  in  the  class. 

mitfamt',  see  fantt. 

itact)  (a)  direction  towards,  without  implying  whether  the  goal  is  reached 
or  not,  in  the  direction  of.  In  this  use  nad)  has  the  same  general  force  as 
gegen  (less  common  except  in  set  expressions)  :  £)te  SWutter  blicfte  nad)  ben 
Jtinbern.  ©r  lenft  [cine  (£d)ritte  nadj  or  gegen  SBeften.  35a3  £au6  Uegt  itad)  or 
gegen  9iorben.  £>a3  ftmjier  gel)t  nad)  bent  £cfe  The  window  looks  out  upon  the 
courtyard. 

Sometimes  with  the  adv.  ju  or  Ijin  :  C?r  rettet  nad)  bent  SDalbe  jit.  2>er  ftfujj 
toirb  nad)  fciner  STntnbung  bin  fdjiffbar. 

Figuratively  :  !Dte  SJJutter  ftefjt  nadj  ben  Jtinbern  Mother  looks  after  the 
children.  SDhr  ijl  nid)t  nad)  Sadden  gu  <2inn  I  don't  feel  in  a  laughing  mood. 

(b)  A  definite  goal  (for  modification  of  this  rule  see  Note  under  ju),  to,  only 
used  of  things  :  @t  gcfyt  nad)  ber  <£tabt,  nad)  ^Berlin.    2Bte  fomnte  id)  nad)  bet 
Sriebrtdjjhajje  ?  How  can  I  get  to  Friedrich  Street  from  here  ? 

Note  I.  When  the  definite  goal  is  a  person  in  the  literal  sense,  gu  must  be  used, 
for  nad)  (see  c]  has  quite  a  different  meaning  :  (§t  gel)t  JU  tf)ttt  He  goes  to  him,  to  his 
house  to  see  him,  but  (Sr  gefyt  nad)  il)m  He  goes  to  fetch  him. 

Note  2.  Notice  the  idiomatic  distinction  :  @r  gel)t  nad)  -§aufe  and  Qrr  tfl  jit  §aufe. 
A  little  earlier  in  the  period,  at  could  also  be  used  for  motion  toward  :  al$  nut  Jit 
£aufe  gtngen  (Hebbel's  Agnes  Bernauer,  i,  5). 

(c)  Motion  towards  a  person  or  thing  with  the  intention  of  obtaining  it, 
bringing  it  back,  using,  enjoying,  hitting,  or  injuring  it,  after,  for,  at  :  @r 
reid)t  nad)  (after)  bent  SJpfet.     (£t  lauft  nad)  (for)  bent  3lrgt.     (Sr  gef)t  nad)  (after) 
SBafier.    S)er  Jpunb  fd)napvte  nad)  (at)  tnir.     (It  fe()nt  fid)  (longs  to  be)  nad)  (in) 
Berlin,  nad)  (with)  ber  93rant  l)in.    @r  fragt  nad)  (after)  tfytn,  nad)  ber  Urfad)e.    (Sin 
.Jpert  til  ba  nad)  bem  S'cf  jintmer  A  gentleman  is  here  enquiring  after  (with  a  view 
to  renting)  the  corner  room. 

(d)  A  following  or  succession  in  space  or  time,  of  persons  or  things,  after  : 
dr  ging  nad)  nut  He  went  after  I  did.     (Sr.  jog  e6  nad)  ftd)  He  dragged  it  after 
him.     9iad)  3al)ren  years  afterward,  nad)  £ti"dj  after  mealtime.     9iad)  getanet 
Slrbcit  ifl  gut  ruf)cn.    Expressing  rank  :  dr  ijl  nad)  bem  Jtaifer  bet  erjle  SOlann. 


Synonymous  with  nad)  in  this  use  is  tjtnter,  only,  however,  when  the  idea  of 
place  is  quite  prominent  :  3)ie  SWtmjlet  famen  nad)  or  ^inter  (following  from  behind) 
bem  Jlemge. 

(f)  9lad)  standing  before  and  sometimes  after  the  noun  denotes  a  corre- 
spondence, accordance  between  things,  signifying  :  — 

(i)  Likeness,  of:  ©e  fd)tnecft  nad)  2Betn  It  tastes  of  wine.  S3  rtedjt  nad) 
SSetld)en. 

(z)  The  model  or  pattern  after  which  something  is  fashioned  or  done,  the 
standard  of  judgment  or  authority  cited,  or  that  which  has  guided  the  action  : 
ein  iiufifpiel  nad)  bem  Stanjofifdjfen  a  comedy  following  freely  the  pattern  of  the 
French  original.  ®r  matt  ifyn  nad)  ber  9Jatur  He  is  painting  him  from  nature. 
dr  nannte  ftd)  ntd)t  nad)  (after)  fetttem  abater.  3d)  fcnne  ifjn  nnr  bem  DJamen 
nad)  (by).  <gie  ftngt  nad)  (by)  9Joten.  <Sie  tan^en  nad)  bem  £afte  They  dance 
keeping  good  time.  <£etn  ©tanb^nnft,  nad)  mir  (judged  by  my  standard),  ijl 
ntd)t  fcfjt  I)od).  Seinem  9Uter  nad)  (judging  by)  fonnte  et  fluget  ^anbeln.  9lad) 
(according  to  the  authority  of)  ©ngclien  tent  ba«  au^lantenbe  ng  »ie  nf.  ®te 
2Renjd)en  bcurteilt  man  am  jtd)erften  nad)  (by)  i()ten  Saten.  OJtd)tet  end)  nad)  metnen 
SSorten  nnb  ntd)t  nad)  metnen  Xaten  Be  guided  by  my  words  and  not  by  my 
actions.  9ftan  ?mp  fangt  ben  SWann  nad)  (according  to)  feincm  JlUibe,  aber  entld^t 
ir;n  nad)  feinct  {Hebe. 


394  PREPOSITIONS  229.2. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  rtadj  are  gentdfj,  jufolge,  taut.  Uladj  differs  from  them  all 
in  that  the  action,  judgment,  idea,  expressed,  is  usually  conceived  of  as  a  free  one,  the 
aim  being  to  struggle  to  reach  the  model,  pattern,  standard,  authority  that  has  been 
set  up,  while  the  other  prepositions  imply  that  the  resulting  action  is  actually  in 
accord  with  or  in  pursuance  of  these  things,  acknowledging  their  force  and  authority  : 
@r  fleibet  ftd)  feinent  ©tanbe  gemafj  He  dresses  as  is  becoming  his  station,  as  is 
required  by  one  in  his  station.  2Me  ©gotten  Iletben  ftdj  junt  £eil  nad)  alter  SanbeS; 
fttte  The  Scotch  still  dress  according  to  the  old  customs  of  their  country  (following 
these  older  patterns  voluntarily),  (gr.  vidjtet  fid)  nad)  ben  ©efefcen  He  conforms  volun- 
tarily to  the  laws.  Sfjrem  2Bnnfdje  $nfolge  fdjicfe  id)  3ljnen  bag  33nd)  In  accordance 
with  your  request  I  send  you  the  book.  @g  ging  ttad)  SSunfd)  It  went  off  just  as  I 
desired  it  (but  not  necessarily  because  I  desired  it  thus).  gaut  frfiljerer  33ertrdge  tttad)te 
Srtebrid)  ber  ©rojse  feine  9lnfpriid)e  auf  @d)lejten  gettenb  Frederic  the  Great  laid  claim 
to  Silesia  upon  the  grounds  of  former  treaties.  Even  where  the  idea  of  necessity  enters 
into  the  case,  ttad)  implies  more  the  following  of 'a  model,  standard,  or  wise  course  than 
obeying  the  instructions  (as  Jltfotge)  of  an  order:  3)er  geljrer  ntltp  fid)  ttad)  bent 
tyafumggttermogen  fetner  ©djuler  rtd)ten  The  teacher  must  regulate  himself  according 
to  the  comprehension  of  his  pupils. 

These  words  sometimes  approach  one  another  very  closely  in  the  sense  of  from  the 
purport  of :  gaut  (according  to)  fetnes  S3riefc3  ttnrb  et  fyeut  fommen.  (Stnem  33rief 
jufclge  (according  to)  fommt  unfer  greunb.  9tad)  (according  to)  biefem  SSrtefe  ntuf 
unfer  Sreunb  balb  fommen. 

(f)  9Zad)  has  as  an  adverb  in  general  the  same  meanings  as  the  prep., 
but  sometimes  shades  of  difference  arise  as  a  prep,  shows  the  relation 
between  a  verb  and  a  noun  (or  pronoun)  which  is  supposed  to  represent 
an  object  at  rest,  while  the  adv.  nad)  must  modify  immediately  the  verb, 
and  hence  must  have  reference  alone  to  verbal  action,  and  can  refer  to 
objects  in  motion  :  (Sr  lief  nad)  (after)  bem  Slr$t,  but  Grr  lief  bent  2)iebe  nad)  He 
ran  after  the  (fleeing)  thief. 

1trtrf)ft  or  5Uttad)ft  next  to,  the  former  used  literally  and  figuratively,  the 
latter  only  of  the  place  where,  are  formed  from  the  superlative  of  nafye  near, 
and  still  preserve  its  original  meaning  nearest  to :  em  Jpau^  nad)ft  ber  33riirfe. 
3fyr  Sntber  fafi  nad)fi  ntir.  (5r  tjl  nacfyft  bir  ber  a'ltefte.  9Jdd)jl  ®ott  fann  cin 
2Jlenfd)  bem  anbern  am  meifien  nu^en.  3undd)ft  may  precede  or  follow  the  noun, 
and  sometimes  governs  the  gen.  when  it  precedes  the  noun :  junddjft  bent 
S3al)nl)cf,  or  bem  S3al)nl}of  junad)|1 ;  junad)jl  be<J  SDJeereg  (Goethe).  With  adverb : 
(5r  ttofynt  filer  ^iindd)ji  He  lives  next  door. 

ttebft  and  the  strengthened  form  bciicbft  (in  the  language  of  the  common 
people)  =  jugletd)  nut  together  with  :  £>ie  @tabt  fal)  ben  ^linger  nebjl  feinem  ganjen 
©efolge  mtt  fd)recfltd)en  @d)ritten  ftd)  naftern  (Goethe). 

(a)  Synonymous  with  neb|1  are  mit  and  famt  with  its  strengthened  forms 
mitfamt',  jufamt',  gitfamt'  mit.     Of  these  mtt  has  the  broadest  meaning,  as  can 
be  seen  by  consulting  this  word  above.     It  differs  from  the  others  in  that  it 
expresses  a  closer  and  more  intimate  relation  between  the  objects  or  persons 
in  question,  but  may  also  usually  replace  the  other  two  even  in  their  especial 
fields.     Sftebft  and  famt  denote  a  connection  (see  b},  a  being  together,  an 
acting  or  being  acted  upon  at  the  same  time,  with  the  distinction  not  always 
clearly  marked  that  the  former  expresses  a  looser  connection  which  can  easily 
be  severed,  while  the  latter  denotes  that  the  connection  is  a  usual  and  natural 
association,  not,  however,  a  live  mutual  cooperation  as  with  mit :  3ur  Slu& 
fteuer  erf)dlt  bte  »ereh.eltd)te  Caroline  <2d)mtbt  i  Jtitl)  wbfl  8  @d)afen.     25 te  2Birt; 
fdjaft  tfl  gu  tterfaufen  nebfi  ben  anflofjenben  ©runbfludm      JDa3  @d)iff  famt  ber 
ganjen  SDJannfdjaft  itnb  Sabung  toarb  ein  (Rattb  ber  SBcflcn.     25te  9)?utter  nebfl  or 
famt  ifiren  ^tnbern,  but  <Sr  ^at  ben  Saum  famt  ber  SBurjcl  au^gevottet. 

(b)  9tebfi,  famt,  and  mtt  often  have  the  force  of  the  conjunction  unb,  connecting 
only  nouns  or  pronouns,  thus  not  showing  the  relation  directly  between  a 
verb  and  a  noun,  and  hence  when  so  used  they  are  treated  as  conjunctions 
taking  the  verb  in  the  pi.,  especially  earlier  in  the  period :  SBnb  (gattl  fampt 


229.2.  WITH  THE  DATIVE  395 

aHen  mennern  Sfrael  fmveten  fid?  (i  Sam.  xi.  15).  ©er  5pfarret  nut  bcm  93ater 
gtngen  bcbenflid)  bem  ©emeinbefyaufe  ju  (Goethe).  @tn  S3ebienter  nebjt  eincnt 
^ofUUiott  fclgten  mit  (id.).  Present  usage  prefers  the  sing,  in  such  cases  in 
accordance  with  strict  grammatical  concordance  :  2J?ed)ttfbe  nttt  iljren  jtoei 
@6I)nen  erfd)etnt  auf  ber  3inne  (M.  Greif's  Heinrich  der  Lowe,  5,  i).  See  also 
253. 1. 1.  d. 

Ilib  =  untcr(f)atb)  in  Swiss  dialect,  but  now  found  even  there  rarely,  except 
in  names  of  places  :  Stud)  bcv  21($e((er  fctt  unS  nib  bent  SBalb  (below  the  Forest,  a. 
section  of  the  canton  Unterwalden)  |  ©enojfen  hxrben  (Schiller's  Tell,  i,  4). 

ob  above,  over,  during,  on  account  of,  usually  with  the  dative,  often  also 
with  gen.  in  the  last  meaning  after  the  analogy  of  ivegcn,  in  all  the  meanings 
now  little  used  in  colloquial  language,  but  not  infrequent  in  early  N.H.G., 
and  still  in  poetry  and  choice  prose  :  Db  (above)  bent  2Utar  tying  etne  SDJutter 
©ctteg  (Schiller).  £>enn  reicfye  Suftmft  fdjttcbt  ob  betnem  Jpaupt  (Uhland's  Ernst, 
Herzog  von  Schwaben,  I,  p.  i).  3d)  n.n((  cid)  nttr  fo  tadjenb,  ftrafytenb  rtnfien,  |  fo 
fytmntelf)od)  cb  jebcnt  fdjwarjen  QWuffftt  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  3, 
10).  Dftemid)  cb  ber  (Smts.  93nb  namen  jrc  waffett  |  cnb  fteten  etn  $tt  Simon  ob 
(during)  bem  5Kal)l  (i  Mace.  xvi.  16).  Biivnen  @te  nttr  ntc^t  ob  ntetnem  futynen 
©ejlanbnie  (Benedix's  Doktor  Wespe,  5,  7).  Sabet  erfjcben  fte  ftc^  unb  |tanben 
tiertmrtt,  fctywanfenb  .ob  all  bem  Slbenteuerltcfien,  ba^  ber  Slbenb  ent()ullt  unb  gebrac^t 
tjatte  (Raabe's  Zum  wilden  Mann,  chap.  ix). 

With  gen. :  3t)t  fetb  |  serttnmbert  ob  be>J  feltfamen  ©erdted  (Schiller'sy^w^'a^, 
Prolog.  3).  @r  I)dtte  itjn  ob  fctneg  Sbeait^mu^  n)etblic^  atiSgefdjcften  (Auerbach's 
Neues  Leben,  3,  42).  ©elbft  serivttnbevt  ob  beg  £onfa((3  (Raabe's  Hoxter  und 
Corvey,  chap.  xv).  33er(ictnert  cb  fotc^eg  nie  bagetcefenen  regeUofen  (Stnbvu^3  (H. 
Hoffmann's  Wider  den  JCur/urs/en,  chap.  xx).  geltx  lad^te  ob  ntetner  (Sorgen 
(Meinhardt's  Heinz  Kirchner). 

faint/  see  (a)  under  nebft. 

fcit  since,  for,  representing  the  duration  of  some  act  or  condition  of  things 
beginning  at  some  point  in  the  past  and  extending  to  some  point  later  on  : 
2Bir  lebcu  fdjcn  fctt  7  Safyren  in  23erltn  We  have  been  living  in  Berlin  now  for 
seven  years.  <£ctt  (since)  [enter  Icfcten  .ft ranffyett  tycrt  er  fcfyiver. 

(a)  Synonymous  with  feit  are  »or  and  na(^.  The  two  latter  differ  from  feit 
in  that  they  do  not  express  duration  of  time,  but  refer  to  a  definite  occurrence. 
33or  refers  to  a  definite  occurrence  counting  back  from  the  present,  while 
nad)  refers  to  something  that  took  place  after  some  other  event  or  some  fixed 
time  :  (St  ill  ttor  etnent  3afyt  geftcrben  He  died  a  year  since.  @r  tjl  ant  Sage  nad) 
Dfiern  gejlorben  He  died  on  the  day  after  Easter.  (Sr  t|l  feit  etnent  Safyre  tot  (not 
geflcrben)  He  has  been  dead  for  a  year. 

ttoit  (for  synonyms  au3  and  «cr,  see^/j  under  attiJ)  denotes  in  various  ways 
the  starting  point,  used  of: — 

(a)  Place  (the  opposite  of  nad)  and  \v),from :  (Sr  ift  con  $ari<3  nad)  SBerttn 
geretjl    !Dcr  Slvfel  tjl  »om  2)attme  gefaden.     (Sr  gefyt  von  §au3  ju  JpauS.     Figura- 
tively: @r  n?dljt  bie  @d)ulb  »ott  ftd).    3d?  mtt^  nttr  erft  metne  ©egner  »om  Jjjalfe 
fdjaffen  I  must  first  get  rid  of  my  opponents. 

(b)  The  starting  point  of  some  action  or  state  of  things,  and  hence  often 
denoting  the  direct  cause,  from,  with,  on  account  of,  on,  by,  and  after  passive 
verbs  the  agent,  by :  2$on  ©orteit  fam'S  $u  <2d)(agen.    35a3  fommt  com  ©tfcen  Ijer 
That  conies  from  sitting  too  much.     (Sr  tft  mube  com  (from)  vieten  Saufcn.    9la§ 
com  (with)  San.     (Sr  i]?  con  (with)  9Hjemnatt3mtt$  geldtymt.     JDie  J&anb  tfl  con 
(with)  Qr'-'ft  erftarrt.    2)te  SBajfer  finb  fon  (on  account  of)  bem  (Hegen  au^getreten. 
a>on  (on)  ber  Suft  fann  man  nid)t  tcben.     £>er  2etd)ttam  war  con  (by)  SBunben 
entfiedt.    !Der  (gdn'iler  nnrb  vont  (by)  i!eT)ter  gelobt.    £>er  SJaum  n?urbe  x>om  (by) 
aStnbe  umgetiffen. 

(c)  The  starting  point  of  thought  or  perceptions,  denoting  the  point  or 
especial  topic  that  busies  the  attention,  of,  about,  concerning'.  @t  benft  fd)ted}t 
»on  (of)  nttr.    JDieg  23itd)  Ijanbett  »on  (of)  bem  ftcbenja^rtgcn  Jlrtege.    5Berid)te  mit 


396  PREPOSITIONS  229.2. 

von  bit.  SBir  fpradjen,  rebeten  von  (about)  3I)nen.  _  (Sr  ftetfj  von  (concerning)  ber 
<5ad)e  nid)tg.  (Sr  eqafylt  eft  von  fetnen  yteifen.  itbev  with  the  ace.  is  also  used 
with  these  verbs,  presenting  the  same  thought  from  a  different  point  of  view ; 
see  231.11.  itber  2.B.  b.  This  same  meaning  is  found  after  nouns  :  tie  £ef)te 
von  bet  JDreieintgfeit,  bag  SOfardjen  von  Oiotfappdjen,  cine  falfdje  SBorftcttung  von  ehvag. 

(d)  Origin  of  things,  descent,  place  of  nativity  or  residence,  from,  by:  3d) 
Iwbe  eg  von  tfym.    3d)  weifj  eg  von  guter  §anb.    33on  i()m  Ijat  er  alletlet  @d)ted)teg 
gelernt.    (Sr  ftammf  von  redjtUd)en  Sftevn  ab.    SDtet  Jtinber  von  (by)  fetner  erften  grau. 
(Sin  Jtaufmann  von  93erltn.     Thus  also  von,  which  serves  now  simply  as  the 
badge  of  nobility,  originally  denoted  the  place  from  which:  SUexanbet  Von 
.§mnpolbt ;  see  92.  5. 

Note.  SSon  differs  from  aug  in  that  it  expresses  a  directer,  more  intimate  relation : 
3dj  fycre  von  ifjm,  bag  J?art  franf  ift.  3d)  fycrte  aug  feiner  Slrt  ju  reben  fefyr  tool)l,  ba§ 
er  ein  ebetmutigeg  Jperj  fyatte.  (Sr  fontntt  au3  $reu^en,  but  von  33erlin.  For  a  differ- 
ence from  another  point  of  view,  see  ail8,f. 

(e)  Time,  from:  von  Dfhrn  bis  ^ftngjleit,  von  Sag  ju  Sag,  von  Sugenb  auf,  von 
btefem  Sage  an. 

(/)  Material  or  that  of  which  something  consists,  instead  of  the  gen., 
which  is  now  rare  in  prose,  of  (see.  Note  under  ang,  c) :  3>t  Sifdj  ifl  von  £o[$, 
ein  <£tral)(  von  ©litcf,  etn  unverftdnblid)eg  ©emtfd)  von  ©pantfdj  unb  3taUemfd). 
Although  von  is  used  chiefly  in  a  phrase  which  serves  as  an  adjunct  to  a  noun, 
it  is  also  sometimes  employed  in  adverbial  phrases  instead  of  the  more 
common  aits  :  2ftan  ntad)t  Javier  au3  or  von  Srnnfcen. 

Similar  is  the  use  of  von  in  phrases  indicating  the  quantity  or  measure  \, 
etne  @tabt  von  20,000  (Stmvofjnent,  ein  93ctvag  von  100  9Rarf,  ein  9Bcg  von  brei  SDWlen. 

(g)  Quality  or  rank,  instead  of  a  gen.  of  characteristic,  which  is  in  certain 
expressions  now  rare,  of:  @in  SRann  von  (Sfyve,  von  @tanbe,  von  ©efdjntacf ;  fine 
@ad)e  von  aBtd)tigfeit ;  etn  ©reis  von  ad)tjig  3at)ren.  In  the  predicate :  £a3  i)l 
von  grofi em  9lu^en. 

(h)  A  particular  point  or  respect  in  which  something  is  true,  sometimes 
after  adjectives  and  before  a  following  noun,  thus  forming  a  phrase  which  is 
translated  by  a  phrase,  an  adj.,  or  in  various  other  ways  :  (St  i|l  Hem  von  ^>erfon 
(of  stature).  3d)  fenne  il)n  von  Slnfefyen  or  -^erfon  (by  sight).  <£te  ijl  Hetd)  von 
@eftd)t  (pale-faced). 

(/)  In  a  phrase  which  stands,  as  an  appositive  to  a  preceding  noun,  just  as 
of  in  Eng. :  ©djurfe  von  etnent  SSivt  rascal  of  a  landlord.  Sag  ijt  etne  ^Jvad)t  von 
einem  >8ed)er  That  is  a  jewel  of  a  cup. 

(/)  A  separation,  desired  or  forced,  which  comes  from  the  original  idea  of 
movement  from  a  point :  Ore  fyat  ntid)  Von  J?ummev  befmt.  2)ie  flatter  fatten  vom 
23aume  ab.  ©eben  @ie  ntiv  ettoag  vom  5Wfd). 

Hence  also  the  whole,  from  which  a  part  is  taken,  has  often  von  before  it, 
instead  of  being  in  the  partitive  gen.,  especially  after  numerals,  pronouns 
(see  141.  2.  Note),  and  superlatives  :  3»et  von  metnen  ^veunben,  letnev  von  ung,  ber 
©elefyrtefie  von  alien.  Euphony  sometimes  alone  decides  between  the  use  of  the 
gen.  or  the  dat.  with  von :  <Ste  ()6rte  eg  von  einer  ifyver  Sveunbtnnen  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  @te  f)6rte  eg  von  einer  von  ifyven  Sreunbinnen  because  it  avoids  the 
use  of  von  twice.  Sometimes  the  prep,  unter  is  also  used  here :  Set  ftdvffte 
untet  alien  Sa^fern.  See  also  255.  II.  I.  H.a  and  c. 

Also  the  objective  gen.  is  often  replaced  by  von;  see  255.  II.  I.  D.c. 

(k]  Besides  the  cases  mentioned  in/,  g,  and/,  above,  which  now  usually 
prefer  von  with  the  dat.  to  the  simple  gen.,  the  following  cases  also  very 
frequently  prefer  von  to  a  gen. : — 

(1)  The  names  of  places,  always  in  common  prose  when  they  end  in  a 
sibilant :  55er  Jtonig  ^reufjeng  or  von  ^reufjen,  but  only  bie  93ev6lferung  von  $avtg. 
The  gen.,  however,  occurs  here  in  poetry  ;  see  86.  2.  e. 

(2)  Nouns  without  an  article  or  modifying  word  to  show  the  case :  @t  ifl 
fcer  aSerfaffer  von  ©ebtcfyten,  fin  ©eraufd)  von  Staffer,  flatter  von  23lumen. 


229.  2.  WITH  THE  DATIVE  397 


(3)  To  denote  authorship  rather  than  ownership  :  ©tit  SMfoniS  won 

a  portrait  by  Raphael,  but  etn  SMlbntg  €iapljae($  a  portrait  that  belongs  to 
Raphael  or  one  that  represents  him.  (Sin  Sud)  von  (composed  by)  meinem 
gteunb,  but  tin  53ud)  tneincg  (belonging  to  my)  grennbeS. 

(4)  With  numerals  which  have  no  declension,  as  also  with  those  which 
may  be  inflected  :  bie  ©efangennafynte  Bon  83,000  TOann,  bte  9lit3fage  jtoeiet  or  »cit 
jtw  Beugen. 

(5)  To  avoid  the  recurrence  of  too  many  genitives  :   Set  ©enujj  ber  ifrucfyt 
Bom  93aume  bet  ©rfenntntS  beg  ©ttten  itnb  Scfen. 

(6)  The  gen.  must  be  replaced  by  Bon  with  the  dat.  when  the  dependent 
word  is  to  be  separated  from  its  governing  noun,  which  is  especially  the  case 
when  it  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  for  emphasis  :  !&on  fetnen 
ftteunben  fyielten  ifyn  eintge  fiit  fdjulbig,  anbere  fiit  unfd)ulbtg. 

(7)  With  the  idea  of  mastery  and  in  a  number  of  other  set  phrases  :  £>te  $tau 
Bom  -£>au3.    ©ujtaB  Slbotf  mad)te  jtd)  2J?eiftet  Bom  9if)ein.    ©in  gteunb  Bom  £aufe, 
bet  leiblidje  Sruber  son  ifynt,  etn  ?yteunb  von  nut,  or  einet  metner  ^mtnbe.    2)a3  roar 
etn  gcl)let  Bon  iJjm  That  was  a  fault  of  his.    !Da3  ifl  ba3  (Snbe  Bom  Sieb  That  is 
the  upshot  of  it  all,  &c. 

(8)  The  use  of  Bon  instead  of  the  gen.  is  among  the  common  people  and 
in  familiar  conversation  widespread  and,  to  the  horror  of  the  grammarian, 
spreading.     Hence  there  is  often  a  shade  of  difference  between  the  simple 
gen.  and  the  dat.  with  con,  the  former  being  more  choice,  the  latter  more 
peculiar  to  the  language  of  loose  conversation  or  the  dialect  of  the  common 
people  :  2)er  Safer  Bon  biefcm  JHnbe  instead  of  btefeg  .fltnbeS,  &c. 

(/)  Son  is  used  in  a  number  of  idiomatic  expressions  difficult  to  classify  : 
@3  lyar  fefyt  iinfyjfltd)  »on  ifym  It  was  very  impolite  in  him.  ©3  ttat  md)t  tedjt 
»on  tfynt  (jn)  It  was  not  right  of  him  (to).  ©3  ift  etn  93etbrecf)en  Bon  tnit  (on  my 
part),  fdjen  adein,  ba§  bit  f)ier  Btfl  (Hauptmann's  Friedensfest,  i).  (St  lebt  tton  bet 
£anb  in  ben  3Wttnb  He  lives  from  hand  to  mouth.  Ste  ©trafjen  ixnmmeln  Bon 
fKenfcf^en,  or  @3  wimmett  »on  SWenf^en  auf  ben  @ttaf  en  The  streets  swarm  with 
people. 

ttorgattgtg  prior  to  :  SSotgangig  bent  ^ongteffe  beutfdjct  ®ag;  ttnb  aBafferfa^; 
mannct  fytelt  ^eute  nadf)nttttag  ber  fd)»ei^ettf^e  Herein  »on  ©ag;  unb  SfBafferfac^manncrn 
in  bet  9lnta  bc3  J&trf(^engtabenf(^uU)aufc^  fetne  30.  3afjte3»er[amm(ung  ab  (Neue 
Ziircher  Zeitung,  23.  Juni  1903). 

JlU  I.  It  is  used  of  motion,  direction,  rest,  and  time,  but  these  varied 
meanings  lie  rather  in  the  verb  or  dependent  noun  than  in  the  prep.,  which 
in  all  these  meanings  expresses  a  close  approach  and  intimate  relation  which 
is  often  difficult  to  render  fully  into  English,  but  which  is  usually  translated 
by  /<?,  at,  in,  on,  by,  for,  with,  &c. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  git  are  an  and  nadj.  Stacfj  expresses  a  general  direction 
toward  or  a  destination  in  a  broad,  general  sense,  as  a  city,  state,  or  other  place,  while 
an  and  ju  express  a  more  specific  or  definite  goal,  as  a  person  or  object,  but  in  the  case 
of  jit  also  a  broader  goal  where  a  specific  purpose  is  evident  :  6't  gel)t  nadj  bet  <£tabt 
jit  feittem  93rubet.  3d)  pod)e  an  bie  £iit.  3d)  fdneibe  an  (to)  ntetnen  5rennb.  2JJan 
fd()tt  ©tetne  Jilt  (for  building  purposes,  to  the)  @tabt,  but  nad)  23etltn,  jll  not  being 
used  at  all  before  names  of  cities  with  verbs  of  motion.  Both  an  and  ju  denote  a  near 
approach,  but  the  latter  expresses  a  much  closer  and  more  intimate  relation  between 
the  objects  and  persons  brought  together.  3d)  fdjtieb  an  (to)  Ujn,  but  3d)  frtad)  jU 
tfjm.  (St  tvat  an  bag  Sett  He  went  up  to  the  bed,  but  @t  fling  flu  Sett  He  went  to 
bed  (to  sleep).  It  is  difficult  to  draw  a  line  between  the  uses  of  an  and  ju,  and  in  cases 
they  blend  together,  but  in  general  the  difference  is  marked  between  them  as  above 
indicated.  With  ju  the  idea  of  a  definite  place  or  goal  is  often  entirely  lost  sight  of 
and  in  its  stead  arise  the  associations  that  cluster  around  the  place,  the  efforts  that 
were  necessary  to  reach  it,  the  ends  and  aims  there  to  be  realized,  and  often  the  prep. 
and  noun  lose  their  several  individual  functions  and  become  together  the  complement 
of  the  verb  after  the  manner  of  a  separable  prefix,  thus  taking  on  general  or  abstract 
meaning  instead  of  a  concrete  local  one  (see  Note  under  245.  IV.  3.  B)  :  2)ie  Jlinb.T 


398  PREPOSITIONS  229.  2. 


gut  ©dfjllte,  ?U  £if<H  S"r  •£«<$*  (not  witn  any  definite  reference  to  a  particular 
/,  table,  church,  but  with  the  general  idea  of  to  learn,  to  eat,  to  devotional  services). 
@t  ifl  gu  ©elbe,  gu  @bten  gefcmmen  He  has  attained  wealth,  honor.  SSiet  Ungliiff 
ifl  ii)tlt  gu  teit  (here  equal  to  a  verbal  prefix)  getoorben  Much  misfortune  has  been 
allotted  to  him.  2JHt  v>ielei  Sfiiifje  bradbten  fte  enblidj  ein  fteuet  gutoege  With  much 
trouble  they  finally  started  a  fire,  lit.  brought  it  on  the  road. 

II.  The  varied  meanings  of  gu  may  be  arranged  into  the  following  groups  :  — 
I.  The  local  meanings  fall  into  the  general  heads  of  motion  or  direction 

toward  a  goal  or  destination  (with  the  idea  of  near  approach)  and  rest  in 

a  place. 

A.  Direction  toward  (see  I.  Note,  above)  in  its  literal  sense,  of  persons 
and  things  :  3dj  ttri((  @ie  gu  ibm  fuhren.    2Jlan  getangte  fiber  gelfen  gut  lejjten  $ef)e. 
S3iet  ©etretbe  toitb  gut  ©tabt  gefitfjrt.    (Sr  Ijat  bie  geber  gu  ben  ubrigen  gelegt  He  has 
put  away  the  pen  with  the  others.    (Sr  flecfte  eg  gu  ftdj  (in  his  pocket).     @c 
nimntt  niemalg  itgenbtoelcfee  (Spetfe  gmfdjen  ben  2J?aI)(getten  gu  fid)  (into  his  mouth). 
(5r  fufytte  feine  93taut  gum  2Utate.    35ie  (Strafe  gut  @tabt,  bie  Xure  gum  teller. 

Note.  The  adverb  gu  has  much  the  same  force  as  the  prep.  :  !Dag  @djtff  fegeft  bent 
^lafen  gU.  From  its  employment  in  such  adverbial  relations,  where  it  stands  after  the 
dat,  it  has  developed  into  a  preposition  governing  the  dat.  and  following  the  noun 
with  the  meanings  in  the  direction  of,  looking  towards,  facing:  Qloei  Xuren  fiat  bet 
vffurfaat  ju  Sannftatt,  einanber  gegenuber  an  ben  Sangfeiten  be$  ©ebaubeg  gctcgen,  bie 
eine  ftefmdj  (on  the  west  side)  bet  @tabt  (dat.  depending  upon  ju)  unb  bent  9iecfat, 
bie  anbere  oftUdj  ber  ©duerlinggqueKe  unb  bent  @ulgrain  gu  (Raabe's  Pechlin,  II, 
chap.  xi). 

B.  Direction  toward  in  a  number  of  applied  relations  : 

a.  Toward  in  an  abstract  or  figurative  sense  :  @t  brtngt  feme  ©ebanlen  gu 
$aptet  He  writes  down  his  thoughts.     @r  nahnt  eg  gu  Bergen.    (St  fommt  gu  %&li. 
($8  fontntt  mit  gu  Dfyren.    (St  geT)t  gu  ©runbe  (ruin).    (Sin  faftenbet  Slpfct  fufjrte  ben 
grofen  5Ren>ton  gut  ©ntbecfung  etneg  bet  iri^tigften  9laturgefe^e.    ©clcfye  Srfahrung 
fuf)rt  gum  !Kenf(|ent)ap.    Sag  ffiotf  gtiff  gu  ben  SBaffen  The  people  took  up  arms. 

Especially  in  the  sense  of  attaining  a  goal  or  end  :  (St  fommt  gu  Slnfehen, 
SSermogen.  Set  $(an  getangte  ntdjt  gut  Slugfufirung.  (5r  getangte  gu  Slmt  unb 
SBiirben.  (Sr.  fommt  gu  JJraften  (gathers  new  strength).  (Sr  bracf)te  eg  gu  (Snbe, 
gu  ftanbe. 

b.  Attitude  toward  or  close  relation  or  association  :  @r  fdjttneg  gu  bet  gangen 
<Sad)e  He  assumed  an  attitude  of  silence  with  regard  to  the  whole  affair.     @r 
ladjte  bagu.    SBag  fagen  <£te  bagu  ?    @t  fidtt  gu  unfret  ^artet  (sides  with  our  party). 
SBarum  madden  @ie  ba  fo  'ne  ®ube  auf,  wenn  @te  fo  unJ)6flt^  finb  gu  ben  ©aflen? 
(Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  Act  3).     SBat  et  boc^  ein  iceitlauftger  SSettet  gu 
[colloq.  and  pop.  ;  in  the  literary  language  more  commonly  son]  tf)t  (Roseg- 
ger's  Die  Stadt  im  Walde).    !Det  @ti(l|ldnber  tjl  ja  ein  SSettet  gu  mit(HeerJs  Der 
Konig  der  Bernina,  II).    2Bag  effen  <£te  gu  (with)  3^tem  D^fenffetfd)  ?    JDie  3nfel 
getjort  gu  (not  possession,  but  with  the  idea  of  forming  an  integral  part  of) 
(kngtanb.    3u  einem  grofjen  SKanne  gebott  Beibeg  :  ^Uintgfetten  alg  ^letnigfeiten  unb 
irt^ttge  SDtnge  atg  n?id()tige  Dtnge  gu  befyaubcln.    @ein  S3enet»men  $&$  t  nidjt  gu  feinen 
aSethattnilfen.     @te  fang  fcfyone  ilBetfen  gu  (accompanied  by)  meinet  ftlvtt. 

c.  Proportion  :  3)er  SWontblanc  »erfialt  ftcf^  gu  bem  93rocfen  (Mont  Blanc  has  the 
same  relation  to  the  Brocken)  ttne  ein  (Riffe  gu  einem  Bwerge. 

d.  A  fixed  price,  amount  in  money  or  weight,  rate  of  interest,  or  in  general 
any  fixed  measurement  :  ein  93tot  gu  60  ^fenntgen  a  loaf  costing  60  pfennigs. 
£>ag  §aug  famt  bem  bagu  gefyovigen   ©tallgcbaitbe  unb   ©atten  ifl  gu  (at)  20,000 
2J?arf  abgefdjafct.    3um  ©etbftfojien^tetg  at  cost  ;  80  S3af(en  !Tt»tjl  (cotton  twist), 
gu  Netto  (with  a  net  weight  of)  1000  $funb  jebet  ;  bie  idf)tli(f)en  Sinfen  von  7500 
£01.  (SDlarf)  gu  (at)  4^%  ;  I  J?ie^e  (measurement  used  in  the  dried  fish  trade)  = 
4  ©tiegen,  bie  Stiege  gu  20  Stficf,  I  kiepe  =  4  stieges,  each  stiege  containing  20 
pieces.    3>ag  2>eutfd)e  OZeicfj,  <Sfanbina»ien,  0iuf  (anb,  bie  ©djtoeij  tecBnen  jeben  2»onat 
gu  30  Sagen,  bag  3a^t  gu  360  £agen. 


229.2.  WITH  THE  DATIVE  399 

Note.    This  German  preposition  is  often  in  commercial  language  replaced  by  the 
French  prep,  ci  -.  2Bie  »iet  betragen  bie  3infen  »cn  5W.  (2Karf)  753,80  a  6%  in  155 


e.  The  direction  of  an  activity,  inclination,  growth,  thought,  or  feeling 
toward  an  object  or  end,  especially  frequent  before  an  infin.  :   (Sr  fprid)t  gu 
mit.    55et  SSatet  ijdlt  ba$  Jtinb  gut  <Sd)ule,  gut  Slrbett,  gum  8(eifj,  gum  ©ebet  an. 
XfyemiftoHeS  toottte  9ltfjen  (Athens)  gu  einet  unbegtotngticfyen  ©eefefie  madjen.   2J?an 
nimmt  gn  (to  make)  btefent  ©ebdcf  auf  (to)  ein  $funb  beg  feinfien  3BetgenmeljI$  ein 
fyalbeg  $ftmb  bcr  beften  33utter.    (ft  fyat  Sufi,  Sftetgung,  Siebe  gn  ber  ©adje.    2JHt 
ifl   nid?t   gum   £ad)en   I   don't  feel    in   a   laughing   mood.     SBir  alle  tyaben 
einen  £ang  gut  ©uitbe.    llnb  fte  ijl  unmet  fo  gut  $u  mtr  gettefen  (Spielhagen's 
Herrin,  p.  238).     ftteunblidj  6tn  id)  gu  if)t  gettefen  (Fulda's  Z>zV  Sklavin,  3,  3). 
S)er  Jtnabe  tyirb  gum  Sungltng.    (§3  imrb  t^m  gut  ©etticfynfyett.    3(i)  ^offe  gu  ficgen. 
3cfy  bin  bcreit  gu  ftetben.    3<fy  bin  begurig  gu  tpiffen.    Here  belongs  the  common 
meaning  an  essay  or  paper  iipon  the  subject  of,  lit.  directed  toward,  especially 
in  titles  of  articles  in  periodicals  :  3ur  neuejhn  S8al(enftein;£tteratuv  (Something 
upon  the  subject  of)  The  Latest   Literature  on  Wallenstein.     3ut  Slfgent? 
unb  Sauttc^ve  bet  ©crmantft^en  @prac^cn. 

f.  The  direction  toward  in  the  sense  of  piirpose  or  intention,  or  that  for 
which  something  is  most  suitable  or  serviceable,  or  to  which  it  is  best 
adapted,  or  for  which  it  has  been  set  aside  :    @3  gefd)ief)t  gu  beinem  S3eften. 
(St  retjl  gut  (for  the  purpose  of)  (Srfjclung,  gum  SSetgniigen,  gut  StuSbtlbung.    @t 
fommt  mid)  gu  ttjotnen.   ©tetnfoljten  bieneit  gum  33rennen.    SBogu  nu^t  fo  eti»aS  ?    (S3 
nu^t  gu  nic^tg.    @ie  flnb  bet  ?Kaun  gu  (for)  biefem  SBerf.    SSaffet  gum  Xrinfeu,  ctn 
©cfd^  gu  (for  holding)  2JW$,  Xuc^  gu  einem  Jlletb.    3^  jie^e  3f)nen  gu  £)ienfien 
I  am  at  your  service.    3cf)  ftet;e  (3I)nen)  gu  33efef)l  I  am  at  your  command.     3u 
S9efcf)(,  ^ctt  J&auvtmann  !  Right  (or  yes),  sir  ! 

g.  The  point  which  an  activity  or  quality  has  reached,  or  is  expected  to 
reach,  hence  in  general  expressing  the  extent,  or  force,  or  the  result,  or  effect 
of  the  quality  or  action  contained  or  implied  in  the  predicate  :  (£3  ijl  gum 
(Rafenbtocrbm  It  is  enough  to  drive  one  mad.    <£ie  ijl  fdjon  gum  (Sntgucfen  She 
is  so  beautiful  that  one  is  charmed.     33rat>  ifl  et  unb  gut  mit  ben  Jttubern  nidjt 
gum  ©lanben  He  is  good  and  kind  to  the  children  to  such  an  extent  that  one 
can  scarcely  believe  it.     @r  fptelte  feine  OJcde  gu  aKgemeiner  3uftiebenfyett.     @g 
getetdjt  ifym  gut  @()te.    3t^  I)abe  tfm  gum  ^wwnbe.    @t  ^at  fte  je|t  gut  gtau.    <£ie 
frcntcn  i^n  gum  Jlatfet.    2)et  Dnfet  ^at  i()n  gum  (Stben  cingefe|t.    2i?it  »td^tten  ifnt 
gum  Sjorfi^enben.    ©5  fam  gu  etnet  $riiiO|elet.    S)et  ©c^nee  tmttbe  gu  SSajfer.    (St  fiet 
mit  gur  ?aft  He  became  a  burden  to  me.    3>t  Jlnabe  h>ud^3  gum  3ungting  Detail. 
3>t  Oiif^tet  »erutteitte  if)it  gum  ©djabenetfafc,  gu  ©cfdugni^,  gum  !£obe.    3ut  iTlot 
when  it  comes  to  a  case  of  necessity,  gut  IjodjfUn  9tot,  gum  i£et(  in  part,  gut 
Jpdlfte  half(a.s  in  <Ste  Fennen  mid>  gut  J&dlfte  ttur). 

h.  Addition  :  Sun  €>te  3nrf  er  gum  ^affee  Add  sugar  to  your  coffee.  <£te  giejjt 
?tlc^  gum  Jlaffee.  £>agu'  or  gubem'  besides,  moreover. 

C.  Rest  or  motion  in  or  at  a  place,  and  thus  synonymous  with  an,  bet,  in 
(see  each  word),  but  differing  from  them  in  general  in  that  it  denotes 
a  closer  relation  between  the  object  and  the  place  :  2)ev  2)om  gn  (in,  not 
temporarily,  but  permanently)  Jtcln  (Cologne),  bie  llnwetjttdt  gn  SBerlut.  <5t 
ftt$t  gu  (for  the  purpose  of  eating)  £ifd)e.  2)ie  £itt  jhfyt  gut  ted)ten,  Itnfen  Jpanb. 
Before  names  of  places  there  is  often  no  difference  at  all  between  in  and  gu, 
except  that  the  former  is  more  used  colloquially,  and  the  latter  belongs  to 
higher  diction.  If,  however,  a  modifying  word  stands  between  the  preposi- 
tion and  the  name  of  the  place,  in  not  gu  must  be  used  :  in  or  gu  Oiom,  but  in 
bem  altcn  (Hem. 

Especially  frequent  of  a  place  through  which  something  goes  in  or  out  : 
£>a  famcit  gum  genftet  giuei  Xaubdjen  fjerein.  3>atm  gefyen  fte  gum  £ote  fjinauS.  ©r 
ipttft  fein  ©ctb  gum  Senflet  I^inauS  (squanders  his  money).  It  is  also  used  in 
a  number  of  applied  relations  : 


400  PREPOSITIONS  229.2. 

a.  Noteworthy  is  the  use  of  gu  on  the  signboards  of  hotels  and  drug  stores, 
like  the  English  "  At  the  Red  Lion  "  :  ©aftfjcf  gum  wijjen  Sffcjj.     Sip.  (ftyotyeft) 
gum  Scwcn,  gum  ^etifan  (also  £e»ens9ty.,  *)3elifan;9lp.). 

b.  Distributively  and  collectively :  <£te  fommen  gu  (also  bet  and  in)  $aaren. 
Wm\  gtng  ber  3ug  gu  fimfen  (in  groups  of  five)  gum  £>otf  fyinauS.    SJlun  fajjen  fie  gu 
bretcn  (three  in  all)  urn  batffelbe  £tfd;d)en.    2Bir  ftnb  nur  gu  vicr  (or  cieren)  There 
are  only  four  of  us. 

f.  Manner  or  condition  in  a  few  set  expressions,  by,  on  '  @r  veift  511  5uf$,  gu 
5J3ferbe,  gu  SSagen,  gu  <£d)tff,  gu  2anbe,  gu  2Baffet.  SBegleitfcfyeine  (giving  weight, 
value,  &c.)  muffen  fcldjen  SSkrenbatfen  beigcgeben  luerben,  bie  gut  tyoft  obet  pt.  (per) 
^tacfyt  iibct  cine  3of(gtenge  gefyen.  @ht>a$  beftefyt  gu  {Red)t  (has  legal  force).  2JJtt  ijl 
J»ol)t  ju  3Kut  I  feel  well,  cheerful. 

2.  In  a  temporal  sense,  /«,  at,  for :  gu  Slnfang,  gu  (Snbe  beg  3aljre3,  gu  (at) 
jebet  ©tunbe,  gu  (in)  mcincv  3eit,  gut  (at)  ve^ten  3«it.  @r  fommt  gu  Dftern,  ®ei^ 
nac^ten.  Grr  tgt  gu  SWtttag,  gu  Slbenb  bet  un3.  3Son  Xag  gu  £ag,  »cn  @tunbe  gu 
©tunbe,  gum  (for)  erften,  le|ten  2Jla(e,  guerji  first,  gute^t  last,  ffiifljt  bit  n>enigjleng 
ntetne  9lufgaben  gu  (for)  ntorgen  madden :  ben  9luffafc  unb  bie  bummen  Gnrempel  ? 
(Spielhagen's  Sonntagskind,  I,  2). 

gllfolge  in  accordance  with,  according  to,  in  consequence  of;  see  gemdft 
and  also  nadj,  £.  (2),  Note,  above^  and  in  228. 4  the  words  gemaf ,  tnfotge,  laut,  (a). 
It  usually  governs  the  gen.  when  it  stands  before  the  noun,  and  the  dat.  when 
it  follows  the  noun  (the  favorite  position). 

Sumirfjff,  see  nacfyft. 

jufamt'/  jufamt  mit/  see  nebjl,  (a). 

jtlttn'&cr  contrary  to,  against,  averse  to,  always  following  the  dependent 
word.  Like  entgegen,  it  is  not  only  a  pure  prep.,  but  also  an  adverb,  serving 
as  a  separable  prefix  of  a  verb  though  not  usually  written  with  it  as  one  word ; 
hence  it  has  the  position  of  a  separable  prefix  in  the  sentence,  except  where 
it  is  a  pure  prep.,  in  which  case  it  always  follows  the  noun  :  £>et  Jlenjlttutton 
guhnber  (prep.)  fufjtte  er  frembe  Xvuppen  in  %  ©ebiet.  2lm  Jtap  ber  guten  ^offnung 
ifl  ben  Sdjiffern  ber  28mb  ntcfyt  felten  gmwbev  (adverb).  3u  »tel  @iiptgfetten  jtnb 
mir  gultibec  (adverb).  Sag  lauft  bem  ©efe^  gutmbcr  (adverb). 

(a)  The  synonym  of  guftnbet  is  entgegen.  As  prepositions  they  both  have 
the  same  force,  that  of  contrary  to,  with  the  exception  that  gunriber  is  perhaps 
the  stronger  word.  As  adverbs  they  both  still  govern  the  dat.  with  the  same 
force  they  have  as  prepositions,  but  guwiber  has  not  so  broad  a  field  of  useful- 
ness here  as  entgegen.  The  former  can  only  be  used  figuratively  with  the 
opposite  force  of  nacfc,  gemafj ,  and  gufotge  according  to,  hence  with  the  meanings 
contrary  to  the  nature,  commands,  or  instructions  of,  also  in  general  with  the 
idea  of  opposition,  or  hostility,  opposed,  hostile  to  :  (tr  fyat  bent  Skfefyte  entgegen 
or  guttitbcr  gefyanbelt.  £)te  Slrgnei  ift  mit  gutniber  (contrary  to  my  nature,  hence 
disagreeable  to}.  !Da$  ®(ucf  tt»ar  un3  entgegen  or  gutoiber.  3)em  ftefyt  ntcfyte  entgegen 
or  guhnber  There  is  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  it.  S)er  SStnb  mar  ifynen  entgegen 
or  gunnber.  ©ntgegen  has  also,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  preceding  examples, 
a  force  opposite  to  that  of  nacfj  or  gufotge,  hence  with  the  meanings  of 
contrary  to  the  instructions,  commands  of,  opposed  to,  hostile  to,  but  also, 
in  addition  to  these  meanings  which  it  has  in  common  with  guunbev,  it  is  used 
literally  with  verbs  of  motion  in  the  sense  of  a  friendly  or  hostile  movement 
towards :  (5r  fam  nn3  entgegen  He  came  to  meet  us.  Dflerretd)  fcfyeint  fetnem 
Serfade  entgegen  gu  gcfyen  (to  be  approaching).  2>te  Slrmee  ge(;t  bem  geinbe  mutig 
entgegen  (against). 

PREPOSITIONS  WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE. 

23O.  The  following  are  the  prepositions  with  the  ace.,  with 
their  leading  meanings,  the  preps,  standing  in  alphabetical  order. 


230.  WITH  THE  ACCUSATIVE  401 

M$  denotes  in  general  a  limit  or  boundary,  used  of  time  and  place,  before 
nouns  and  adverbs,  and  often  prepositional  phrases,  till,  until,  by,  as  far  as, 
to,iip  to, except:  (Sr  bleibt  big  (until)  SBethnacfcten,  big  SMontag,  big  morgen,  big  jefnt 
llfyr,  big  mit  (or  big  uiib  mit)  ben  I.  (read  erften)  Dftotcv  up  to  October  the  first 
inclusive,  big  nddjtfe  2Bod)e.  (Sr  bteibt  jftei  big  brei  £age  He  will  remain  from  two 
to  three  days.  93ig  twe  lange  bteiben  @ie?  33ig  (by)  3Jhttag  bin  id)  ttieber  ba. 
<2te  famen  big  (as  far  as)  23erlin.  2Bir  retflen  ^ufammcn  big  3ta(ien,  and  likewise 
before  the  name  of  any  place,  but  not  usually  before  the  names  of  objects. 
There  is  a  tendency,  however,  to  extend  this  construction,  and  hence  in  short 
fragmentary  utterances  big  is  sometimes  found  before  names  of  objects : 
(Conductor  of  a  street-car)  SSie  twit?  (Passenger)  93ig  Jlivd)e.  Before  prep, 
phrases :  ($r  l)at  adeg  be$al)lt  big  auf  (except)  cinige  JUetmgfeiten.  @r  Ijat  adeg  big 
auf  (up  to,  here  inclusive  of)  ben  tefcten  Jpe(ler  be^ajjlt.  @g  todfyrt  big  g  eg  en  (until 
in  the  neighborhood  of)  9lbenb.  23  ig  »or  (until  just  before)  Dftevn  wdfyrte  bie 
.KdUe.  (Eie  »ad)ten  big  nad)  3JHtternad)t. 

93 ig  is  also  used  as  a  conjunction  without  influence  over  the  case  of  the 
following  word,  to  connect  individual  words  or  different  propositions  :  augs 
fleiuahlte  Scrte  beg  4.  (read  fierten)  big  15.  (also  gen. :  read  funfjefynten)  Safyrfyunbcrtg. 
3d)  blieb  im  23ett,  big  cr  anfgeftanben  tear. 

fcurrf)  and  its  strengthened  form  ftin&lirrf;  (always  after  the  noun). 

(a)  Extension  or  penetration  from  one  point  of  time  or  space  to  another, 
through,  throughout'.  3>er  33ogel  fliegt  burd)  bie  Suft.  (5r  geljt  burd}g  Bimmer. 
Sag  fcfynitt  inic  buvcf)g  &t\.  2Wir  fnljr  ein  ©ebanfe  burd)  ben  Jlc^f.  ©ott  I)at 
feine  .Rircfye  burd)  a((e  Satjrljunberte  ertjalten.  SSiete  irol)nen  ben  ganjen  Sommer  Ijin* 
burd;  auf  bem  SJanbe. 

Note.  Noteworthy  is  the  common  use  of  burd)  as  an  adverb  when  it  has  the 
position  of  a  separable  or  inseparable  prefix.  It  has  the  same  general  force  as  the 
prep,  butdj,  but  as  it  modifies  directly  the  verb,  the  idea  of  through  gives  the  verb 
sometimes  intensive  force,  which  cannot  lie  in  the  prep,  itself:  (Sv  0et)t  bltrdj  ben 
©artett  He  goes  through  the  garden,  in  one  direction.  @r  geljt  ben  ©arteit  burd) 
(goes  over  the  garden  thoroughly  in  all  directions).  For  further  light  upon  the  use 
of  burd)  as  a  verbal  prefix,  study  carefully  the  different  articles  under  215.  II.  3. 

(b~)  Means  which  one  employs  to  reach  an  end,  either  of  things  or  persons  : 
£>ie  DJicberldnbcr  fcfyufcen  fid)  burd)  £>dmme  gegen  ben  D^ean.  3d)  babe  mid)  burd) 
eitete  Sift  »erleiten  laffen.  Surd)  if)n  fyabe  id)  meinen  3wed!  crreid)t.  £>t»tbierc  biefe 
3at)t  burd)  (by)  jene. 

Note.     For  its  synonyms,  see  in  228.  4  the  prep,  ntittelg  (a). 

(c)  Cause,  of  persons  or  things :  S)urd)  tljn  bin  id)  gtucflid)  getvcrben  He  is 
the  author  of  all  my  happiness.  !Durd)  angeftrengte  Jlrbctt  ift  ev  fvanf  gctvovben. 
Stffabon  Jrurbe  int  iSten  Safyrfjunbert  burd)  ein  (Srbi?eben  jerftcrt.  6v  ifl  burd)  (by) 
f  ein  en  Stinb  verbrangt  tcorbcn.  @ie  ift  elenb  bnrd)  (caused  by,  not  necessarily 
intended  by)  mid). 

Note.  This  use  of  burd)  approaches  very  close  to  fccit  (see  228.  4,  mittelg  (a),  and 
220.  2 ,  tion  (/')  ),  but  they  differ  in  this  that  the  latter  emphasizes  more  the  starting  place 
or  the  thinking  agent,  working  to  a  definite  end,  while  the  former  makes  more  promi- 
nent the  manner  or  means. 

((f)  In  the  sense  all  mixed  up,  especially  in  the  compound  butd)einan'ber : 
(Sr  fyrid)t  bcutfd)  unb  englifdj,  bunt  burd)einanbcr.  (St  er$af)lte,  u>ag  er  nur  louf  te,  bunt 
burd)cinaiibcr  tine  Jtrant  unb  Oiuben. 

eittlfltifl',  see  Jdngg  in  229.  2. 

e^litfi'wc,  see  augfd)lie^(id)  in  228. 4. 

flit  (in  early  N.H.G.,  especially  with  Luther,  often  fuv)  in  all  its  varied 
meanings  corresponds  almost  exactly  to  the  Eng.  fort  and  will  not  need 
detailed  treatment. 

od 


402  PREPOSITIONS  230. 

(a)  As  could  only  be  expected  the  German  deviates  from  the  Eng.  in  a 
number  of  expressions : 

(1)  ?yur  is  used  with  the  verbs  ad)ten  to  consider,  look  at,  erfennen  pronounce, 
make  known,  fyalten  regard,  erfldren  pronounce,  fmben  consider :  (&t  adjtet  bag 
fitt  (as)  ntd)tg.     @ie  erfanntm  (recognized)  tie  Bon  bcm  ginanjmtnifter  abgelegte 
9tedjnttng  alg  (as)  fatfdj,  aber  aug  fKangel  an  3Jhtt  erfannten  (pronounced)  jte  biefelbe 
irofcbem  fur  rtdjttg.    3d)  tyalte  ifytt  fur  eincn  efyrlidjen  3J?enfd)en.    @t  erfldrte  bag  fiir 
etne  £uge.    @r  fanb  eg  fur  notwenbig. 

(2)  In  case  of  diseases  and  poisons  the  German  uses  fiir,  or  perhaps  more 
appropriately  gegen  or  loiber,  where  we  use/or :  tin  2J?ittel  fiir,  or  gegen,  or  hnber 
JtoBffdjmerjen  (bag  ftieber,  £c.)  a  remedy  for  headache  (fever,  &c.).    3)tcfeg  ©ift 
ift  gut  fur  (for  the  destruction  of)  2J?dufe.    This  construction  is  a  survival  of 
older  usage  where  fur  had  the  force  of  gegen.    This  older  meaning  still  occurs 
occasionally  elsewhere  :  £)m:d)tt>eg  ft>aren  bag  ntinber  frdfttge  Seute,  bitrftige,  blaffe 
S3uvfd)en  nttt  fasten  ®ejtd)tern,  bie  er  fur  ben  £ob  (to  save  his  very  life)  nidjt  aug; 
flefyen  fonnte  (Beyerlein'sy<?#a  oder Sedan?,  II). 

(3)  In  naming  a  price,  the  German  uses  fur,  where  in  Eng._/&r  is  used,  but 
he  goes  farther,  and  uses  it  for  amount,  price  in  general :  (S"r  faufte  eg  fur  10 
SDJarf.     5ur  25  pfennig  (Sdjofclabe  25  pfennigs'  worth  of  chocolate,  fiiv  6  SDfarf 
iibergeiBtd)t  overweight  on  a  trunk  to  the  amount  of  6  marks,     jvitr  $ei)n  2ftarf 
©efd)irr  f)at  fe  [fte]  fatten  taffen  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  i). 

(4)  In  a  few   idiomatic   expressions,  English  for  is   rendered  by  other 
means :  (S3  ifl  je^t  fein  @dnff  nacfy  (for)  93ofton  in  93renten.    3d)  Ijabe  einen  Srtef 
itad^  (for)  ^Berlin  auf  bte  $ofl  gegeben.    (Sr  tjl  auf  (for)  adjt  Xage  Berretfl.    SSiele 
S)eutfcf)e  geben  ityre  SJerac^tung  bee  (for  the)  Suben  immer  gu  erfennen.    @ie  ^dtte 
cinen  unangene^men  S'inbrucf  gemacfyt  biefe  9iafe,  irenn  bie  Slugen  nidjt  getvefen  indren  if 
it  had  not  been  for  her  eyes.    <Sie  ftar  beru^ntt  geicefen  Jcegen  tt|reg  ^tetntg  (for 
her  complexion  ;  Ossip  Schubin  has  here  fur  ti)ren  £eint).    3um  (for)  gru^ucf 
credit  jeber  »on  eud)  ^ttjet  trocfene  2Berfen. 

(5)  In  a  few  expressions  fur  is  rendered  differently  in  English  :  !Dtefe  £ur 
tjl  fur  (to)  bid?  gefd^loffen.    @r  bient  fur  (instead  of)  fetnen  Sruber.     @3  tjl  fe^r  ^art 
fur  (upon)  efyrltdje  Seute,  ba§  ufw.     (Sr  ftanb  ganj  allein  fur  fid)  He  stood  all  by 
himself.     5ut  ftd)  (stage  direction)  aside.    @r  tji  blinb  fur  (to)  feine  Seller.     @ie 
metnen  alfo,  fur  gettcljnlid?  (as  a  rule,  as  a  usual  thing),  liige  id)  ?  (Spielhagen's 
Sonntagskind,  II,  5).     @r  ift  toentg,  aber  er  trinft  bafur  (to  make  up  for  it)  wet. 

(V)  Originally  the  nearly  related  words  fur  and  »or  were  more  closely 
related.  Both  were  used  of  time  or  space,  the  former  with  the  ace.  to  express 
motion  toward,  and  the  latter  with  the  dat.  to  denote  rest.  Early  in  the 
present  period  these  relations  became  confused,  as  in  N.G.  and  M.G.  the 
two  forms  had  merged  into  one,  namely  »or.  This  state  of  things  can  still 
be  seen  in  the  dialect  of  these  sections.  In  the  literary  language  of  early 
N.H.G.  Bor  had  already  assumed  in  large  measure  the  meaning  of  fur  besides 
its  own  original  meaning,  and  consequently  governed  the  dat.  or  ace.  according 
to  the  sense.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  result  of  this  confusion  fur  sometimes 
assumed  the  meaning  of  »cr,  and  hence  we  find  it  with  either  the  dat.  (as  in 
S3dume .  . . ,  bie  fld)  fiir  bcr  Soft  ber  jfciicfyte  $ur  @rbe  beugen  —  Goethe  an  Frau  -von 
Stein,  3,  178  —  instead  of  Bor  ber  Saft,  &c.)  or  ace.  according  to  the  sense. 
These  fluctuations  still  occur  not  infrequently  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
even  to-day  in  a  few  words,  as  furtieb  or  Bortieb,  Bornefynt,  or  more  rarely  fiinteljm. 
Gradually,  however,  Bor  replaced  fur  also  in  the  literary  language,  except  in 
many  derivative  or  figurative  applications  where  fur  is  still  used,  now  always 
with  the  ace.  Only  in  a  few  set  expressions  can  its  former  literal  meaning 
be  seen :  ©djritt  fur  @d)ritt  (also  ©djritt  Bor  (Sdjrttt)  step  by  step,  lit.  one  step 
before  the  other,  $unft  fur  $unft,  &c.  Occasionally  in  the  classics  fiir  can  be 
found  in  its  original  meaning,  where  present  usage  requires  Bor :  3d)  ging  int 
SBalbe  |  fo  fur  mid;  fytn  (Goethe's  Gefunderi). 

0CQPM  and  toibcr,  both  with  the  idea  of  direction  or  movement  towards, 
the  former  in  the  sense  of  friendliness,  hostility,  or  resistance,  the  latter  only 


230.  WITH   THE  ACCUSATIVE  403 

in  the  sense  of  hostility  or  resistance,  used  of  time  or  space,  literally  or 
figuratively,  toward,  to,  about. 

(a)  In  the  sense  of  a  general  direction  toward  or  a  position  facing  toward  : 
SBtv  ritten  gegen  bcu  Slfyeiu.  ©egcn  (Snbe  9litgujl  about  the  end  of  August.  (Sr 
luivb  gegen  (about)  bret  Ufcr  juritcffommen.  2)aS  .Spans  Uegt  gcgen  SDJorgen  (to  the 
east).  S3  tjl  fd)tvev  gegen  or  toibet  ben  <Stront  ju  fdjunrnmen.  !Die  bciben  Jpccre 
fampfen  gegen  or  unber  einanbcr.  9Kan  I;a(t  mid)  I)ier  gefangen  tviber  af(c3  SSelferredjt. 


In  a  few  set  expressions,  especially  in  the  Bible  and  poetry,  before  nouns 
without  an  article  the  shortened  form  gen  is  found  instead  of  gegen  :  gen  Jptmmel,  gen 
Dfien,  gen  SSBeften,  gen  OJom. 

(b)  The  direction  of  thought  or  feeling  toward,  in  a  friendly  sense,  after 
gegen  (here  often  closely  related  to  its  synonyms  ju  and  fur),  or  in  a  hostile 
sense,  or  one  of  opposition,  after  gegen  or  unbev  :  @r  mueiji  fid)  gefalltg  gegen 
greunbe.     (Seine  Siebe  gegen  feine  ®efd)it>ijicr,  bte  ^>fitd)ten  gegen  ©ott,  feine  Buneigung 
gegen  (also  fiir)  iljn,  bte  Stebe  gegen  ©ott  (or  511)  ©ott,  (Sfjvfuvdjt  gegen  baS  9llter,  (£fel 
gegen  ba3  Sefen,  but  usually  ju  or  fur  with  things  :   feine  ubermdjjige  Siebe  jutn 
Sranntwein,  j^urn  SSaterfanb,  jitm  @)?ie(,  jum  ©en>inu,  ©efuhl  fur  bag  Sd)cne,  <£inn 
fur  (Sfyre.     (Sv  hat  etnen  4^P  gf3ftt  °r  wiber  ntid)  gefafjt.      SBa^  Ijaft  bu  gegeu  or 
ttubet  mid)?    2)aS  gefd)al)  gegen  or  nnbet  a((e  (Svwavtung.    %)&$  getjt  ifym  wiber  bte 
9iatur.    (Sr  tut  e3  iuiber  aQirten. 

(c)  Approach  toward  for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  in  comparison  with, 
synonymous  with  tm  SBergletd)  mtt,  im  aSerrjdUmS  jn  :  OJeid)tum  ift  nid)t^  gegen 
©efunbheit.     3U(e  93tid)et  finb  ntd)t^  gegen  bie  23ibc{.     ©egen  frufjev  in  comparison 
with  a  previous  period.    3d)  tttette  i)imbert  gegen  (to)  ein^. 

(cf)  Attitude  towards,  synonymous  with  gegcniiber  (see  this,  a),  sometimes, 
however,  indicating  a  more  positive  attitude,  in  the  face  of,  to,  in  the  presence 
of:  9lllc$  ....  ttxir  baruber  einverflanben,  baf  ba3  ©emeimrefen  tit  biefem  ?va(le  eine 
$flid)t  511  erfii((cn  habe  unb  bafj  eg  berfclben  gegen  jebe,  ipenn  and)  fo  refpcftable  ^>ri»ats 
gegennteinung  nadjfommen  miiffe  (Raabe's  Villa  Schonow,  v).  Jlatfer  intb  flteid) 
regten  ftd)  nid}t  gegen  btefen  itnerme§lid)en  SSerlujt.  JDie  OJegicrung  luar  gcgen  bag 
entfcfTeltc  (Stement  obnmddjtig.  (Sv  lie^  ftd)  gegen  if)n  nid)t3  inerfcn  He  pretended 
to  him  that  he  did  not  notice  it.  ©egen  (in  the  presence  of)  anbete  riifymt  ft  fid) 
feiner  Saten. 

(e)  In  exchange  for,  for,  closely  related  to  fuv  and  nm  :  JfrtegSgefangene  irerfcm 
gegen  einaitber  auSgetaufdjt.  9Wan  taufd)t  etn  Sing  gegen  (or  fuv,  sometimes  urn)  ein 
anbevee.  @ie  fonnen  3hv  ©elb  gegen  duittung  (on  receipt)  befommcn.  9)2ait  vfl'cdt 
©elb  nuv  gegen  etnen  @d)ulbfd)etn  jit  tetljett.  (Sv  gtbt  bicfe  SBave  nuv  gegen  bare 


(/)  In  estimates,  an  approximate  judgment  as  to  weight,  magnitude,  cost, 
and  the  like,  used  as  a  prep,  or  as  an  adverb  (see  225.  i.c,  and  for  synonyms, 
see  in  229.  2  the  prep,  bet,  \.h.  Note),  about  :  Ste  <£tabt  fyat  gegen  bretptgtaufenb 
(Suntwfyner. 

(g)  ©egen,  now  exclusively  with  the  ace.,  was  up  to  the  seventeenth  century 
found  usually  with  the  dat.,  and  occasionally  even  so  in  the  works  of  Goethe 
and  Lessing  :  vnb  ewre  ©arben  vmbfycr  nctgeten  fid;  gcgcn  ineiner  ©arbcn  (Genesis 
xxxvii.  7).  3()t  iverbct  gegen  ber  3JJengc  jvenig  fcin  (Goethe's  Gotz,  3,  4,  Hirzel- 
Bernays,  2,  309).  Also  in  the  later  form  of  Gotz  :  @te  fommen  itber  bte  Jpeibe, 
id)  trill  gegen  tfyneu  Ijalten  (3,  n). 

(h)  In  Austrian  and  Bavarian  dialects  the  gen.  is  found  after  gegen,  espe- 
cially with  pronouns  :  ©temm'  bid)  an  gegen  meiner,  ivaS  [bu]  fannjl  (Ganghofer's 
Der  Dorfapostel,  II). 

General  Note.     SBtber  is  only  used  in  a.  and  b.  of  the  above  articles. 

0en,  see  gegen,  a,  Note. 

see  buvd),  above. 

D  d  2 


404  PREPOSITIONS  230. 

ill? (tlft'w/  see  cmsfdjltefjlid)  in  228. 4. 

Ia«0/  see  under  Idngg  in  229.  2. 

oljltc  (#)  is  the  opposite  of  mtt,  and  hence  denotes  lack,  without,  but  for  : 
(So  tange  id)  metnen  greitub  jartUd)  liebte,  ging  jd)  md)t  o1)ne  i()n.  (§r  tfl  otnte 
greubc.  @g  gtbt  letne  gteunbfdjaft  ofjne  gegenfetttge  9ld)tnng.  3d)  fann  bie  Suppe 
ittd)t  djne  etnen  fioffel  efien.  Dfyne  ifyn  rodren  itnr  geflorben  But  for  him  we  should 
have  died.  Notice  the  idiomatic  omission  of  the  object  in  the  following : 
SBie  jammer!  mid)  33ater'3  93dr.td)en  ;  id)  fenne  ifyn  gar  ntd)t  mefyr  ofyne  (Bismarck  to 
his  wife,  Oct.  7,  1850).  Regularly  so  in  colloquial  speech  when  the  object 
belongs  to  two  prepositions  which  govern  different  cases :  2Bte  nwrbe  eg  bir 
bejfer  mnnben  :  nut  einer  Otafjmfauce  ober  cfyne  ?  (Meinhardt's  Allerleirauh,  p.  236). 
In  more  formal  language  we  find  mtt  etner  Ctfafymfauce  obcr  of)ite  biefelbe. 

(b)  In  an  earlier  period  in  the  sense  of  cwfj er  except,  not  counting,  besides, 
and  still  found  in  certain  expressions :  (Sg  toaren  gwanjig  ^erfcneu  ba  o^ne  bte 
Jttnber.     Especially  in  the  adverbial  expressions :   cfynebag,  ofjnebteg,  cfynefym 
besides. 

(c)  In  early  N.H.G.  ofyne  governed  the  dat.,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  one 
•word  ofjnebem  (=  ctynebaa ;  see  b,  above),  which  is  still  sometimes  used  :  Dfyne; 
bem  abcr  tt>ar  fur  i^n  md)t  met;r  an  etnen  SBa&fa  in  ©rafctthjang  gu  benfen  (Perfall's 
Der  schbne   Wahn,  p.  86).     The  dat.  still  lingers  in  the  classical  period: 
33a(b  mtt,  batb  o^ne  bem  3J}ttletb  (Lessing).    In  Austria  it  appears  with  the  gen. ; 
see  d,  towards  end. 

(d)  After  the  verbs  fetn  and  toerben  in  an  earlier  period,  ofyne  governed 
a  gen.  which  usually  preceded  it,  in  the  sense  of  void  of,  free  from,  and  is 
still  commonly  thus  used  in  the  word  yK^fa^w  doubtless  and  quite  a  number 
of  expressions  in  familiar  language  where  the  gen.  is  always  understood  :  @3 
tfl  ntcfyt  gan$  (DeS  ©runbee)  ofyne  It  (the  report)  is  not  entirely  void  of  founda- 
tion.   J)te  @ad)e  tfl  ntd)t  ganj  (ber  3Bal)rfd)etnUd)fett)  olnie.    @te  tft  fd)mncf,  abcr 
bte  anberen  finb  aud)  ntdjt  gan$  (ber  (Sdjon^eit)  of>ne.     In  Austrian  and  Bavarian 
dialects  of)ne  with  the  gen.  is  also  used  with  other  verbs,  usually,  however, 
preceding  the  dependent  noun,  or  more  commonly  pronoun,  like  a  preposition 
with  the  meaning  without :  3d)  fann  cfyne  3f)rer  (perhaps  a  dat,  which  is  also 
used  here)  Xod)ter  ntd)t  teben  (Raimund's  Alpenkonig,  3,   1 6).     <Ste  hn'trben 
aud)  o()tte  (etner  ba3  (Sffcn  ferttg  brtngen  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap.  xx). 
!Dte  SUuttec  ©anna  ttoflte  o^ne  feinev  nidjt  iveiter  geljcn  (Rosegger). 

^>et  is  a  Latin  prep,  much  used  in  commercial  language,  both  in  foreign 
expressions,  as  per  diem,  and  with  many  German  words,  especially  those 
without  an  article  or  other  inflected  word,  but  it  is  also  sometimes  employed 
before  words  which  can  show  inflection.  It  is  found  in  certain  set  expressions, 
denoting : 

(a)  Means,  by,fer,  in  :  3d)  fcf)tcfe  eg  per  (or  burd)  bte  or  mtt  ber)  $ofl,  ^et 
Srad)t.     @3  gefyt  bUltger  per  @d)tff  als  jw  58al)n  (or  Stfenbafyn).    §eutjutage  gefyt 
alleg  per  2>ampf  (=  ©efdjwtnbtgfett).    3d)  melbete  eg  t^m  per  £elegrapl).    ^er  3Jlaria 
per  steamship  Maria,  per  erjlen  @egter  by  the  first  sailing  vessel.     @r  $af;U  per 
J?affa  (in  cash).     (Sin  Srtef  per  Slbreffe  (in  care)  beg  §errn  ^arl  @d)mibt. 

(b)  Distributively, per,  a, for:  @tn?aS  lojlet  fo  unb  fovtet  per  (Sentner,  per  *Pfnnb, 
per  @lle,  per  2)u^enb,  per  ©titcf,  or  ber  Gentner,  bag  ^Sfunb,  bte  @f(e  fojlet  fo  unb 
fovtel. 

(c)  A  definite  time  when  something  is  to  be  done,  due, payable;  §terbet 
itberfenben  unr  3f)nen  M.  1000,  oo  pr.  i.  (read  erflen)  3anuar  We  send  you  inclosed 
a  draft  for  1000  marks,  due  ist  Jan. 

Note.  Three  other  foreign  preps,  are  much  used  in  commercial  language,  but  they 
are  usually  found  before  nouns  without  modifying  words  which  can  show  case,  occa- 
sionally, however,  also  before  a  word  which  marks  the  ace. — via  (  =  uber)  with  the  same 
force  as  in  English,  pro  for  (  =  per,  b.  above),  a  each  (costing,  containing,  weighing)  : 
pr.  (per,  see  (a)  above)  Jpenrtette  via  9ieii;DrIeang ;  $retg  pro  $aar  2fl.  0,60  ;6o 
pfennigs);  $reig  pro  S3anb  geljeftet  (unbound)  i  SWarf;  Snferttongpreig  pro  funfgei 


230.  WITH   THE  ACCUSATIVE  405 


foit&cr  =  ofyne,  now  little  used  except  in  poetical  style,  usually  before  nouns 
without  an  article,  only  very  rarely  with  an  indefinite  article,  sometimes  with 
the  dat. :  Sonber  3tt?etfc{,  fonbergtetdjen  without  an  equal.  9U(e  Jpofjcit  bet  @rbe 
fonber  f)er$lid)e  Stebe  tjt  @taub.  ©onber  enter  fo(d)en  5fafd)e  bltcb  bet  bcu  ©rtedjen 
cm  ju  begrabenber  2eid)nal)m  cbenfo  inentg  alg  fonber  jiranj  (Lessing). 

Hill.  i.  It  has  in  general  the  force  of  around,  either  of  rest  or  motion,  but 
has  developed  out  of  this  meaning  a  rich  store  of  related  literal  and  figurative 
ones  as  follows : 

A.  Around  in  a  literal  sense  :  9lf(e  ^lanctcn  betoegen  ftd)  nnt  bte  (gonne.  35te 
©afte  fajjen  itm  ben  £ifd).  @g  faljren  »tele  @d)tffe  um  bag  Jtap  ber  gutcn 
Coffining. 

(a)  From  the  idea  of  movement  around  some  central  point  comes  the 
figurative  idea  of  the  central,  material  cause  which  excites  and  attracts  our 
interest  and  feeling,  over,  on  account  of:  (§r  trauert  tint  ben  £ob  beg  53rubcrg. 
3d)  benetbe  <2te  um  biefe  OMfe  I  envy  you  this  journey. 

(b)  It  often  points  to  the  person  or  thing  about  which  thought,  feeling,  or 
action  is  busied,  concerning,  about,  with  respect  to,  of,  with, for:  SBetfj  bte 
.tonight  um  bicfe  fRetgung?     (|g  fyanbelt  ftd)  um  bie  @rbfd)aft.    3ujl  um  btefen  Srtef 
ivar  mtr'g  ju  tun  It  was  just  this  letter  that  concerned  me.    3d)  bin  fo  in  Itnrufye 
um  ben  23ater  I  am  so  worried  about  Father.     3d)  fomme  um  ben  Dfyeim  I  come 
(to  consult  with  you)  about  Uncle.  SSte  ftcljt  eg  um  tfjn?  How  are  things  with  (re- 
spect to)  him?  (|g  tft  etnefd)6ne  <£ad)eum  bte  greifjett  Freedom  is  a  beautiful  thing. 
Sarum  (with  respect  to  that)  fctm  <£ie  unbefcrgt.    JDaS  fyabe  id)  ntd^t  um  (of)  i()it 
^erbtent.  SBtgmarcf  I)at  ftd)  um  bag  SSatertanb  verbtent  gemad)t  Bismarck  has  deserved 
well  of  his  country.     (Sg  i|l  um  tljn  gefd)e()cn  It  is  all  over  with  him.     ©diabe 
ivar'g  um  tfyre  ^aare.The  loss  of  her  hair  would  be  a  pity.     (Eg  tut  mtr  teib  um 
if)tt  I  am  sorry  for  him.     Compare  fcen,  c,  in  229.  2. 

(c)  Movement  around  in  a  circle  leads  back  to  a  starting  point,  hence  the 
idea  of  change,  succession,  alternation :  2)ag  5'tffcer  fommt  eincn  Sag  um  ben 
anbern  The  fever  appears  every  other  day.     33ete  (after)  um  23ote  untrbe  aug; 
Qefanbt.     <2te  fangett  etncr  um  ben  anbern  They  sang  alternately. 

(d)  Movement  in  a  circle  implies  a  desire  to  encompass,  close  in  on,  gain 
something,  hence  um  points  to  the  desired  object,  the  reward,  end  or  purpose  in 
view,/w,  after,  in  order  (to) :    (Sr  fd)tcft,  fd)retbt  um  (for)  ctnxig.     (£r  tut  alleg  um 
©etb.    (fr  arbettet  um  bte  (Sfyre.    @te  arbeiten  um  bie  SSette  They  are  trying  to  outdo 
one  another  in  working.    23tete  bemufyen  jid)  um  bte  ©unft  ber  2Jldd)tigen.    Gr  beunrbt 
ftd)  um  bie  Jpanb  beg  fd)onen  3JJdbd)eng.    (Sr  btttct  um  SSer^etf)ung.    Especially  with 
an  infinitive:  3d)  fomme,  um  (in  order)  <£te  ju  fcl)en.     It  also  denotes  price  and 
exchange  :  um  jeben  ^>retg  at  any  price  ;  um  einen  btdigen  ^retg  ;  um  a((eg  in  ber 
5Bdt_ntd)t  not  for  all  the  world;    um  nidjtg  unb  irteber  nid)tg  for  absolutely 
nothing  ;  etwag  um  (more  commonly  gegcn  or  fitr)  ctnxig  taufd)cn ;  9luge  um  ?luge, 
3a()tt  um  3aT)n. 

(e)  In  moving  around  an  object  we  pass  it  by,  miss  it,  hence  the  general 
idea  of  loss :  ($3  brad)te  ifyn  um  fetn  SJermegeu,  um  fcinen  SSerftanb  It  caused 
him  to  lose  his  property,  reason.     3d)  bin  um  metnen  ©drummer.     (Sr  tjl  umg 
Seben  gcfontmen.     In  moving  around  a  circle  one  must  sooner  or  later  encom- 
pass it,  come  to  the  end  of  it,  hence  the  general  idea  of  end,  especially  in 
adverbial  use :  !Dag  3a()r  tjl  um  (up).    This  idea  may  also  be  contained  in 
some  of  the  preceding  sentences. 

(/)  Out  of  the  figurative  application  of  distance  around  comes  the  idea  of 
measure  of  difference,  not  translated  at  all  or  rendered  by  the  (adv.),  by, 
'within :  (£r  tfl  um  einen  Jlop f  grower  afg  fetn  SSruber  He  is  a  head  taller  than 
his  brother.  (Sr  fain  um  §nxi  Sage  ju  fpdt.  3e  jJeipiger  er  ift,  um  fo  (the)  mefyr 


406  PREPOSITIONS  230. 

(eritt  er.  SDtefer  Utnflanb  uermeljrte  fern  Setben  urn  em  ©ro§e3  (by  a  good  deal). 
\\rn3  £aar  fydttft  bu  mtr  bie  Serrine  ba  umgeujorfen  You  came  within  a  hair's 
breadth  of  upsetting  the  tureen  for  me.  It  also  denotes  amount,  extent :  ($r 
fhafte  ifjn  urn  gefyn  SJfarf  He  fined  him  ten  marks.  @r  Ijat  ftdj  um  etnc  SOIarf  »er; 
rennet  He  made  a  mistake  of  a  mark. 

B.  In  the  neighborhood  of,  near,  used  of  space,  time  or  number,  in  a  more 
or  less  indefinite  sense  : 

(a)  Of  persons  and  things  in  space,  around.     @t  f)at  fetnen  Qteunb  um  ftdj. 
3d)  bin  ben  ganjen  £ag  um  tf)tt.    Mm.  ^Berlin  Return  gtbt  e3  stele  ©anbgegenben. 

(b)  Of  time  and  number,  synonymous  with  gegm  (see  under  229.  2  the 
prep,  bet,  i.h.  Note],  abo:tt\  (§3  gefd)at)  um  9}fitternad)t,  um  Dfteni.    Um  breu 
fyuiibert  J^crer  an  audience  of  about  three  hundred.     But  with  the  hours  of 
the  day  um  expresses  time  more  accurately,  at :  6r  gel)t  punftlid)  um  jefyn  ttf)t 
git  33ette. 

C.  Less  frequently,  the  logical  reason  (A.  a,  above)  instead  of  its  synonyms 
um  —  linden,  ivegen  on  account  of :  3d)  Icbe  bid)  um  betnen  Sletf ,  or  more  frequently 
um  betneS  8lft§f^  linden  or  tvegen  betneg  Jletfieg.     But  very  commonly  the  words 
H'arum,  barum  instead  of  iveguiegen  wherefore,  why,  be^iregen  therefore. 

We  sometimes  find  um  with  the  genitive  in  this  meaning  after  the  analogy 
of  um  —  unflen  :  D  ®ott !  3d)  banfe  bit  metn  Seben  mtr  |  um  btefer  ^unbe  (Kleist's 
Schroffenstein,  2,  i).  ®en  ber  5pa^a  um  fetne^  ©elbeg  error  (Heyse's  Im  Paradiese, 
I,  178). 

2.  Occasionally  the  dative  can  be  found  after  um,  when  it  denotes  rest, 
after  the  analogy  of  other  prepositions  which  denote  rest.  IDa3  (StS  um 
metnem  £erjni  (Borne). 

it>ifccv/  see  gegen. 

PREPOSITIONS  WITH  EITHER  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE. 
I.    General  Remarks. 

231.  i.  These  prepositions  (see  list  227)  govern  the  dat.  when  the 
place  in  which  is  denoted,  whether  motion  or  rest  in  that  place 
is  expressed,  but  the  ace.  when  the  direction  towards  or  into  an 
object  is  expressed  :  £>a0  SBucfy  Itegt  auf  &em  S'tfdj,  but  «§an3  legte 
bag  33ud)  auf  ben  £ifcfy.  «§ang  lief  in  bem  Bintmer  Return  John  ran  around 
in  the  room,  but  @r  lief  in  (into)  bag  Simmer. 

a.  Often  the  two  ideas  are  only  figurative :  etn  SSud)  fiber  ©oerlje'g  ,,5aufl"  a 
book  on  (spreading  itself  over  the  subject  of)  Goethe's  Faust ;  fiber  a  den 
3tt>etfel  beyond  (lit.  raised  above)  all  doubt.  S&ilfyehn  fam  auf  etnen  guten  Stnfad 
William  hit  upon  a  happy  thought. 

2.  In  applying  this  rule  to  time  the  following  rule  will  be  of 
service:  In  answer  to  the  question  when  they  govern  the  dat.,  but 
in  answer  to  the  question  how  long  and  until  when  the  ace. :  9Bann 
famen  <Ste  nacfy  ^aitfe?     3n  ber  9kd)t.     SBie  lange,  big  irann  Heiben  @te  in 
ber  @tabt?     SStg  tief  in  bie  0to$t. 

3.  In  abstract  or  figurative  expressions  where  the  idea  of  place  or 
motion  toward  does  not  appear,  these  rules  cannot  always  be  applied, 
but  in  these  cases  the  following  rule  will  be  found  useful :  When 
manner,  cause,  or  means  are  expressed,  an,  in,  itnter,  t»or  take  the 
dat.,  but  auf  and  it6er  the  ace.     Manner :  in  biefer  QBetfe,  but  auf  biefe 
SOGeife  in  this  manner.      @r  fcfyreibt  am  fcfyonfien  (see  114.  i),  but  <5r 
fcfyreifct  aufg  fd;6nf*e  (see  114.  2).    £>er  Jlonig  ^og  itnter  bem  3u6el  beg 


231.  II.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE  407 

93olf8  in  bie  ©tabt  The  king  marched  into  the  city  amid  the  hurrahs 
of  the  people,  but  (F3  gefyt  itBer  afleS  ©rroarten  fdjon  Things  are  going 
along  well  even  beyond  all  expectation.  Cause :  QBir  freuen  unS  an 
bem  fdjonen  ^Better,  or  uber  bag  fdjone  ^Better  We  rejoice  over  the 
beautiful  weather.  Sena  enrad^te  an  (aroused  by)  einem  roilben,  marf* 
burd)tEU&lenben  (piercing)  @d;rei,  but  2Jiet)rere  Seute  liefen  nun  auf  (alarmed 
by)  ben  Sarm  gleid?fatl8  au3  bem  ^elbe  fjerfcei.  Means :  SKan  erfennt  ben 
SBaunt  an  (by)  feinen  8ritd)ten.  Means  is  rarely  expressed  by  aitf  or  uber. 
4.  Sometimes  fine  distinctions  may  be  made  by  using  the  dat. 
when  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  person  or  thing  as  already  at 
the  place  where  something  is  to  occur  and  by  using  the  ace.  when 
it  is  desired  to  emphasize  the  movement  of  the  person  or  thing 
towards  the  place  in  question  :  (£r  rcurbe  in  (he  is  already  there)  ber 
©efeflfcfyaft  freunblid)  aufgenommen,  but  (£r  iturbe  in  bie  ®efeflfcr/aft  auf* 
genommen  (admitted  by  ballot).  <Se£en  <Sie  fid?  auf  biefe  SBanf  »on  @tein 
Take  a  seat  upon  this  stone  bench  (the  person  addressed  will  have 
to  first  walk  up  to  the  bench  before  he  can  sit  down,  hence  the 
ace.),  but  in  Schiller's  drama  Tell,  who  is  standing  immediately 
before  the  bench,  says :  Qluf  biefer  SBanf  ton  (Stein  rotU  id)  mid?  fe£en, 
as  we  also  say :  @ie  lagerten  ftd)  bequem  auf  bem  Oiafen.  T>iefe6  Sanb  ifl 
bie  fd;onfle  $er(e  in  ber  ^rone  biefeg  fr'iirften  (it  has  long  been  in  his 
possession),  but  S5a8  ifl  ein  frifd?e3  9BIatt  in  fetnen  Sorbeerfranj  (it  has 
lately  been  added  to  his  wreath  and  is  here  vividly  imagined  as 
just  entering  it)  and  5td;,  Itefce  ^tait  Suflijrattn,  <Sie  biirfen  intr  qlauSen, 
ber  Sunge  ifl  ein  SJJagel  in  meinen  @arg  (Isolde  Kurz's  Nachbar  Werner). 
Thus  we  say:  @r  roirb  in  ber  Jtrone  einfe^ren  He  will  put  up  at  the 
'Krone '  (hotel)  more  frequently  than  6r  nnrb  in  bie  .ftrone  einfetjren, 
because  the  idea  of  future  rest  in  the  place  is  more  important  than 
the  mere  entering  of  the  house.  For  the  same  reason  T.  Storm 
uses  the  dat.  with  fid)  fe£en  in  the  following  sentence  from  a  letter 
to  G.  Keller,  dated  June  9,  1880 :  3d;  fe£te  mid;  jnnfctyen  meinen  beiben 
2Jieiflern,  bem  SWaitrer*  unb  3i»tntermeifler.  The  poet  often  uses  the 
dat.  and  ace.  differently  from  common  usage  because  he  paints  in 
more  vivid  colors. 

II.  Treatment  in  Detail. 
These  prepositions  follow  in  alphabetical  order : 

(III  is  synonymous  with  bet,  itacf),  tteben,  $u,  but  often  with  sharp  distinctions, 
as  are  described  in  229.  z,  under  bei,  and  in  the  Note,  under  jit,  I. 

I.  With  the  dative. 

A.  Close  approach  to  or  contact  with  the  side  of  an  object,  also  with 
various  figurative  applications,  af,  by,  on,  to,  near  to,  in,  about :  (£t  fijjt  am  (at) 
gcnjhr.  @c  ftfct  am  (by)  Dfcti.  S>a(3  23tlt>  foangt  an  (on)  ber  2Bant>.  Qranffurt  liegt 
am  (on)  2>?atu  (river).  (St  ft£t  am  ^>uget  (on  the  hillside).  <£te  flefjen  ^cpf  an 
.Rovf.  9lvm  an  5lrm  (in  English,  shoulder  to  shoulder).  (S3  ltea.t  mit  am  (near 
to)  J&erjen.  (Sv  ift  am  (near  unto)  Sobe.  25ec  Sefett  ftcljt  an  (in)  feinet  <Ste(le. 
G^  tjl  nt(^t3  an  (in)  il)m.  (S3  tjl  nt(^t3  SBaljred  an  (in)  bem  ©eruc^t.  (Sr  Ijat 
fctne  ®^ut  »on  <£tol,^  an  (about)  it$.  35 ie  9iei(;e  ifl  an  mit  It  is  my  turn.  35inge, 
bie  an  (unb  fur)  ftdj  (in  themselves)  grdfli^  ftnb,  rt>erben  in  bi^tertfc^et 


408  PREPOSITIONS  231.11. 

Note.  Do  not  confound  an  on  with  auf  on.  The  former  denotes  contact  only  with 
the  side  of  an  object,  the  latter  with  the  tipper  surface :  on  (on  the  slope  of)  bent  93erg, 
auf  bent  tSipfel  on  the  summit. 

(a)  Applied  to  time,  only,  however,  in  certain  set  expressions,  on,  in  :  Grr 
flatb  am  (on)  SDHthrod).    SBir  arbeiteten  am  £age  (in  day  time).     35te  Seipjiger 
(£d)lad?t  tturbe  am  (on)  18.  Cftobcr  1813  gefd)lagen.     Qs  ijl  an  ber  Sett,  an  ber 
(fctunbe  The  time,  hour  is  at  hand. 

Note  i.  We  say  am  Sage  in  day  time,  but  in  ber  9iadjt,  because  an  denotes 
a  surface,  hence  that  which  is  visible,  while  in  expresses  here  the  idea  of  an  enveloping 
darkness.  Thus  we  say  @g  liegt  am  Sage  It  is  as  plain  as  day,  but  @g  tft  in  £)imfel 
flerjuflt  It  is  shrouded  in  darkness.  Thus  also  im  <Sommer,  ittt  SBhtter  because  we 
regard  ourselves  within  a  period  of  time. 

Note  2.  Sin  refers  to  time  back  of  us,  and  auf  to  time  ahead  of  us :  3d)  bin  am 
©onnabenbe  (last  Saturday)  bort  getuefen,  but  (5r  ipirb  mid)  auf  ben  ©onntag  (next 
Sunday)  beflldjen.  This  distinction  is  not  made  in  early  N.H.G. :  9luf  (now  am) 
SKontag  ber  ertfen  SBodje  nad)  Slbcent  jog  £einridj  burdj  ba$  ©tift  (Luther).  S3nb  eg 
begab  jtd)  auff  ber  tage  etnen  ]  bag,  &c.  (Luke  viii.  22). 

(b)  The  idea  of  near  approach  to  which  lies  in  an  leads  naturally  to  its  use 
in  the  adverbial  superlative  (112. 3.  B)  of  the  adjective  and  the  relative  super- 
lative  (114.  i)   of  the  adverb  :    25er  @turm  hxit  am  fieftigften   (lit.   at  that 
which   is  most  violent,  i.e.  in  the  most  violent  stage)  gegen  SWorgen.     (ft 
fdjreibt  am  fdjenften  »on  alien. 

(c)  Close  approach  on  a  certain  side  gives  rise  to  the  meaning  in  respect 
to,  in,  about,  as  to,  of,  in  the  way  of  \  (S3  fehlt  ifim  an  ©elb,  an  gafiung  He  lacks 
(lit.  in  respect  to)  money,  self-command.    35a$  Sanb  iji  reid)  an  (in)  SKineratien. 
3n  rstaticn  gciuinnt  ber  .fampf  ber  *pdrteten  an  ©djarfe.     3d)  jjtoetfete  an  (have 
doubts  about)  bee  Slufrtd)ttgfeit  biefeg  SKanneS.     Sin  (as  to)  g^tf  Se^  ^^  a^'cn 
anbern  ^naben  »or.    SWanget  an  2Baffer,  an  guter  Suft  lack  of  water,  good  air  ; 
fd)iuad)  am  Setbe  (but  im  ^o^fe).    @o  Ijatte  jte  in  unbefangenftem  $(auberton  an^ 
geframt,  »a^  fte  in  tfctem  ^o^f  an  (in  the  way  of)  ©ebanfen  »orgefunben. 

(d)  Close  approach  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  rapid  succession,  after'. 
5pfet(er  an  $fei(et  gerbrad). 

(e)  Close  approach  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  close  application,  busying 
one's  self  -with,  being  in  the  act  of,  and  often  an  together  with  an  infinitive- 
substantive  is  equal  to  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb  in  the  English  :  3d) 
toitt  bid)  nid)t  gururffyalten  —  bit  btjl  am  5lu3gefien  I  will  not  detain  you,  as  I  see 
you  are  going  out  (down  town).     <2te  fyatte  e$  gerabe  mtt  etnem  Jltnbe  ju  tun,  ba3 
am  Jtirtoffelfcfydten  li?at  She  was  just  then  occupied  with  a  child  who  was 
peeling  potatoes.     It  should  be  noticed  that  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb 
in  Eng.  may  have  an  object,  while  in  German  the  object  must  form  a  com- 
pound with  the  infinitive-substantive  as  in  the  second  example.    Note  also 
that  an  is  here  always  contracted  with  the  article. 

B.  Out  of  the  idea  of  approach  to  and  contact  with  comes  the  conception 
of  varied  relations  which  the  persons  and  objects  thus  brought  together 
sustain  to  each  other  :  @c  ifl  Sefjrer  an  (in)  btefer  @d?ule,  ^rebtger  an  ber  Jpcfftrcfye. 
35iefer  ©eleftrte  arbettet  an  (on)  einem  grojjen  ffierfe.  @r  l)at  ficfy  an  feinem  ©cgnet 
tatlid)  vergriffen  He  laid  violent  hands  on  his  opponent.  (§3  liegt  an  ihm  (it  is 
his  fault),  bajj  er  ntd)t  Bcrwcivte  fommt.  (Sr  ntmmt  an  ben  Swuknt  ber  J:inbec 
tetl.  @t  ftieg  fid)  an  ber  SSanb  blutig.  @r  iwtrb  an  btr  ^um  JBerrater  He  will 
betray  you.  @c  ^at  etne  <£tufce  an  (in)  feinem  ©o^n.  ©r  tetrb  fid;  an  fetnen 
5einben  rddjen. 

(a)  This  relation  may  be  that  of  cause,  of,  from,  &c. :  @r  jlarb  an  (of)  ber 
<£d?ttnnbfud)t.  ©r  leibet  an  (from)  ber  93rufi.  3<$  tabe  mid)  an  (with)  ben  8tiid)ten. 
Gr  drgert  fid)  an  (at)  alien  35tngen.  35aS  (Sis  fdjmiljt  an  (in)  ber  <£onne. 

Note.  In  earlier  periods  (and  occasionally  still)  the  simple  gen.  was  used  here  5 
see  223.  V.  a. 


231.  II.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE  409 

(b)  This  relation  may  be  that  of  means,  by :  3d)  fycre  am  ®e(aute,  ba§  Ijeute 
Sontttag  tft.    3)Jan  erfctmt  ben  S3oge(  an  ben  gebern.    3d)  n)eijj  eg  an  ntir  (by  my 
own  experience).    (tr  crfannte  mid)  an  ber  ©timme.    (Sr  geljt  am  @tocf  He  walks 
with  the  aid  of  a  cane. 

2.  With  the  accusative. 

(a)  Direction  toward,  implying  close  approach  to  the  side  of  a  person  or 
thing,  or  even  contact  therewith,  literally  and  figuratively  :  Jpdnge  bag  33ilb  an 
tie  SiJanb,  bag  JtletD  an  ben  9tagel.  @r  fefcte  fid)  an  (at)  mctne  <Sette.  ©r  fdtreibt  an 
(on)  bag  ftenfter,  but  (£r  fdjreibt  am  (at)  genfter.  @r  ftecfte  ben  {Ring  an  (on)  ben 
ginger.  @r  jog  ben  <£trumpf  ang  23etn.  3d)  fyabe  »iel  an  ifyn  vertoren  I  have 
lost  a  good  deal  to  him  (in  cards,  &c.),  but  3d)  fyabe  »iet  an  iljm  ucrlorcn  /  have 
lost  much  in  him.  Often  with  bis  to  mark  limit :  2)ag  SBaffet  reid)te  big  an  btc 
Jlmee.  (§r  begteitete  mid)  big  an  bag  £or.  Figuratively  :  (§r  gefyt  an  (to)  bie  Slrbeit. 
3d)  benfe  an  iljn.  3d)  fd)retbe  an  (to)  ifyn  oft.  Jpter  tft  ein  33rief  an  (directed) 
<£ie.  Ste  Oieifye  (turn)  fommt  an  mid). 

(£)  Temporally,  used  only  with  big  to  mark  a  limit  of  time  :  @te  tanjten  big 
an  ben  SWorgen. 

(c)  An  approximate  number  (for  synonyms  see  in  229.  2,  the  prep,  bet,  A, 
Note),  used  as  an  adverb  or  prep,  (see  225.  i.c),  about:  28te  lange  fyabt  ifyr 
projcfjtert?    §ht  bie  ad}t  3aljre.    @g  waren  an  ^unbert  SDJenfd)en  acrfammeU. 

ailf.  i.  With  the  dative. 

A.  Contact  with  the  upper  surface  of  (see  an,  i.K.Note),  on,  upon  :  Sluf 
d)ttjHtd)en  Jitrdjen  fte^t  gcicoljnlid)  ein  Jtreuj.    S)ag  93ud)  liegt  auf  bem  Xifd).    Also 
without  contact,  but  as  a  necessary  part  of :  !Der  $unft  auf  bem  t.     Figuratively : 
3d)  fyabe  etne  §(ngft  auf  bem  £erjen.    S)ie  @ad)e  beru^t  auf  3f)nen.    ®g  ^at  nid;tg  auf 
fid)  It  is  of  no  consequence.    SSag  fyat  eg  bamit  auf  fid)  ?  What  of  that  ? 

(a)  In  a  number  of  cases  auf  is  used  because  the  present  or  original  con- 
ception is  that  of  a  place  at  some  height,  although  the  place  may  be  an 
enclosed  one.  It  is  translated  accordingly  in  Eng.  by  in  :  (Sr  toofynt  auf  ctnent 
2d)Icfi'c,  auf  Plummet  jefjn  (in  hotel).  (It  tft  auf  (of  an  upper  room)  fctnem 
Simmer,  auf  ber  93urg,  auf  bee  j?an$et,  auf  ben  ©aterien. 

B.  The  idea  of  an  upper  surface  gives  way  in  many  cases  to  that  of  a 
surface  in  general,  considered  as  a  base  of  operations  :  (Ir  arbettet  auf  (in)  bem 
gelbe.    3m  Sommer  lebt  man  angcneljm  auf  (in)  bem  I'anbe.    grtebrtd)  ber  ©rope  toar 
ein  2JJeiftcr  auf  bev  glote.    2Btr  fegetn  auf  ber  .$tege(bal)n.     SSU^elm  liegt  auf  bem 
Oh'icfeu,  auf  ber  ©ette.    (Sr  tft  bltnb  auf  (or  an  in]  betbcn  Slugen,  taub  auf  (in)  cinem 
Cf)r.    Sluf  btefem  SBege  icirb  er  ju  nid;tg  getangen  In  this  way  he  will  not  accom- 
plish anything. 

Note.  Sometimes  there  is  quite  a  difference  of  conception  in  German  and  English, 
as  the  former  regards  certain  things  as  extended  surfaces  or  open  public  places  while 
the  latter  looks  at  them  as  bounded  spaces,  hence  in  the  former  case  we  iind  auf,  in 
the  lntter^«,  at:  2ftan  fauft  erroag  auf  bem  -iKarft,  but  at  the  market.  9#an  fdfjtt  auf 
bet  ©trajje,  U)o()iit  aber  in  ber  "Stratje,  while  in  Eng.  one  drives  in  the  street  but  lives 
on  the  street.  Thus  also  auf  (in)  tern  Srtebndjgplab,  auf  (at)  bem  23aTnif)of,  auf  (in) 
bem  @()or,  auf  bem  Sagcr  in  stock,  auf  (in)  ber  Station,  auf  (in)  ber  SBiefe. 

(a)  Closely  connected  with  the  idea  of  a  literal  base  of  operations  is  its 
figurative  application  to  political,  educational,  business,  and  social  organisa- 
tions and  individual  activities  which  proceed  on  a  definite  open  basis  :  auf 
(in)  bem  9Jcid)gtag,  auf  bem  $parteitag  at  the  party  convention,  auf  bem  SBtcner 
(of  Vienna)  Songrejj,  auf  («/,  of  a  pupil,  but  an  of  a  teacher)  bent  ©tymnaftum,  auf 
(at,  of  a  student,  but  an  of  a  professor)  ber  Untoerfttdt  or  ©dntle  (but  in  ber  ©d)ute 
of  elementary  schools),  auf  bem  Jlneggfcfcauplafc,  auf  bem  9huf  marfd),  auf  (at)  fcincm 
^Bureau,  auf  ber  93crfe,  auf  (at)  ber  *}>oft,  auf  (at)  ber  SKeffe,  auf  (at)  ber  QBettaugiteHung 
in  (S^tcago,  auf  (at)  bem  93a((e,  auf  (at)  ter  J£>od)jeit,  auf  ber  3agb,  auf  (in)  ber  gludit, 
auf  ber  CReife,  auf  (at)  feiuem  ^ojien.  SKatt  ertappte  i^n  auf  (in)  ber  Sat.  (Sr  ftetjt  auf 
meiner  <2ette.  (Sr  ijl  auf  feincr  «§ut.  5luf  btefem  ©ebiet  in  this  line  (of  study,  art, 


410  PREPOSITIONS  231.  II. 

music,  &c.).    Gr  tyaft  mtdj  auf  bem  Saufenben  He  keeps  me  posted.     9luf  (at)  t'u 
nigen  ^unften  fyaben  bte  fociatbemofratifdjen  ©timmen  fe^t  bet  tefcten  3Bat)l  jugenommen. 

Note.  In  the  above,  it  can  be  seen  how  often  the  German  and  English  conception 
differs,  but  on  the  other  hand  where  the  idea  of  a  close  body  or  corporation  or  position 
or  action  within  a  body  distinctly  appears,  in  is  used  in  both  languages:  in  bent 
preufjifdjen  2J2inijletium,  Jlabinett.  £>od)  blteb  Suremburg  im  beutfdjen  3o(foerein. 

2.  With  the  accusative,  with  the  general  idea  of  direction  toward. 

A.  Direction  or  movement  toward  the  upper  surface  of,  implying  ultimate  con- 
tact, on,  rtpon  :  @r  fe£t  [id)  auf  ben  @tuf)l.     (Sr  legt  bag  23ud)  auf  ben  £ifd).    @r 
ftettert  auf  ben  23aum.  Also  with  movement  toward  without  actual  contact,  but  so 
close  as  to  form  a  necessary  part  of  (see  I.  A,  above)  :  (Sr  fefct  ben  ^unft  auf  bag  i. 
Figuratively  :  3d)  bane  auf  if)n  I  count  upon  him.    Coincidence  :  !X)aef  5eft  fld  auf 
etiten  ©onntag.    Qrr  fam  auf  ben  ©tocfenfdjtag.    @t  bejafytt  mid)  immer  auf  ben  £ag. 
<5't  fam  vunftltd)  auf  bie  SJHnute. 

(a)  Movement  toward  an  object  which  according  to  the  present  or  original 
conception  is  situated  at  some  height  (see  I.  A.  a,  above),  to  :  (£r  gefjt  auf  bag 
<2d)(ofj,  auf  fern  Simmer,  a«f  bte  53urg. 

B.  As  in  i.B,  above,  the  idea  of  an  upper  surface  gives  way  to  that  of 
a  surface  in  general,  considered  as  a  basis  of  future  operations  when  reached, 
to,  into,  on:  £)ie  9lrbeiter  gefjen  auf  bag  gelb.     <£te  fafyren  aufg  Saub.     ©ie  ge(jen 
aufg  @tg  (to  skate).    (Sr  tnad)t  ftd;  auf  ben  2Beg.    (Sr  legt  fid)  auf  bte  @ette,  auf  ben 
Oiurfeit.     In  nautical  language,  for  (the  port  of)  :  SSarum  ful)t  er  nun  feit  jefyn 
Sa^ren  atg  (Sd^iffgjtmmermann  auf  etnem  gro^en  Sampfet  auf  ^alfutta?  (Ham- 
burgischer  Correspondent,  17.  Mai  1903). 

Note.  The  same  differences  of  idiom  between  English  and  German  as  described  in 
Note  under  i.  B.,  above,  appear  also  when  direction  toward  is  indicated  :  9)?an  geljt 
auf  (to)  ben  2Rarft.  35et  ^auS&efifett  fefete  bte  arme  rjamtlte  auf  (into)  bie  ©trape. 
(Sr  biegt  in  (into)  bte  Swbridjftrape.  35te  ^nebrtd^flra^e,  SBUljelmflrafje  unb  Sinbens 
ftva^e  munben  (terminate)  fonwergierenb  auf  (in)  ben  fretgrunben,  mtt  ©artenanlagen 
gefdjmucften  S3e({eaniance; 


(a)  Corresponding  to  i.  B.  a,  above  :  2Jlan  geljt  auf  bte  $ofl,  auf  ben  23aK,  auf 
bie  3agb.  (Jr  laft  ftdj  auf  ben  ^ampf  ein  He  engages  in  the  battle.  9luf  btefe 
93ebtngungen,  SSorfdjlcige  fann  idj  tttdjt  eingeljen  I  cannot  assent  to,  £c.  SKan  gtng 
auf  ben  Sdjetj  ein.  @r  ilellte  mid)  auf  (to)  bie  ^robe.  Often,  instead  of  naming 
such  society  or  action,  mentioning  some  article  or  object  which  is  suggestive 
of  it  :  @r  tub  mid)  auf  (to)  etne  SWafyljeit,  auf  eine  ©itvw,  auf  ein  Sutterbrot,  auf  ein 
©tag  3Bein,  auf  eine  Xajfe  ^ee.  (Sc  forberte  mid)  auf  ^tftoten  He  challenged  me 
to  a  duel  with  pistols.  @t  fyatte  girjet  fd)tt>ere  gurberuugen  auf  frumme  ©abet. 

C.  Direction  of  some  activity  of  the  mind  or  of  some  feeling  toward  an 
object,  in  various  relations,  representing  it  : 

(a)  As  an  object  of  attack,  attention,  or  of  some  feeling  either  hostile  or 
friendly  :    Sag  tjl  auf  mid)  abgefetien  That  is  meant  for  (aimed  at)  me.     (St 
fd)tmpft  auf  mid).     !Dag  2Jlabd)en  I)eftete  fcine  Slugen  auf  ben  Sanjer.     @r  ijl  auf 
mid)  gut  (or  ubel)  ju  fi?red)en  He  speaks  well  (or  ill)  of  me.    @r  jitrnt  auf  mid). 
(Sr  ijl  auf  feine  grau  eiferfud)tig,  ftolj.    3)leiit  ^anbwerf  t^atte  id)  ^cd)  unb  tajfe  ntdjtg 
barauf  fommen  I  think  a  great  deal  of  my  trade,  and  allow  no  one  to  say  any- 
thing against  it. 

(b)  As  the  object  or  point  toward  which  the  mental  activity  is  directed, 
usually  with  a  view  to  furthering,  acquiring,  enjoying  it:  93cfe  Seute  merfen 
md)t  aufg  9Zed)t.     (Sr  tjatt  auf  Drbnuug,  auf  (Sfyre  He  attaches  much  value  to,  &c. 
@etb  3t)t  'ne  SBdrfergfrau,  bie  tfjren  3ltthted)t  fteit  auf  if)t  ©ewerb?   Are  you  a 
baker  woman  who  marries  her  head-servant  with  a  view  to  using  him  in  her 
business  ?     <£ie  ift  big  vor  furjem  in  S3erlin  ge»cfen  auf  (in  order  to  acquire)  feine 
Gqiefyung.    3d;  bereite  midj  auf  bag  gefi  »or.    2Bet  fid;  »on  einem  <Stubium  aufg 


231.  II.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE  411 

anbere  unrft,  toirb  in  feinent  fo»iet  erreidjen,  ata  tt>er  fid)  auafd)[iefjtid)  auf  etna  legt. 
3d)  »erjid)te  auf  mcinen  SlnteU.  @r  uerilefyt  fid)  aufa  Siaten  He  is  good  at  guessing. 
@r  t|l  auf  baa  3Jldbd)en  erpidjt.  3d)  befinne  mid)  uidjt  auf  tfyn. 

(c}  As  the  end,  purpose,  design  :  3)er  ©eleljrte  vruft  baa  @r$  auf  (to  see  whether 
it  contains)  ©tlbcr.  3d)  trinfe  baa  auf  (to)  3fjre  ©efunbfyeit.  S)tefe  ffiare  tfl  auf 
beu  ^auf  gemad)t  This  article  is  made  to  sell.  3)aa  ©anje  ift  auf  etne  iiberrafd)una, 
augelegt.  5Bir  beilefyen  auf  [fine  Slbfe^ung.  9)Jid)  beud)t,  bit  fyajl  ntdjt  gerabe  auf  ben 
^>atlorilubtert  (Jensen's  Heimkunfl,  VII)  It  seems  to  me  that  you  didn't  exactly 
study  for  the  ministry. 

(cf)  As  that  upon  which  the  action  or  feeling  rests,  and  from  which  the 
actor  draws  strength,  courage,  inspiration,  or  as  the  false  basis  upon  which 
a  misdoer  stands  in  order  to  conceal  the  true  one  :  9luf  fettten  23eijlanb  barf  id) 
redjnen.  ?Uif  btefe  unb  aitbere  Slnflagen  fyin  untrbe  et  in  ben  ilcuxr  gefperrt.  Sluf 
beine  ©cfafyr  (at  your  risk)  wage  id)  ea.  <Ste  bilbet  fid)  tt?aa  auf  tfyre  Sd)6nT)ett  etn 
She  prides  herself  on,  &c.  (la  fommt  auf  bid)  an  It  depends  upon  you.  3$ 
frage  bid)  auf  bein  ©ewijfen.  Gr  ^)at  ea  auf  eigene  gaufl  gctan.  ($t  tr»agte  ea  auf 
(trusting  to)  gut  ©litcf.  dr  ntad)te  etn  ©ebtcfyt  auf  Siamarrf.  (Sa  til  gut  auf  (in) 
ben  -£>frru  (Lord)  vertrauen  unb  ftdj  ntdjt  »er(affen  auf  3Jlenfd)cn.  Saa  ^tnb  til  auf 
ntetnen  Seamen  getattft  (named  for  me).  (Sitter  btefer  *i>dffe  lautet  auf  eitten  @d)^eijer, 
ben  Surter  ^od>  One  of  these  passes  is  made  out  in  the  Swiss  quarter-master 
Koch's  name.  @t  war  auf  ben  9}amen.2BU()e(tn  ©djnttbt  etugefdjrteben  (registered 
under  the  name  of,  &c.)«  @o  wirb  bann  freUtd)  ber  Siirfl  f»t  tattfenb  £>tnge  veranti 
irort(id)  gemad)t,  won  benen  er  fetne  @tlbe  weip,  unb  bte  ganje  Umgebung  fitnbigt  auf 
(on  the  strength  of,  under  the  cover  of)  fetnen  Stamen. 

D.  Movement  toward  leads  to  the  idea  of  some  point  of  time  or  of  some 
event  in  future  time,  and  in  general  to  the  idea  of  futurity  and  expectation  in 
varied  relations  (see  an  i.K.a.Noie  2) :  (Sa  gefyt  auf  neun  It  is  going  on  nine 
(o'clock).      (Sa  tjl  bvei  SHertel  auf  fihtf  It  is  a  quarter  to  five.      2Wan  tyofft 
auf  bejfere  £age.    @r  bat  mid)  auf  ben  9Jbeub  $um  @ffen.    (fa  unrb  €?cgen  geben 
auf  bte  9lad}t.    3Me  95erorbnung  fiber  bte  (Sinberufung  bea  3?eid}0taga  auf  (on)  ben 
1 6.  (of  next)  November  ill  amtltd)  befannt  gemad)t  worben.    SDJettte  gran  ^atfyc  (god- 
mother) fiabe  id)  in  meinem  Seben  ntd)t  gefeljen,  unb  @ie  fcnnen  benfen,  nne  id)  mid) 
auf  fte  freute  (how  glad  I  was  at  the  prospect  of  seeing  her).     3d)  befd)dfttgte 
mid)  mtt  ben  neiten  @ommerf[ctbern,  i»eld)e  mtr  bte  Iteben  (Sttcrn  auf  baa  (in  consi- 
deration of  the  approaching)  ftejl  fatten  mad)en  laffen.    £aa  ©elb  naftm  er  ^u  ftd) 
auf  ben  $M,  \vo  er  ea  gebraud)en  »curbe.    iDiefe  SBofjnung  tfl  auf  Dilern  ju  vermieten 
This  house  can  be  engaged  now  for  occupancy  at  Easter. 

E.  Movement  toward  a  moving  object  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  pursuit,  and 
this  leads  to  that  of  immediate  or  rapid  succession,  and  hence  a  sequence  or 
response  in  general :    (Sr  folgt  auf  mid)  He  succeeds  me.     9luf  Stegen  fefgt 
<Simueitfd)cin.     9luf  (after)  baa  Crifen  barf  man  fetne  fycftige  Seivcvjuttg  mad)en. 
Sropfen  auf  £rovfen  fd}htg  an  baa  Sfniier.     93tt^  auf  SBli^,  @d)tag  auf  @d)(ag  folgte. 
Sluf  bie  2)auer  (in  the  long  run)  ttnrb  bte  Hetnile  Sail  fdjwer.     @r  fyort  (heeds)  ntd)t 
auf  meine  SBorte.     @r  I)6rt  (answers)  auf  (to)  bcibe  Stamen.     (Sr  antwortete  auf 
metnen  Svtef.    (Sr  fam  auf  ben  erflen  9Juf.    2)te  -ipauafrau  .  .  .  fiadj  urn  fo  vortei(j 
Rafter  »cn  bet  Sd)itagertn  ab,  wetdje  auf  ben  liebltdjen  (Ruf  (by  the  title  of}  graulein 
gittg  (Raabe's  Hungerpastor,  XIII). 

(a)  From  this  idea  comes  that  of  following  the  will  or  desire  of  another, 
closely  related  in  meaning  to  nad)  and  gcmdf, :  3d)  Iiabe  ca  auf  (in  accordance 
with)  3fyren  2Jefe()(,  auf  3l)ten  SSttnfd)  getan.  Sluf  (upon)  fctncn  Wntrag  erfctgtc 
greii"pred)nng. 

(H)  As  that  which  follows  upon  something  is  often  that  which  is  caused  by 
it,  auf  with  its  dependent  noun  is  often  considered  as  a  cause  :  SDJefyrere 
i'eute  licfcit  nun  auf  (alarmed  by)  ben  ?drm  gleid)falla  ana  bent  gelbe.  Set  ©raf 
I)atte  mit  Sebauern  oevucmnten,  bajj  fetn  Stenilmann  einen  burger  auf  (provoked  by) 
fo  geringfugtgen  Slnlafi  gefd)lagen  ^abe.  2)er  ®aum  fd((t  nidjt  auf  ei'nen 


412  PREPOSITIONS  231.  II. 

« 

F.  The  limit  up  to  which  something  may  extend,  sometimes  taken  inclu- 
sively, sometimes  exclusively:  @r  iji  auf  ben  Scb  uevtounbet.    3d)  bin  e(enb,  auf 
mein  ganjeg  Seben  elenb.     6r  qudlte  mid)  (big)  aufg  SMut  (almost  to  death).     (Sr 
unll  nitr  auf  (for)  einen  Sag  fottgefyen.    @r  uerlief  ung  auf  »icrjcljn  Sage.    9luf 
2Bieberfel)en  !    good-by  till  we  see  one  another  again  !      33ei  bent  ungemifien 
<2d)ein  beg  Oteumonbg  founte  man  faunt  auf  futtf  <Sd)titte  vot  ftd)  fefyen.    (Si-  nwf 
t6  aufg  ^»aar  or  auf  ein  £aar  (accurately).     @g  foflet  auf  (as  high  as)  100  Saler. 
2#an  fd)a£t  bie  3afyi  famtUdjer  Olumanen  (Rumanians)  auf  (at)  10  2J?t(Uonen.   Some- 
times after  bis  :  (Sr  tranf  bag  ©lag  big  auf  bie  9ieige  (excluded)  aug.    9U(e  feme 
greunbe  »erltefen  if)n  big  auf  (except)  einen. 

G.  A  trend  in  a  certain  direction  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  manner  :  9luf 
biefe  §lrt,  auf  biefe  SBeife  hrirb  er.  fein  3«l  erretd)en.    (Sr  empftna,  mid)  aufg  freunblid)fte. 
@ie  fed)ten  auf  ben  §ieb  (with  broad-swords).     @t  be^afylt  e3  auf  Slbfd^lag  (making 
payments  from  time  to  time).     ®r  fagte  eg  auf  (in)  iteutfd).     SlufS  ©eratc«)ot)l  at 
random,  auf  jeben  ga((  in  any  case,  auf  fetnen  gaf(. 


With  superlatives  both  an  and  auf  denote  manner,  but  as  an  with  the  dat. 
denotes  arrival  at  the  goal,  while  auf  w.  ace.  indicates  only  a  movement  toward  the 
goal  itself,  the  latter  is  more  general,  and  hence  its  use  with  the  absolute  superlative 
of  the  adverb,  while  the  former  is  used  with  the  relative  superlative  ;  see  114.  i  and  2. 

H.  Used  distributively  to  show  that  which  is  allotted  to,  falls  to  the  share 
of  :  !Die  ©teuern  txvtetlen  fid)  folgenbermafjeii  (are  distributed  as  follows  among) 
auf  bie  eingelnen  ^rotnnjen.  Sine  ©teigung  »on  I  jyujj  auf  jebe  100.  @r  vevtettte  ben 
Sun-rat  auf  uiermal  He  divided  the  rations  so  as  to  make  enough  for  four 
different  times.  (Sr  afj  a(le3  auf  (at)  einmat.  6r  twtrbe  auf  einmal  icieber  Iu|lig. 

1.  The  idea  of  resting  something  on  something  else  gives  rise  to  the  idea 
of  an  underlying  condition  :  3Jlan  nimmt  einen  Jtod),  SJebtenten  auf  ^vcbe  (on 
condition  that  he  gives  satisfaction).     (Sin  Jlauf  auf  23ei~id)t,  auf  $robe  (subject 
to  examination). 

aufjer.  i.  With  the  dative: 

(a)  Position  on  the  outside  of  an  object  or  place  which  has  fixed  limits, 
once  frequent,  but  now  usually  replaced  by  aujjerfyalb  with  gen.,  and  in  case 
of  greater  removal  from  the  object  au$  with  dat.  :   25ie  cffentlicfyen  ^rebigten 
fcgar  auger  (for  aufjerfyalb)  bee  @tabt  ju  »erf)tnbern  (Schiller).    3d)  bin  »evfd)tet>ene 
Sage  au|er  (for  ang)  Setpjig  geicefen  (Lessing).     <Sie  gel)en  in  bent  SWaume  auper  beitt 
Selte  (for  auf  er^alb  beg  3«Ueg)  quer  uber  bie  Sufine  (Grillparzer's  Der  Traum,  ein 
Leben,  3). 

Note.  In  a  few  set  expressions  aitfset  is  still  used  where  the  position  is  entirely 
indefinite  and  general,  out  of  doors,  out  :  <2>te  atbetten  aitjjet  bent  §aufe  (out  of  doors). 
SSir  fpetfen  Ijeute  au^er  bem  §aufe  We  dine  out  to-day. 

(b)  The  figurative  application  of  the  meaning  out  of,  outside  of,  beyond, 
now  very  common,  as  auf  erfyalb  by  reason  of  its  accurate  local  meaning  is  not 
usually  applicable  here  :  <£te  ift  baruber  aufjer.  (beside}  fid).     3d)  fyabe  mid)  gan$ 
in  mid)  ^urucfgejogen  unb   f)abe  feine  3Bftnfd)e  aufer  mir  (Frenssen's  Die  drei 
Getreuen,  II,  3).    S?er  ^ranfe  ift  aufer  (beyond)  ®efal)r.     <Seib  au^cc  (without) 
gurd)t,  id)  bin  gugegen.    (Sg  ift  aufjer  (beyond)  a((em  3i»fif«t.    @r  ift  aujjer.  ftanbe 
(not  able)  eg  ju  tun.     5luper  §6rit»ette,  auf  er  <£d)uf»eite. 

Note.  Also  auf  erljatb  is  here  used  when  a  definite  limit  is  to  be  expressed  :  5Dag 
Iiea,t  auferfjalb  beg  ^laneg. 

(c  )  Exclusion,  except  (in  this  meaning  also  used  as  a  conj.  ;  see  225.  2  and 
a,  thereunder)  :  Side  nxmn  jugegen  auf  er  bit. 

(d)  Excess,  besides  :  @r.  wlangt  aufer  bem  2of)ne  and)  gute  93efyinb(ung.  @r  ift 
bumm  unb  auf  extern  fau(. 

2.  Wiih  the  ace.  with  verbs  of  motion.     The  grammarians  often  demand 
the  dat.  here  in  accordance  with  older  usage,  but  the  ace.  is  not  infrequently 
found  after  the  analogy  of  other  prepositions,  which  take  the  ace.  with  verbs 


231.  II.  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE  413 

of  motion :  25a  id)  fie  writ  folder  ©aljrfjeit  rcben  Ijorte,  fam  id)  gan$  aufiet  mid) 
(Goethe).  35  u  bift  nun  aufjer  unfere  @emeinfd)aft  gefleKt  (G.  Keller).  The  older 
dat.  is  also  still  used :  28a$  mid)  fo  aufjer  wit  brad)te,  >rar,  &c.  (Spielhagen's 
Selbstgerecht,  p.  66).  The  ace.  has  become  well  established  in  certain  ex- 
pressions :  aufjer  alien  Bweifel  or  (£trett  fefcen  or  ftcllen,  aufscr  ben  <2tanb  fefcen,  &c. 

3.  With  the  gen.  formerly,  and  still  found  with  the  gen.  of  fianb  and  §au3 
in  a  few  set  expressions  :  (Sr  ift,  gef)t,  reijl  aufjer  £anbe$  (in  a  foreign  country). 
SBujjtcn  <£ie,  bajj  id)  aufjet  Jjaufefl  u>ar?  (Harriot's  Der geistliche  Tod,  chap.  x). 
Sometimes  elsewhere  under  the  influence  of  aufjerfyalb  :  35a  aber,  aufjcr  be3  fcltg 
toeinenben  Jtreife<3,  fprad)  plc|lid)  cine  ©titnme,  vorbetent  (151.  i.c)  <2d)tneqensMange 
id)  crbcbte  (Anselm  Heine's  Eine  Gade,  Brockendorf  im  Lehrer-Hauschen). 

Winter,   i.  With  the  dative : 

(a)  Position,  behind,  back  of,  beyond,  from  behind:  35er  «§itnb  tiegt  fiinter  bent 
Dfcn.  35er  ^>cf  licgt  fyinter  bent  «£>aufe.  2Btr  rttten  ^tnter  if)nt  ^er  We  rode  along 
behind  him.  35ie  ©tabt  Itegt  ^tnter  (beyond)  bent  ©ebtrge.  @te  brel)te  ben  ©djliiffel 
tltnter  i()m  ju  She  turned  the  key  on  him.  (Sr  jog  bie  Zinc  tnnter  fid)  jit  He 
pulled  the  door  to  after  him.  S)er  ©efretdr  ^og  bie  S^ft  ^inter  bent  O(jr  f)ert»or. 
Figuratively :  @t  i^at  e3  l)tnter  ben  Dfyven  He  is  sly.  @r  tjalt  I)tntev  bent  93erge  He 
conceals  his  views.  Winter  ber  (£ad)e  ifl  chrad  Something  is  at  the  bottom  of 
all  this.  (Sr  bleibt  fyinter  feiner  Beit  ^uvuct.  Winter  beinent  9Jiicfen  iwrb  »ie(  ®al)rf)eit 
iiber  bid)  gefprcdjen.  @t  Ijat  cine  fd)n.^ere  3ett  ^inter  fid)  He  has  passed  through 
hard  times.  3d)  ntcd)te  eg  tytntcr  mtr  T)aben  I  should  like  to  have  it  over  with. 
@r  Jjct  mc()r  ^intcr  fid),  al3  man  nteint  There  is  more  in  (or  to)  him,  &c. 

(iJ)  Pursuit,  or  when  compounded  with  such  adverbs  as  brcin  and  fyev,  also 
time  after,  and  thus  closely  related  to  nad) :  S)er  Jpitnb  fuf)r  Jt>ie  befcffen  ^inter 
(after)  bent  Xtere  brcin.  ©ing  cin  efyrfanter  Suvgcr  anffadenb  vafd)en  <2d)ritteg  burd) 
bie  <2trafje,  flitg^  frwng  X()ajfo  (name  of  a  dog)  tyinterbrein  (after  him).  G'r  ifl 
^inter  bent  ©elbe  I)et  He  is  after  money.  Gh:  I;at  c5  ntiv  fyinterbrcin  (afterwards) 
gefagt. 

(c)  Succession  (see  in  229.  2  the  prep,  nad),  d.  Note)  after:  (Sc  fam 
Winter  mir. 

2.  With  the  ace.  after  verbs  denoting  a  direction  toward  : 

(a)  Movement  toward  a  position  behind  or  back  of  something :  £>er  §unb 
tcgte  fid)  t)tntcr  ben  Dfen.     @ie  I)e^ten  (set)  §unbe  Ijtntet  (on)  iftn.     Figuratively  : 
Set  <Sd)iUer   gct)t  fyintet  bie  @d)itte  (plays  truant).     (It  fd)retbt  fid)'^  Inntct  bie 
Df)«n  He  marks  it  well.     3d)  fomme  I)inter  basS  ®e^eimnt(3  I  shall  find  out  the 
secret.      Grr  fpannt  bie  ^ferbe   fitter  ben  SBagen   He  puts  the  cart  before  the 
horses.     @r  fafyrt  mid)  T)interg  8td)t  He  deceives  me. 

Note.  Once  more  common  than  now  was  the  combination  fyttlter  fid)  in  the  sense  of 
backwards;  @r  ftel  fytntet  fid).  35 ie  J&eirat  ifl  fytnter  fid)  gegangen  The  match  has 
been  broken  off. 

(b)  Repetition :  funfmat  I)intereinanber  five  times  running. 

3.  Earlier  in  the  period  and  still  in  Austrian  and  Bavarian  authors  tyinter 
is  found  also  with  the  genitive,  both  with  verbs  of  rest  and  motion,  more 
commonly,  however,  with  pronouns  than  nouns  :  @e£e  bid)  I)inter  meincr  (M. 
Jokay,  Andcre  Zeiten,  2,  45).    Unb  fdjimpfcn  f'nct  fyer  t)intev  beiner  ?  (Ganghofer's 
Der  Dorfapostel,  v),  but  Jtefotcr  |icf)t  net,  u>a(5  I)interm  SKduert  id  (ib.). 

tit.  I.  With  the  dat.  it  denotes  rest  or  motion  within  a  given  thing,  or 
on  a  surface  within  the  given  limits  which  form  its  boundary,  corresponding 
thus  almost  exactly  to  the  Eng.  in  or  'within,  also  in  their  figurative  applica- 
tions, hence  not  treated  here  in  detail :  Gc  fifct,  avbcitet  in  bent  Jpaufe.  Gr  ftcrft  ticf 
in  ©cfjulfcen.  3n  ad?t  £agcn  rctfc  id)  ab.  3n  (within)  cinem  2Konat  tuivb  aUcg  f?rttg 
fetn.  For  certain  idiomatic  differences  here  between  the  two  languages  see 
anf,  ¥>.Note. 

2.  With  the  accusative  : 

(a)  Expressing  a  motion  toward  a  position  within  something,  corresponding 


414  PREPOSITIONS  231.11. 

quite  closely  to  the  English  into,  but  s'ometimes  translated  by  to  :  3dj  fcmme 
in  bag  £aug.  Gr  ftel  ing  SBaffer.  @t  ging  in  ben  ©arten.  Translated  by  to\ 
3dj  getye  in  bie  ©tube  meiner  ©djrcefler.  3d)  gdje  in  bie  £tyet,  ©ciiule,  Jtivdje,  ing 
Sweater,  in  bie  @d)tt>eij  (Switzerland).  In  numerous  figurative  applications 
variously  translated :  @d)tcfe  bid)  in  anbere  £eute  Adapt  yourself  to  other  people. 
(Sr  fict  nttt  in  bie  OJebe  He  interrupted  me.  (Et  uriHigt  in  alleg  He  consents  to 
anything.  (£r  if!  in  btefe  35ame  uetliebt  He  is  in  love  with  this  lady.  (§t  ijl  mir 
in  ben  Sob  »erf)a§t  I  have  a  mortal  antipathy  to  him.  5)te  (i.  e.  JtompUmente) 
fann  tdj  in  ben  Sob  nidjt  leiben  (W.  Hegeler's  Pastor  Klinghammer). 

Note.  Before  names  of  places  having  no  article  nadj  is  used  to  express  direction 
toward,  while  before  names  of  places  that  have  an  article  and  can  thus  by  their 
accusative  form  indicate  clearly  direction  toward  in  is  still  used :  nad)  93erlin  to 
Berlin,  nadj  35eutfd)lanb  to  Germany,  but  in  bie  Siirfei  to  Turkey,  in  tag  geliebte 
JDeutfdjlanb.  In  early  N.H.G.  in  could  also  be  used  before  articleless  names  of 
countries. 

(b)  Direction  of  measurement  or  of  an  activity  in  general :  £)ie  ©tube  Ijat 
acfytjeftn  gufj  in  bie  Sange  unb  »terjef>n  in  bie  Skeite.    3?fyn  gujii  in  bie  ^ofye,  ing 
@e»ierte  (square),  big  in  bag  (Sinjelne  to  the  minutest  detail.     (§g  gef)t  in  bie 
Sanfenbe  It  amounts  to  thousands.     (Sr  flettert  in  bie  J^c^e  He  is  climbing  up. 
In  some  expressions  the  dative  is  also  used   here  with   a  slight  shade  of 
meaning,  namely,  expressing  the  idea  of  extent  within  a  given  direction  :  2)ag 
£aitg  fjat  acfytjig  8«fi  in  ber  .£>cf)e. 

(c)  Applied  to  time  usually  preceded  by  big,  except  in  figurative  expres- 
sions :  (St  fpielte  big  [pat  in  bie  Utadjt.    @r  bleibt  wit  treu  big  in  ben  Sob.    @r  ge()t 
ing  je^nte  3af>r  He  is  going  on  ten. 

(d)  With  reference  to  materials,  in  :  @r  arbettet  in  ®otb,  in  @i(ber. 

(e)  An  approximate  judgment  as  to  weight,  magnitude,  &c.,  with  a  more 
general  and   indefinite  meaning  than  an  or  gegen,  and  besides  much   less 
common,  usually  like  an  with  the  definite  article,  about :    Subag  fdjhtg  bie 
©ottlofen  |  ttnb   brad)t  jc   in  bie  bretfftg   taufent   vmb   (II   Maccabees   xii.   23). 
Sometimes  the  dative  is  also  used  here  with  a  slight  shade  of  difference, 
namely,  expressing  the  idea  of  an  indefinite  extent  within  certain  limits  : 
@g  iji  in  ben  jhxmjig  Saufenben,  tt>ag  er  fdjulbig  ijt. 

inner/  and  in  Switzerland  also  in  the  form  innert,  within,  inside  of,  a 
preposition  now  little  used,  governing  sometimes  the  gen.,  sometimes  the 
dat.  or  ace.,  according  to  circumstances  :  inner  bee  @ren$en  bet  SBafyrfyeit  (Grill- 
parzer),  inner  beg  §oftoreg  (T.  Storm's  Ztir  Chronik  von  Grieshuus,  p.  113), 
innert  einet  @tunbe  (Pestalozzi),  inner  biefen  SEanbcn  (Anzengruber's  Schandfleck, 
chap,  x),  inner  bie  ©ten^en  aufnefymen  (J.  von  Miiller). 

niaitA,  often  pronounced  ntanf,  and  sometimes  written  so,  confined  to  dialect 
or  colloquial  language  in  the  North. 

1.  With  the  dative,  among,  in  :  Jpabt  Sfyv  benn  ba  mitten  tnang  ben  ©tubenten 
gefeffen?  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,   i).     It  is  often  found  in  adverbial 
compounds,  as  bamang,  mittenmana,,  and,  as  is  common  with  such  adverbial 
compounds  in  the  North,  is  often  separated  :  2)a  ig  ja  SSajfcr  mang  (in  it, 
i.e.  the  wine). 

2.  With  the  ace.  among,  into :  Un  ntang  fold)U©cfef(fd)aft  iwidfl  bu  bid;  Jjiet 
I)tnfe^en?  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,   i).     <5g  i|l  ntang  (=  unter)  be  Seute 
jffontm'  (Hauptmann's  Der  rote  Hahn,  4).     In  jocular  language  the  ace.  is 
sometimes  found  where  we  would  expect  the  dat,  in  imitation  of  popular 
speech,  which  employs  the  ace.  for  both  dat.  and  ace. :    3J?ang   bie   utelen 
SWenfcfyen  fcwnte  id)  ifyn  ntdjt  finben  (Genthe's  Deutsches  Slang,  p.  35). 

itebctt  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  beineben  and  bcne'ben,  usually,  however,  only  in 
the  dative  relation)  with  dat.  or  ace.  standing  before  the  noun,  occasionally 
in  the  form  ^une'ben  with  the  dat,  also  following  the  noun  :  33or  bent  @arge  ojefyt 
bet  Jlap(an  in  93arett  unb  3)lantel,  i&m  juneben  bet  ©igrifl  mit  bem  fflei^webet  unt>  bent 


231.  II.        WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE  415 

tyeiligen  SBafier  (Ernst  Zahn's  Wie  dem  Kaplan  Longinus  die  Welt  aufging]. 

1.  With  the  dative  : 

(a)  Expressing  rest  or  motion  alongside  of  something  :  Qrr  jifct,  gefyf  neben 
mir.     (f  r  wofynt  neben  (next  door  to)  meinem  33ruber. 

(b)  In  its  figurative  application,  in  addition  to\    ?Wand)er  Jtaufmann  fjat 
neben  einem  £abaf$gefd)dft  and)  nod)  cin  ffietngefd)dft. 

(c)  Passing  alongside  of  without  hitting,  hence  missing  the  mark :  £>a$  getyt 
neben  ber  2Bal)r()ett  sorbet.     @r  iji  baneben  gefommen  He  didn't  get  anything. 

2.  With  the  ace.  to  express  motion  toward  the  side  of  something :    <5r 
fcfcte  fid)  neben  mid).     @r  fyat  fein  «§au$  neben  bag  nteinige  gebaut. 

3.  Formerly  also  with  gen.,  and  still  occasionally  found  with  this  case  in 
Austrian  and  Bavarian  dialects,  especially  before  a  pronoun  :  3'neb'n  nteincr  £ag 
fiber  |  gefyt'Sverbei  j'  9Jo§  unb  $'  gufj  (Anzengruber's  Die  Kreuzelschreiber,  I,  5). 

obcr/  in  S.G.  sometimes  for  fiber,  with  dat.  and  ace. :  3)a  fd)an'  id)  auf  unb 
ober  intv  fliegt  etn  2lbler  (Byr).  <Sein  @d)nurrbart  ivar  ober  bte  Sippe  fyinaufgcftrtdjeu 
(Silberstein's  Dorfschwalben,  2,  87).  Dber  un<3  gebreitet  |  bie3  blauenbe  ©etoclbe 
(Schnitzler's  Der  Schleier  der  Beatrice,  p.  141). 

«bet  (with  Luther  ttber).     i.  With  the  dative: 

(a)  Position  above  something  without  contact,  over,  above :    35er  SSogel 
fd)iv>ebt  uber  bent  iDad)e.     (Sv  Uegt  intmcr   ubcr  ben  Sud)trn.    3d)  bin  cben  iibev 
(occupied  with)  bet  SSerpaditng.      Figuratively  of  social  position :    Sie  j!e()t 
fiber  iljm. 

Note.  The  idea  of  place  often  mingles  with  that  of  cause  (see  2.  E,  below)  and 
hence  the  dat.  or  ace.  is  used  according  as  the  idea  of  position  or  that  of  cause  is  more 
prominent :  Unb  ncd)  iefct  fdjctnt  fte  (i.e.  bie  9iatur)  ntit  bcrfelben  ©orgfaft  fiber  if)m  gu 
njad)en,  ntit  ber  fein  Singe  fein  !letne<3  ©drtd^en  fiberfiefyt  (Ludwig's  Zwischen  Himmel 
und  Erde}.  @o(lte  ein  ^ommifyar  fiber  bie  §lusfuf)riing  .  . .  ivadjen  (Ranke's  Ptipste, 

2,  56). 

(b)  Position  that  can  be  reached  only  by  going  over  something  =  jenfeitg, 
over,  on  Hie  other  side  of',  @r  Uiofynt  fiber  ber  S'tbe. 

(c)  Contemporaneity,  closely  connected  with  tt>d()renb,  unter,  during,  at'. 
(Sr  fprad)  fiber  ber  3Rai)l$ctt,  fiber  S,ifd)e  bavon.    3d)  !onntc  uber  bem  <3efd)rei  (while 
the  noise  was  being  made)  nid)t<?  ^oren. 

Note.  In  the  last  sentence  the  idea  of  cause  seems  to  mingle  with  that  of  time. 
The  usual  rule  in  this  case  is  that  the  dat.  emphasizes.the  idea  of  contemporaneity,  the 
ace.  that  of  cause :  3d)  ertoadjte  fiber  (while  the  noise  was  going  on)  bem  Sdrm,  or 
ibcr  (on  account  of)  ben  Sdrnt.  Except  in  the  case  of  auf  jW)en,  ltd}  erfycben,  ertt>ad)cn, 
Ittdjt3  t)cvcn,  ttergeffeit,  feniadKaffigen,  which,  perhaps,  more  commonly  prefer  the  dat. 
both  in  the  temporal  and  causal  meaning,  the  actual  practice  of  good  authors  seems  to 
take  little  note  of  this  rule,  as  the  ace.  is  usually  found,  the  idea  of  cause  being  in 
general  more  prominent.  In  Unb  fiber  bag  SkrfdltmtUS  fyabcit  end)  bte  ©panter  ba8 
9icfc  fiber  bie  Ctjreit  gcjcgeit  {ligmoni,  2)  Goethe  emphasizes  the  idea  of  cause,  and 
uses  the  ace.  where  to-day  the  idea  of  contemporaneity  seems  more  prominent  and 
the  employment  of  the  dat.  more  common. 

2.  With  the  accusative : 

A.  Denoting  motion  toward  a  point  above  something :  !Der  5tbler  erfiebt  ficfj 
fiber  bie  *li'olfen. 

(a)  A  heaping  up  of  something  over    something   else,  hence  repetition, 
upon,  after:  (S'r  fyduftc  cine  <Sfinbe  fiber  bie  anbcre.    3d)  habe  ifjn  ctnmal  fiber  bag 
anbeve  genxirnt. 

(b)  Superiority  :  £)cr  SRajcr  gcfit  fiber  ben  ^anptmann  A  major  is  higher  than 
a  captain.    3nfvieben(Ktt  ocht  fiber  iNeid)tum. 

B.  Diffusion  or  extension  over  a  given  surface,  usually  with  contact :  <£ie 
fcrettet  ben  2>vpid>  fiber  ben   gnfjboben.      5)a<5  ai^iifer  ge()t  fiber  bie  SBiefen.      JDer 
(£d)n>cip  flof;  fiber  fein  ®efid)t.     (Sr  war  fibec  ben  gan^en  2eib  wunb,  na^.     Figura- 
tively :  Unglucf  fcmmt  fiber  mid).     (Sr  fiel  fiber  mid}  I)er  He  pitched  into  me 
(abused  me). 


416  PREPOSITIONS  231.11. 

« 

(a)  Power,  authority,  supervision  over  a  given  domain,  field  :  (A afar  tjervfcfite 
fiber  bte  OJemer.    33et  Setpjtg  ftegten  bte  SntttflEeten  fiber  tie  granjofcn.    2)er  j?entg 
uber  bag  2anb,  bet  Sluffefyer  uber  bte  Slrbeiter. 

(b)  Mental  activity  directed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cover  the  matter  in 
question,  on,  about:  Dr.  Hermann  93aunta,art  fyat  ein  5ind)  fiber  ©eetfyeS  ,,5auft  " 
cjefcfyrieben.     ^rcfcficr  @d)nttbt  liefl  (lectures)  fiber  @leftrt$ttat.     3d)  fprcdic  fiber 
(at  some  length,  while  son  may  imply  mere  mention)  etttag.     Gr  weifj  ntandjeg 
baruber  He  knows  a  good  deal  about  it.     Compare  von,  c  in  229.  z. 

C.  A  passing  over  and  beyond  a  certain  limit :  2)er  U*cgel  flog  fiber  bag  -!paug. 
Figuratively :  Sag  gebt  fiber  ntetnen  33erftanb,  metne  33egriffe,  nteiuen  ^»oriiont,  mcine 
Jlrafte,  &c.    3d)  fa'nn  eg  ntdjt  fibers  £erj  brtngen.    (Sr  lebt  fiber  feme  ajerfydUntije 
(beyond  his  means). 

(a)  A  passing  by  or  through,  and  then  beyond,  via :  Gr  retfl  uber  Hamburg 
iiad)  Sonbcn. 

(b}  Excess  in  amount,  weight,  measure,  number,  &c.,  over,  above,  more 
than,  upwards  of:  @r  gab  fiber  fein  3$ermcgen  (more  than  his  wealth  justified 
him  in  giving).  <Ste  tjl  fiber  af(e  fflefi^reibung  fcfyon.  S'g  iwaren  fiber  funf^tg 
^evfonen  ba.  2)te  Oiebe  bauerte  fiber  eine  ©tunbe.  itberbieg'  (in  the  eighteenth 
century  sometimes  fiberbem',  after  the  analogy  of  jubem)  moreover. 

D.  Of  time: 

(a)  Represents  a  future  event  as  to  take  place  after  the  close  of  a  given 
period  of  time :    4?eute  fiber  acfyt  $age  (a  week  from  to-day)  >wbe  id)  tt>teber 
fomraen.    Thus  fyeitte  fibers  3afyr,  or  without  heute,  fibers  3a^r,  ^eute  fiber  bret 
SSci^en,  fibermcrgen  day  after  to-morrow,  &c.     Formerly  also  with  reference  to 
past  time,  after;  2)atnad)  »ber  bre^  jar  |  !am  id)  gen  Serufalem  (Gal.  i.  18). 

(b)  Excess  of  time  :  fiber  (more  than)  eine  5Bod)e,  fiber  cin  3al)r,  &c. 

(c)  In  a  few  expressions,  duration,  the  prep,  standing  in  case  of  91ad?t 
before,  with  other  words  after  the  noun :    ($r  btteb  fiber  SJladjt.    S)en  ganjen 
Sommer  iibcr  ir>ar  id)  auf  bent  Sanbe. 

E.  Cause:  SDfon  fo((  ftd)  me  fiber  bag  ItnglucE  etneS  SKenfcften  freuen.    3d)  erilaunte 
fiber  (at)  biefe  vK;^lid)e  @rfd)etmmg.    Earlier  in  the  period  we  find  also  the 
dative  here :  SSnb  er  .  . .  tear  betrftbet  »ber  jrent  cerftocften  Her^en  (Mark  iii.  5). 

Note.  Also  an  w.  dat.  denotes  cause.  The  difference  between  an  and  fiber  in  this 
respect  is  in  general  that  an  denotes,  in  accordance  with  its  meaning  of  a  close 
approach  or  contact,  a  closer  and  more  intimate  relation  than  fiber :  @r  flarb  an  einer 
9ien)enfranff)eit.  2Kan  ladjt  iibcr  einen  guten  iOifc. 

inttcr.  i.  With  the  dative  : 

A.  A  position  below,  under  something :  3>r  -§unb  Itegt  unter  bent  Dfen. 
Ser  Jpunb  fuljr  beffenb  unter  (from  under)  ber  Sanf  fervor.  Figuratively  :  3n  ber 
Jlcnntnis  beg  8ateinifd)en  ftehe  id)  unter  i()m. 

(a)  Dependence,  subordination  :  <£te  feuf$ten  unter  bem  Srucfe  ber  ^errfdjaft. 
S>er  ^el)rling  ftet)t  nnter  ber  £eitung  bes  3Weifierg. 

(b)  Below  a  certain  degree,  number,  value,  &c. :  Unter  funfytg  SKarf  fann  id) 
bte  2Bare  ntd)t  gcben.     i'ln  ntandjen  Crten  blteb  bte  Xctdia^nte  unter  ber  (Srtr-arhmg. 
(iin  Jttnb  unter  ^ef>n  3aT)rcn.    5)aS  t]!  nnter  (beneath)  aller  JTritif. 

(c)  Contemporaneity :   2J?and)e  fd)(afen  unter  ber  ^rcbigt  ein.    ttnter  ^artS  V. 
Oiegterung  ftar  Olntwcrpen  bte  Icbenbtgjie  nnb  fycrrltdjfie  <Stabt  in  ber  SSett. 

Note.  Synonymous  with  unter  is  1r»dl)renb.  The  latter  usually  expresses  duration, 
while  unter  may  denote  also  only  a  point  of  time  :  3)er  ©afnftan  fd)Uef  iraljrenb  bev 
^Jrebigt,  but  @r  gtng  unter  ber  ^rebigt  Ijinaug. 

(d)  Very  commonly  used  to  add  some  attendant  circumstance :  ©er  Jtranfe 
verfd)teb  nnter  (in)  fyeftigen  @d)nteqcn.    3d)  ivbtlte  i^n  unter  uier  9Utgen  fprcd)cn. 
3d)  IteJ)  i()tn  bag  ©elb  unter  (on)  btefer  SBebingnng.     6'r  tat  eg  unter  nteinent  OJantcn. 

(e)  Classification,  under  the  head  of,  by :  Unter  „  9lrm  "  lefen  irtr  ufjp.  We  find 
(in_  the  dictionary)  under  the  head  of  "  arm,"  &c.     SSag  ver^eben  @te  unter 
kiefetn  3luSbrucf  ?  What  do  you  mean  by  this  expression  ? 


231.  II.         WITH   DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE  417 

B.  Position  in  the  midst  of,  among  (see  Note  2,  under  jnnfdjen),,:  3d)  fafj 
unter  ben  3ufd)auern.    @3  flefjt  utet  Unfraut  unter  bem  SBetjen.    Untev  jtcet  Ubeln  mufj 
man  bag  ftcinere  ivdfylen. 

C.  Often  used  instead  of  a  partitive  gen. :   Untet  (of)  aften   ©etrdnfen  ift 
2Bajfer  bag  gefunbefie.     See  also  141.  2.  Note. 

2.  With  the  accusative  : 

A.  Movement  to  a  point  below  or  under  something :  35er  Jpunb  tegte  ftd) 
unter  bie  23auf.    Sic  fefcten  un3  unter  ben  2)aum.    @r  tourbe  in  ber  @d)ule  unter 
(in  rank)  fctnen  Sruber  gefefct. 

(a)  Change  to  a  condition  of  dependence,  subordination  :  Unter  btefeg  3cdj 
fttrb  man  end)  beugen.  @ie  fieflten  ben  23erbred)er  unter  bie  Sluffidjt  ber  ^olijet. 

B.  Movement  toward  a  position  in  the  midst  of  something,  among'.  3d) 
fefcte  mid)  unter  bte  3ufd)aucr. 

(a)  A  belonging  to  a  group  :  £)er  Jtrteg  getjort  unter  bte  grojjten  libet.    3d)  gdtjte 
ifyn  unter  ntetne  greunbe. 

(b)  Distribution  :  £>er  Soljltdttge  ttertettt  ©elb  unter  bie  9lrmeu. 

3.  With  the  genitive  in  unterbefien  in  the  meantime,  while,  and  sometimes 
in  a  few  expressions  of  time  :  unter  (IfTeng  (Adelung)  during  the  meal.    3n  bet 
2i?oljnung  »ar  aud;  Stet  SBefud)  untet  Xag3  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer, 
Act  iv). 

»or»  i.  With  the  dative : 

(a)  Position  in  front  of,  in  front  of,  before,  in  the  sight  of,  at  the  siege  of: 
£er  Jpunb  Itegt  »cr  ber  £au3tur.    JDer  Serbred^er  erfd)ten  »or  bem  9Jid)ter.    93or  ®ott 
unb  ber  SBelt  ftrafbat  guilty  in  the  sight  of  God  and  the  world.     (Sr  net  »or 
9iid;monb.    Activity  or  motion  in  front  of:  (Sr  rebete  »or  einer  gropen  SSerfamnts 
lung.    <£te  T)aben  i(;n  sor  unferm  §aug  »orbetgetragen. 

(b)  Surpassing  in  degree,  rank,  value,  hence  also  precedence :  @te  nxir  tier 
aflen  bte  @d)6njie.    (Sr  I)at  mid)  »or  (more  than)  a((en  anbercn  betetbtgt.    93or  often 
£>td)tern  gebut^rt  tt)m  ber  *Pretg.    (Sr  ^at  oteteg  »or  fetnem  S3ruber  »orau3  He  has 
many  advantages  over  his  brother. 

(c)  Applied  to  time,  before,  ago,  since,  back,  prior,  ahead  of'.  ®r  fatn  'ocr 
fetnem  Jperrn  an.    @iu  SSiertel  »or  6  Ufyr,  »or  eintger  3fit  some  time  ago,  »cr  nun 
i^e^n  3afyrcn  now  ten  years  since,  tier  eintgen  3al)ren  a  few  years  back,  flor  (prior) 
ber  @inful)rung  ber  ©aetaternen.    3KofeS  lebte  »or  (i^rtjiu^.    35it  fomm|l  »or  (ahead 
of)ber3ctt. 

(d}  Reference  to  something  which  stands  before  one  in  such  a  manner  or 
condition  as  to  cause  fright,  horror,  aversion,  or  before  which  one  must 
defend  or  protect  himself:  2>a3  Jtinb  furd)tet  ftd)  (is  afraid  of)  »or  bem  ^>unte. 
*Kand)e  fyaben  @fel  »or  fyalbroljem  gtctfd).  2)em  gcigcn  tft  bange  vcr  bem  Scbe.  @r 
flie^t  »or  (from)  bem  getnbe.  3d)  fyabe  fetn  ®et)ctmniiJ  »or  Sljnnt.  9ttmm  bid)  »or 
i^m  in  9ld)t.  SSarme  ^letber  fd)ii^en  »or  ^a(te.  3d)  ftarnte  t()n  uor  bem  SSRcnfdjen. 
See  also  au3,/in  229.  2.  Also  awe :  2ld)tung  cor  einem  or  et»as5  ^abett. 

(e)  Cause  in  a  number  of  set  expression  s,for,  on  account  of,  with  :  3Kan  fann 
»or  @d)iucrj  unb  »or  ^tfube  \cetnen.  !T5a(3  4ft5  fd)litg  mtr  vor  battger  (Srrt?artung. 
(Sr  fonnte  »cr  @d)mcrj  ntd)t  fdjtafen.  @r  fcmmt  »cr  ©efd)dftcn  uid)t  ju  ftd)  fclbjl. 
Gr  jtefyt  ben  SBalb  »or  tauter  SSaurnen  nid)t.  @r  ijl  rot  vor  (with)  3orn. 

2.  With  the  accusative  to  express  motion  toward  a  point  or  position  before 
something,  literally  and  figuratively :  Ser  Jpunb  legt  fid)  vor  bte  .£>au$tur.  (St 
fpaunt  bie  ^ferbe  cot  ben  9i5agen.  2ftan  bringt  bie  @ad)e  vor  ben  9Hd)ter.  Sr 
n?irft  feinc  ^erlen  »or  bte  ©due.  @r  tritt  vor  ben  Mip  (breach).  @v  fprad)  »or  jid; 
I)in  He  talked  to  himself.  For  ©djrttt  »or  @d)ritt  see  fur,  b  in  230. 

jUnfdnMt  with  the  dat.  or  ace.  according  as  rest  or  movement  toward  is 
expressed,  corresponding  in  meaning  to  English  between  :  *3ie  fajj  jttifd)cn 
mtr  uub  t()rcm  ®ruber.  Gr  ijl  j»»tfd)cn  20  big  30  3af)ren  att.  @te  fefctc  jid)  jwtfd)en 
mid)  unb  ifyreu  ®ritbcr.  When  it  is  a  question  of  movement  between  objects  on 
either  side,  jttnfcfyen  with  the  dat.  is  used,  often  in  connection  with  some  adverb 
as  Ijtn,  burd),  £c. :  3hrifd;en  ben  Jtird)enjlu^ten  ^tn  fd)tttten  fte  »teber  auf  ben 

E  e 


418  CONJUNCTIONS  231.  II. 


©rdbern  (Heer's  Der  Konig  der  Bernina,  III).  The  dative  is  also  used  with 
verbs  of  motion  where  the  idea  of  position  is  prominent:  Unb  fcfyneU  tinb 
madjtfog  fdUt  bcr  .fontg  beg  ©ebirgeS  (i.e.  ber  Slbler)  jimfdjen  bem  SBcg  unb  bent 
2Batb  auf  bie  grime  2ftatte  (ib.,  II).  See  also  1.4,  last  German  sentence. 

Note  I.  Also  unter  can  be  used  of  two  instead  of  jtoifdjett,  if  the  noun  is  found  in 
the  plural  in  a  collective  sense  including  both  parties,  but  never  if  two  nouns  are  taken 
separately :  (5g  entftanb  ein  ©treit  ghnfcfjen  bem  5Ranne  unb  ber  5rau,  or  jttifcfyen 
betben  ©jjeleuten,  or  unter  ben  (Sfjeleuten. 

Note  2,  3toifdjen  does  not  mean  exclusively  between  two  objects,  but  may  also  refer 
to  more  than  two.  In  this  case,  it  differs  from  untet  in  that  the  latter  indicates 
a  confused  mingling,  a  mass,  while  the  former  infers  that  the  different  objects  in  one 
group  are  homogeneous,  and  hence  the  introduction  of  a  foreign  object  into  their 
midst  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of  a  twofold  division  :  (Sin  <Sdjft>arnt  ©pafcen  flob  ntit 
etboftent,  enbtofen  ©ejhntfcfjet  au$einanber,  tote  <te  jtoifdjen  fte  fuljt  (Use  Frapan's 
Mamsell  Biene).  @ein  93U(J  fireifte  ben  jjungen  ©eleljtten,  bet  fo  sergnugt  unb  certrau? 
lid)  jnnfdjen  bet  efitfatnen  (SdjneiberfatmUe  fa^.  Also  as  in  English  to  express  the 
idea  of  individual  relations  between  more  than  two :  SSerfeljr  Jfoifdjen  SRationen. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

DEFINITION  AND  CLASSIFICATION. 

232.  i.  A  conjunction  is  a  particle  used  to  connect  sentences  or 
the  elements  of  a  sentence.  Conjunctions  are  divided,  as  in  English, 
into  co-ordinate  and  subordinate. 

2.  Classification,  however,  as  to  their  influence  upon  word-order 
in  the  sentence  is  a  better  method  of  grouping  conjunctions  for 
practical  reasons.  The  particular  word-order  required  by  certain 
classes  of  conjunctions  is  in  part  explained  by  their  origin  and 
development.  Originally  a  few  conjunctions  as  cmper  and  ofjne 
except  were  prepositions,  but  they  were  for  the  most  part  adverbs 
or  of  adverbial  nature.  Certain  adverbs  not  only  performed  their 
function  of  adverb  within  their  own  sentence,  but  also  served  to 
connect  in  thought  the  proposition  in  which  they  stood  with  the 
preceding  or  following.  Thus  many  conjunctions  still  show  traces 
of  their  adverbial  nature  in  that  like  adverbs  they  have  great 
freedom  of  position  as  is  illustrated  in  234,  and  also  cause  inverted 
word-order  when  they  introduce  the  sentence :  SBir  iraren  efcen  oom 
Stfcfye  cwfgeftanfcen,  &a  trat  ec  in  ba0  Sintmer  We  had  just  arisen  from 
the  table  when  he  entered  the  room.  While  the  co-ordinate 
conjunctions  thus  retained  the  free  position  and  influence  upon 
word-order  which  they  possessed  as  adverbs,  the  subordinate  con- 
junctions developed  in  course  of  time  quite  differently,  and  at 
present  can  only  occupy  the  first  place  in  the  dependent  clause 
and  require  the  verb  to  stand  at  the  end  of  the  clause :  3d)  ntuj? 
get)en,  wit  id)  @ile  Ijjafce.  In  contradistinction  to  these  adverbial 
conjunctions  with  their  different  manner  of  influencing  word-order 
are  the  pure  co-ordinate  connectives  which  influence  in  no  way 
word-order,  such  as  itnb  and,  ober  or,  after  but,  &c. 


233.  A.        PURE  CO-ORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS       419 

Thus  the  position  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  a  subordinate  clause 
introduced  by  a  subordinate  conjunction  is  imperative,  while  on 
the  other  hand  co-ordinate  conjunctions  with  regard  to  their 
influence  upon  the  word-order  are  divided  into  three  classes : 
pure  co-ordinates,  adverbial  co-ordinates,  and  those  conjunctions 
which  admit  of  a  double  construction,  either  influencing  like 
adverbs  the  word-order,  or  leaving  it  undisturbed  after  the  manner 
of  pure  co-ordinates. 

PURE  CO-ORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

233.  The  conjunctions  which  connect  sentences  or  parts  of 
sentences  of  like  rank,  and  do  not  disturb  the  word-order,  are : 

A.  The  pure  conjunctions  aber  but,  however,  atfein  but,  benn  for,  ja  yes 
indeed,  natntid)  as,  since,  ober  or,  fonbern  but,  unb  and,  entweber  —  ober  either 

—  or  (see  e)  ;   and  the  forms  now  frequently  used  as  co-ordinate  connec- 
tives :  une,  fourie,  ebcnfo  une,  ebcnfo,  Une  aud)  (all  in  a  general  way  =  unb,  with 
which  they  often  alternate  in  the  same  sentence)  and,  and  also,  and  likewise, 
as  well  as,  fou>cl)l  —  al3  (aud)),  or  foroof)l  —  une  (and))  both  —  and,  ebenfo  —  tone 
both  —  and,  une  —  fo  both  —  and,  md)t  fou>ol)l  —  a(3  (or  a(3  uie(mef)r)  not  so  much 

—  as,  and  the  adverbial  conjunctions  bejief)ung3tt>eife  (be$tt>.),  bejiefyentlid),  refpefti'ce 
(refp.)  or  as  the  case  may  be,  the  one  so,  the  other  so,  aujjer  (225.  2),  anftatt 
(225. 2),  autfgencmmen  except,  all  of  which  differ  from  the  preceding  pure 
conjunctions  in  that  they  do  not  usually  connect  independent  sentences,  each 
containing  a  verb,  but  only  parts  of  the  sentence  of  like  rank,  and  hence 
cannot  influence  the  word-order.     Of  these  une  and  [owe  are  in  fact  sub- 
ordinate conjunctions :  see  f,  below.     Also  al(5  and  une  in  the  combination 
fott>ot)t  —  al<3  (or  une)  are  subordinate  conjunctions,  but  to-day  they  usually 
connect  only  parts  of  sentences.     2lu£cr  sometimes  connects  two  complete 
propositions  without  influencing  the  word-order  ;  see  example  below.     We 
more  commonly  find  here  aufjer  tt>enn  or  aujjer  bafj,  with  transposed  word-order, 
for  such  a  clause  is  really  subordinate. 

Exs. :  3d)  gefye  nid)t  cuts,  benn  id)  bin  franf  I  do  not  go  out  of  the  house, 
for  I  am  sick.  35a(3  23Ub  ber  Soten  un'd)  uid)t  aus  meincr  @eele,  ja  e<5  ftefyt  nod) 
petite  »or  tnir.  SJJlcin  93ruber  l)at  nod)  eine  9Bcrf)inberung,  ndmlid)  fein  3Rujtf(el)rer 
nn'rb  fyeute  fommen.  @nt»eber  er  nnrb  ben  ettten  Ijaffen  unb  ben  anbcvn  tieben,  ober  ?r 
toivb  etnent  anfjangen  unb  ben  anbern  »evad)ten.  3»ifd)cn  SSojen,  ba<3  j^et3  eine  ^n?eifet; 
I>aft  beutfd)e  Stabt  ttiar,  unb  Orient  licgt  bag  ©ebiet,  i»o  beutfdje  unb  itattenifdje 
<2prad)e  njte  9Jationa(itat  ftd)  abgren^en  unb  mifd)en.  Slnf  ben  fublidjen  ^albinfetn 
[owie  in  ©ubjimnfmd)  blut)t  bie  3ud)t  ber  (ffcl  unb  SDJauttievc.  3m  aKgemeinen 
tft  ba3  JIHma  ((S{)inag)  ein  binncnlanbtfd)e<5,  burd)  bic  c^(id)e  Cage  be3  8anbe3  jlatt 
beeinflu^t :  fyetfte  @ommer  unb  falte  ffiinter,  ebenfo  in  ben  niJrblidjlien  une  in  ben  \vhi 
Itd))len  ©egenben  bed  9Jetd)e3.  ©owof)!  fein  93atcr  a(3  aud)  feine  SDJutter  famen. 
Jjjiet  »t>ar  ed  ^tcmltd)  rufn'g  fuuiofyl  bet  ^age  loie  bet  9Jad)t  (Rodenberg).  S)aburd^ 
(i.e.  its  position)  ift  2JJund)en  lute  bev  ^^uVtjt^  fur  bie  (Sr^eugung  be3  Dlationatj 
getvdnfs  fo  ber  gvo§e  ©etreibemarft  ®a^ern<J  geivorben.  9tid)t  fou'o()l  bie  fd)ted)te 
tfinanpcTOattung  a(3  vieducfjr  bie  ja()(veid)cn  Jlrtege  l)aben  ba3  Sanb  ntit  biefer 
@d)ulbcn(aft  befdjnjert.  S)ie  2lrti((erie  unb  JEa»at(erie  ntup  ntit  il)rcn  ^anonen  bejju. 
(bejte^unggwctfe)  ^fcrben  gut  umjugefjcn  tciifen  The  artillery  and  cavalry  must 
know  how  to  handle  well  their  cannons  or  horses  as  the  case  may  be.  SDer 
5ktev  rcfp.  (rcfpeftivc)  93ormunb  I)at  bafur  ju  iovgen  The  father  or  guardian,  as 
the  case  may  be,  must  provide  for  this.  3d)  f)abe  fur  frrifc  nub  3)Jaried)en  eine 
@d)ad)tc(  ©clbaten  be^v.  eine  ^uv>pe  mttgebvadit  I  brought  Fritz  and  Marie  each 
a  present,  the  one  a  box  of  toy  soldiers,  the  other  a  doll.  9l(le  freuen  jtd), 
autfgenommen  bit.  3$  vufc  a((e,  au^genommen  bid),  ©attj  bejlimmt  loerbe  id)  fommen, 

E  e  2 


420  CONJUNCTIONS  233.  A. 

aufj ft  id)  todre  tot  (Felix  Schwarzenburg).     For  another  example  of  the  use  of 
aufjer  to  connect  two  propositions,  see  225.2.  a. 

a.  Sometimes  unb  is  omitted  and  replaced  by  ;,  when  two  names  are  to 
be  associated  with  one  work  or  undertaking,  either  as  co-workers  or  to  repre- 
sent one  as  the  original  worker  and  the  other  as  the  one  who  has  carried  it 
on  after  the  author's  death  :  fritifd)e  9lu3gabe  »en  Sadjmantu-iKuncfet,  bet  S>enfmal& 
eutamrf  »on  @d)mtfc=©eiger,  &c. 

b.  The  three  words  aber,  attetn,  fonbern  differ  from  each  other  in  meaning. 
(Sonbern  is  only  used  after  a  negative,  and  introduces  a  contradictory  state- 
ment, while  aber,  which  is  used  after  either  an  affirmative  or  negative  pro- 
position, concedes  the   statement  of  the  first  proposition,  and  introduces 
a  limitation  or  a  contrast :  (§t  iji  nid)t  reid),  fonbern  arm  He  is  not  rich,  but 
poor.    (Sr  u>ar  $»ar  nid)t  franf,  aber  bod)  nid)t  baju  aufgelegt  He  was  to  be  sure 
not  sick,  but  still  he  did  not  feel  like  it.    (Sr  ifl  arm,  aber  efyrltd)  He  is  poor, 
but  honest.     Slber  and  af(ein  have  the  same  general  meaning,  but  the  latter 
is  much  less  used,  hence  more  forcible  in  making  a  contrasting  statement : 
3d)  ttar  bei  il)m,  aflein  id)  traf  tfyn  nid)t  an  I  was  at  his  house,  but  did  not  find 
him  at  home.      Slber  has  also  a  broader  meaning  than  attein;    the   latter 
always  introduces  some  limitation  to  the  preceding  proposition,  while  the 
former  may  also  introduce  something  different  from  the  preceding  proposition 
without  limiting  it :   (Sr  tear  em  gvofjet  gelbfyerr,  aKein  er  befafj  ntd)t  bie  ©abe 
umfafjenber  33ered)mmg  He  was  a  great  general,  but  yet  he  did  not  possess  the 
gift  of  comprehensive  calculation.     Jllein  aber  mem  It  is  small,  but  it  is  mine. 
Slbel  toar  etn  §trt,  Jtatn  aber  ein  Slcfermann  Abel  was  a  shepherd,  Cain  was  a 
husbandman.     Slber  is  also  often  (especially  in  the  Bible)  used  without  ex- 
pressing any  especial  emphasis  or  contrast,  merely  to  take  up  in  a  new 
sentence  the  thread  of  the  story  :  2)er  Teuffel  aber  farad)  jujm  (tl)m)— Luke  iv.  3. 

c.  9ldmttd)  does  not  always  introduce  the  proposition,  but  stands  even 
more  frequently  after  the  verb,  and  aber  has  a  still  greater  freedom  of  position, 
as  it  may  be  introduced  at  almost  any  point  without  influencing  the  word- 
order  :  3d)  fonnte  il)n  ntd)t  fyred)en,  er  irar  ndmlid)  franf  I  could  not  see  him  as 
he  was  sick.     3d)  fyofte  e$  ;  id)  fanb  mid)  aber  getdufd)t  I  had  hope,  but  I  found 
myself  disappointed. 

d.  The  proposition  following  unb  has  usually  normal  order,  whether  the 
preceding  one  has  inverted  or  normal  order.     Sometimes,  however,  we  find 
the  question  order  after  unb  as  a  survival  of  an  older  construction,  which 
allowed  a  verb  to  introduce  a  proposition  if  it  was  to  be  emphasized,  lay 
nearer  in  thought,  or  if  it  came  to  the  front  by  the  removal  of  the  subject 
towards  the  end  of  the  proposition  for  the  sake  of  emphasis.     With  emphasis 
upon  the  verb  :  3I)r  -§err  tji  cor  bret  3af)ren  tveg,  unb  l)6rt  unb  fiel)t  man  ntd)t3  von 
if)m  (Goethe's  Stella,  i,  i).     3ttifd)en  bcm  ^(eeblatt  (trio)  funfelte  e3  rot  tiom 
lUbad)er  SBoria^rigen  au3  bet  5fofd)e  unb  bent  @Iafe  unb  buftete  e3  fafta,  (Raabe's 
Pechlin,  II,  chap.  x).     With  emphasis  upon  subject :    3d)  fcabe  @d)iffbrud) 
gelitten  auf  ber  ungeftumen  @ee  biefer  SBett,  bte  ^offnungcn  meinetf  2eben$  i)ab'  id) 
mufjen  fel)en  in  ben  ©runb  jinfen,  unb  Hieb  mir  ntd)t^  ubrig  ats  bte  marternbe 
Srtnneritng  tt)ve^  SSerhtfte^  (Schiller's  Rauber,  3,  2).     For  fuller  explanation  see 
251.  II.  B.^.     Grammarians  often  condemn  this  construction,  although  it  is 
supported  by  the  usage  of  the  best  authors,  and  also  by  historical  con- 
siderations. 

<?.  After  the  first  member  of  the  correlative  expression  enttoeber  —  obcr  we 
also  find  quite  frequently  the  inverted  word-order  (see  236)  :  (Snttoeber  toerben 
@ie  balb  emen  ffirtef  »on  mir  erfyalten,  ober  id)  nxrbe  jemauben  ju  3t)nen  fd)tcfen. 

/.  The  conjunctions  lute,  fcrtne,  now  used  so  frequently  to  connect,  like  unb, 
two  parts  of  a  sentence  of  like  rank,  are  in  fact  subordinate  conjunctions, 
as  appears  occasionally  when  they  stand  in  a  clause  containing  a  verb,  in 
which  case,  as  after  genuine  subordinate  conjunctions,  the  verb  stands  at 
the  end  of  the  clause :  gut  geljeUtgt  gait  bte  ^Serfon  besJ  Jtontgtf,  Jtne  (=  unb)  tl)m  aud) 


233.  c.a.     PURE  CO-ORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS       421 


S?ed)te  bemjofynten.  The  verb  may  be  understood,  in  which  case  the 
contracted  phrase  is  still  treated  as  a  subordinate  clause,  and  a  following 
principal  proposition  has  inverted  order  :  <Sou>ie  bte  @d)tt>eij  [etnmal  jum 
beutfdjen  9Jcid)e  gefycrte]  gefjorten  and)  bie  9Hcber(anbe  junt  beulfd)cn  9tfeid)e.  Gene- 
rally, however,  these  words  do  not  connect  propositions  each  containing 
a  verb  expressed  or  understood,  but  connect  only  parts  of  a  sentence,  and  as 
they,  like  unb,  do  not  influence  the  word-order  they  are  classed  here. 

g.  Often  several  conjunctions  are  used  together  with  the  combined  force 
of  them  all  in  a  way  that  is  difficult  to  render  exactly  into  English.  Espe- 
cially is  this  true  of  cber  aber,  or  obcr  abcr  vuclmeljr  or  on  the  other  hand,  making 
more  emphatic  the  second  member  of  the  disjunctive  phrase  :  £)er  Slngerebete 
n>u$te  cine  <2tunbe  tang  md)t,  ob  biefe  ttwnberlidjen,  tt>enn  aud)  fefyr  I)of(td)  «orgcs 
brad)tcn  SScrte  unrftid)  eine  Slrttgfeit  ober  abcr  vnelmel)r  bie  fpottifd)e  (linleitung  ju 
cinev  unjcitgemdjjen  £erau<3forbcrung  fctn  follten  (Hopfen). 

B.  A  number  of  other   conjunctions  apparently  like   pure    connectives 
introduce  a  proposition  or  connect  parts  of  a  sentence  without  disturbing  the 
word-order  : 

a.  When  adverbial  conjunctions  connect  different  subjects  of  one  and  the 
same  verb  or  different  parts  of  the  sentence  of  like  rank  they  do  not  disturb 
the  word-order,  but  when  there  is  more  than  one  verb,  and  they  thus  connect 
different  propositions,  they  have  the  full  force  of  adverbial  conjunctions  : 
SBeber  cr  nod)  id)  u?ar  ba  Neither  he  nor  I  were  there,  but  2)er  9leibifd)e  ijl  u?ebcr 
frof),  nod)  gomit  er  anbern  eine  greiibe.    ScilS  fetn  jjtctjj,  tcils  [cine  ©cfd)tcflid)fcit, 
tetls  fetn  guteS  93etragen  gcttnnncn  ifym  5ld)tung  unb  Siebe,  but  2)ie  Jt  elten  untertt>arfm 
fid)  tciltf  ben  (Sroberern,  teils  erfauften  fie  ben  SJeftjj  ifjreg  8anbe<3  bnrd)  gro^e  Cpfer. 

b.  Often  even  when  there  are  two  distinct  propositions  with  different  verbs, 
the  adverbial  conjunctions  may  introduce  a  proposition  or  follow  the  subject 
without  causing  inversion,  if  it  is  the  subjects  that  are  emphasized  or  con- 
trasted, for  here  as  elsewhere  the  emphatic  word  takes  the  first  place  in  the 
proposition  :    ©er  t)erotfd)e  nnb  (bcr)  bramattfdje  2)id)tcv  tnad)cn  bte  Srregung  ber 
i!etbenfd)aften  \\\  tfjrem  ttornefymften  (S'nbjttccfe  ....  !Der  ftabuttft  f)ingegen  (or  Jptngcgen 
ber  Safculift)  I)at  mit  unfern  2ctbenfd)aften  md)t<3  \\\  tun,  fonbern  allcin  mit  unferer 
Grfenntnt^.     @r  btdigte  bcin  SScrfafyren  ntd)t  ;  aud)  bcin  58ater  btlltgte  cS  nid)t  He 
did  not  approve  of  your  proceeding;  also  your  father  did  not  approve  of  it, 
but  when  the  emphasis  rests  upon  the  predicate  inversion  takes  place  :  (tr 
btlltgte  bein  33erfaf)rcn  nid)t,  and)  ftellte  er  bid)  ttarnen  He  did  not  approve  of  your 
proceeding,  also  he  desired  to  warn  you.     Selbjt  even  always  lays  the  emphasis 
upon  the  subject  or  a  modifier  of  the  subject  when  it  precedes  the  verb,  and 
hence  in    spite  of  its  adverbial  nature  never  causes  inversion  :    <£elbft   bie 
^pan^e  itxnbet   fid)    jum  2td)te.      Selbft  bte  (Srmafjnung  beg  l&atertS,  or  £te  @r= 
mafynung  felbft  be3  SBatere,  or  Sie  (Srmaijnung  be3  ^ater<s'felb|l  frud)tetc  ntd)tS. 

C.  The  following  explanatory  or  intensifying  conjunctions  (see  a,  below) 
do  not  influence  the  word-order  of  the  proposition  :  alS,  or  more  commonly 
tone  as,  such  as,  namcntltd)  or  alfo  particularly,  ndmltd)  namely,  to  wit,  felbfl 
even,  unb  jtoar  indeed,  even,  especially,  and  that,  that  is  to  say,  jitnt  93etfptet 
(\.  %$.)for  example,  bad  I)etpt  (b.  ().)  or  ba<J  ift  (b.  i.)  that  is,  gefdjwetge  (first  pers. 
sing.  pres.  tense,  the  subject  id)  being  understood)  benn  to  say  nothing  about. 
Exs.  9ln<3  ber  ©diwetj  werbcn  einjetnc  *l>vobufte  in  bebeutcnbev  9Kenge  aiti<gefu()vt,  une 
S5ie(),  Jtdfc  it(ttb)  f(o)  iv(ettet).     itefc  Jtranfljeit  t)at  verfd)tebene  Urfad)en,  a((5  ^dlte 
9]dffe,  Sugtuft.      2>er  Jlurfucf  tegt  anbern   a>cgeln,   iiamentlid)  Ketncren,  felbfl  bem 
Saunfcnig,  fcin  (Si  ins  sJlefl.     (Sine  gropartig  entuncfelte  Jyabrifation  in  Seberwaren 
(olfo  (2d)u()cn,  Jpanbfd)tt()cn  ufu\)  liefert  fiir  Sranfreid)  einen  @en?innuberfd)u^,  ber 
ben  SSevt  bcr  (Sinfu^r  uberfleigt.    2)te  5DJcbi^in  itirftc  fanut  linbernb,  gefdjwetge  benn 
befriettgenb.    !Taei  t)dlt  cin  jiingcrer  SDfann  ntd)t  an^,  gcfd^weige  etn  alter. 

a.  These  conjunctions  belong  here  only  when  they  connect  parts  of  sen- 
tences not  containing  a  verb,  and  add  to  a  preceding  word  an  appositional, 
explanatory,  or  intensifying  word  or  phrase.  These  phrases  as  appositional 


422  CONJUNCTIONS  233.  c.  a. 

phrases  in  general  are  equal  to  a  subordinate  clause,  but  the  conjunctions 
themselves  resemble  in  their  use  more  the  pure  connectives,  as  they  do  not 
affect  the  word-order. 

b.  Sometimes  alg  is  followed  by  the  particularizing  adv.  ba  and  also  by  a 
verb,  all  three  together  containing  the  meaning  such  as :  „  SSiftiialten  ?  "  fwgte 
SBaflty  (name)  »erblufft.  „  Stun  ja,  efjbare  ©egenftdnbe,"  erfldrte  @ufe  (name)  lament), 
„  alg  ba  ftnb :  Jtaffee,  SKe$,  SReig,  @*6$e,  " 


ADVERBIAL  CO-ORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

234.  Adverbial  conjunctions  (except  those  enumerated  in  236), 
like  true  adverbs,  generally  cause  inversion  when  they  introduce  the 
proposition,  and  have  also  in  large  part  the  freedom  of  position  of 
adverbs.    Hence  these  conjunctions  can  occupy  almost  any  position 
in  the  proposition  except  the  place  between  the  subject  and  the 
verb :  @r  ift  reid),  bafyer  traucfyt  er  (,  or  er.  fcraudjt  batyer)  fotcfye  Qtuggafcen 
ntcfyt  $u  fd)euen.     If  some  other  modifier  of  the  verb  is  for  emphasis 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  proposition  in  which  the  conjunction 
stands,  the  conjunction  must  stand  in  some  position  after  the  verb 
and  subject :  2>iefeit  SKenfcfyen,  ber  id?  in  2Birflid)feit  bin,  fennjt  bu  irebcr, 
nod?  Itefcft  bit  ityn  (R.  Huch's  Vita  somnium  breve,  I,  p.  8). 

235.  The  following  are  the  principal  adverbial  conjunctions,  which  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes  : 

A.  Copulative : 

a.  Connecting  propositions  of  equal  value :  aud),  also,  aitf erbem'  besides, 
jubem'  moreover,  itberbieg'  furthermore,  beggletdfen  likewise,  roeber —  nod)  neither 
—  nor :  dt  fyat  eine  reidje  grau ;  aufj erbem  tyat  er  felbfl  em  grofjeg  SSermogen. 

Note.  The  conjunction  audj  does  not  only  correspond  to  English  also,  but  has 
developed  quite  a  rich  store  of  adverbial  and  conjunctional  meanings,  the  more 
idiomatic  of  which  are  here  given : — (1)  It  often  has  the  force  of  too,  and  together 
with  a  negative  the  force  of  nor :  id)  audj  I  too,  id)  aud)  Utdjt  nor  I.  (2)  Often  =  £W« : 
Sludj  ber  ©ebulbigfie  fann  bag  nidjt  augfjalten.  (3)  It  adds  generalizing  force  to 
pronouns  and  adverbs :  SBer  er  aitd)  fet  whoever  he  may  be,  tto  eg  aud)  fet  wheresoever 
it  may  be.  (4)  It  introduces  or  stands  within  a  proposition  to  indicate  that  the 
statement  follows  or  should  follow  as  a  natural  result  of  the  one  immediately  preceding : 
S)ie  Sftadjridjt  ifl  fettfant,  aitd)  ctfaitbt  memanb  baran  The  report  is  very  strange,  and 
indeed  no  one  believes  it  3d)  nrift  bit  »er$ei(jen,  nur.  tttll^t  bu  eg  Olid)  nidjt  icteber 
tlin  I  will  forgive  you  this  time,  but  mind  you  do  not  do  it  again.  (5)  It  is  often 
used  in  one  proposition  to  confirm  a  preceding  one:  (A)  (§t  jieljt  fefjt  Qutmuttg  aug. 
(B)  £)ag  ifl  er  aud)  (A)  He  looks  very  good-natured.  (B)  And  so  he  is.  —  (A)  (ft 
ift  gar  md)t  bumm.  (B)  <Dag  tjabe  id)  aud)  nidjt  gefagt,  nur  ba§  er  fyodjfl  nadjloffig  ifl 
(A)  He  is  not  at  all  stupid.  (B)  I  did  not  at  all  mean  to  say  that  he  is,  only  that  he 
is  very  careless.  (6)  It  stands  after  the  verb  in  a  proposition  giving  the  reason  for  a 
preceding  proposition  :  2>iefer  9Hng  ifl  fefyr  fdjort.  (5t  foflet  Olid)  Otet  This  ring  is  very 
beautiful.  It  ought  to  be,  it  cost  a  good  round  sum.  Hence  it  is  often  used  in  reproaches, 
as  the  reproach  gives  the  reason  for  the  discontent  felt :  2?u  faitnfl  (aber)  aild)  rtie  ben 
SRunb  ijalten  It's  too  provoking,  you  never  can  keep  your  mouth  shut.  (7)  It  is  often 
used  in  questions  to  indicate  doubt  as  to  whether  the  actual  reality  is  in  harmony 
or  will  harmonize  with  somebody's  conception  of  it :  Jgafl  bu  audj  tt)0{)l  bebadjt,  h?ag  bu 
tntr  rdtfl?  Are  you  sure  you  have  considered  well  what  you  advise  me?  SBivfl  bu  eg 
Olid)  tun  ?  Will  you  be  sure  to  do  it  ?  Such  a  doubt  can  also  take  the  form  of  a 
subordinate  clause  introduced  by  h>enn,  such  as  is  used  in  wishes  :  2Benn  et  nur  audj  ^u 
Jpaufe  ifl !  I  hope  he  is  at  home,  but  I  fear  he  is  not.  (8)  It  is  used  ironically  : 
tjl  eg  aud)  gerabe  3eit  ba§u !  This  is  a  pretty  time  for  such  things ! 


236.*.  ADVERBIAL  CO-ORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  423 

b.  The  second   proposition  more  emphatic  or  intensive  than  the  first : 
namentlicfy  particularly,  befonberS  especially. 

c.  Ordinal  conjunctions  :  erjl  first,  erflcnS  or  erjHtcf)  in  the  first  place,  jtoettenS 
secondly,  &c.,  fobann'  in  the  next  place,   bann  then,   ferner  farther,  baraitf 
thereupon,  julefct'  at  last,  enbltd;  finally,  balb —  batb  now — now:  ©rjl  befmn'S, 
bann  beginn'tf. 

The  ordinal  conjunctions  formed  from  numerals,  as  etjien*  or  etfttid;, 
jtoeiten$,  &c.,  are  sometimes  followed  by  a  pause,  and  in  print  are  then  cut 
off  by  a  comma,  in  which  case  they  do  not  cause  inversion :  (SrjHidj,  SiefuS 
lofle  ntit  fcfyarfem  ©djnitte  bte  SBerbtnbung  bet  (Stfyif  mit  bent  dufieten  JlultuS  unb 
ben  tedjntfdvreltgtefen  libungen  . .  .  3»eiteng,  er  gefjt  uberaU  in  ben  ftttltdten  Swgen 
auf  bte  Sffiurjel,  b.  fy.  anf  bte  ©eftnnung  juturf  (Harnack's  Das  Wesen  des 
ChristentuniSy  vierte  Vorlesung). 

d.  Partitive  conjunctions :  tette  —  tetla  partly  —  partly,  etneSteifo  —  onbetnteilg, 
oretnerfetts —  anber(et)feit<5  on  the  one  hand  —  on  the  other  hand:  Sieifen  ifl 
tmntet  nujjltd; ;   einerfeits  bereicfyert  ntan  baburd)  feme  JJenntntjfe,  anbetfeits  flarft  c3 
ben  Jtorper  unb  erljettert  bag  ®emut. 

B.  Adversative  :  (restricting  or  limiting  the  contents  of  the  previous  pro- 
position) l)tnge'gen,  bafjtnge'gen,  and  bage'gen  on  the  contrary,  iibngenS  more- 
over, gteic^wcl^t  or  benncd)  yet,  however,  notwithstanding,  nevertheless,  trcfcbem' 
in  spite  of  that,  beffenwt'geacfytet  notwithstanding,  ntc^t^be|1ott)e'ntger  nevertheless  ; 
(the  second  sentence  excluding  the  contents  of  the  first)  fonjt,  anbernfall$ 
otherwise,  tticlmefyr'  but  rather.    Exs. :  (Sdfar  n?urbe  gewarnt,  tro|bem  gtng  et  in 
bte  Strung  be3  <£enat3.    Slfrifa  ifl  ntc^t  uberaH  mit  SSiiflen  bebedt,  »ietme^c  geigt 
t3  in  »te(cn  ©egenben  etne  auf  erorbentlt<f>e  5t«^)tbarfett. 

C.  Illative :  barum'  for  that  reason,  beefyalb  or  beStoegen  (and  earlier  in  the 
period  berfyalb,  berfjalben  [Romans  xvi.  19],  berofyalben,  bcrn?egen,  bcrowegen)  on  that 
account,  bann  then,   nun  now,   consequently,  batjer'   hence,  fo  so,  and  the 
conjunctions  introducing  an  inference  or  conclusion,  with  the  general  meaning 
of  therefore,  consequently  such  as  mitfytn',  fonttt',  fctgltd),  bem'na^,  fona^' :  3$ 
toat  franf,  fdgUcf>  fonnte  t<^  nic^t  [etbfl  !ommen. 


CO-ORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  WITH  A  DOUBLE  CONSTRUCTION. 

236.  The  following  adverbial  conjunctions  introduce  a  propo- 
sition like  pure  co-ordinates  without  influencing  the  word-order, 
or,  more  commonly,  may  influence  the  word-order  like  adverbial 
conjunctions,  and  also  like  adverbs  either  introduce  the  proposition 
or  follow  the  verb  :  alfo  therefore ;  the  adversatives  nut  or  6Iop  only, 
int  ©egenteil  on  the  contrary,  bod),  jebocfy,  inbeffm  however,  yet,  entiuebet 
either ;  fogar  even ;  ttoflcnbS  added  to  this,  to  crown  all  (introducing  a 
climax) :  2)er  ifl  cjtofj  unb  fktf ,  trie  nur  einet  [fin  fofl,  Hop  ei  fyat  tvaS  5'dnere3 
unb  ifl  nid^t  fo'n  Unttct,  njte  feiu  ®rof  t»ater  ©rofcfcl?mieb  (H.  Hoffmann's 
Wider  den  Kurfiirsten,  chap,  i);  or  2)er  ifl  groj?  unb  ftarf,  mie  nut  einet 
fetn  foK,  btojj  (or  nut)  ^at  ct,  &c. ;  or  et  ^at  blof)  (or  nur),  £c.  (St  ifl 
teid),  bod)  id;  niodjte  nirt;t  mit  ttym  taufc^cn ;  or  bod)  mocf)te  id;  nid)t,  or  id) 
inod;te  bod;  nid;t  mit  ifmi  taufdjen. 

a.  The  conjunction  nur  (or  blcjj)  also  quite  commonly  takes  the  form  nut 
Jbaf  (or  blo£  bap),  and  then  of  course  requires  the  verb  to  stand  at  the  end  of 
the  clause :  Unb  bed;  u>etfj  man  von  cben  btefem  furd;tfamen  J?naben  etlic^e  <£d)clmen; 
flretc^e  ju  bertd}ten,  bie  §elbentatcn  itbcrrafdjcnb  a^nltc^  fa^en  :  nur  bafj  etnc  J^etbentat 
©inn  fyaben  fed,  unb  3^te  <Streid;e  fatten  fetnen  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kur- 
Jiirsten,  chap.  x). 


424  CONJUNCTIONS  236.6. 

b.  Aside  from  the  question  of  the  influence  upon  the  word-order  there  is  in 
most  cases  little  difference  in  the  use  of  the  adversative  co-ordinate  conjunctions 
abcr  and  bod).     Of  these  bod)  has  the  widest  use,  as  it  has  more  adverbial 
nature,  and  in  its  capacity  (of  adverb  can  be  employed  when  aber  is  not 
used,  as  for  instance  to  put  a  principal  proposition  in  contrast  to  a  sub- 
ordinate clause :  aBtettoljl  td)  U)n  oft  geiwrnt  fyabf,  ijl  er  bod)  (or  bennod)  or  trofcbem, 
but  not  aber)  urieber  Jjtngegangen. 

c.  3)od)  follows,  or  more  commonly  precedes,  the  verb,  but  when  it  intro- 
duces a  thought  which  seemingly  stands  in  conflict  with  the  preceding,  it 
must  follow  it:  (A)  2Kem  SSatec  iji  fd)iw  ftanf.    (B)  (5r  irat  bod?  geftern  nod? 
ganj  munter. 

SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

237.  i.  Order  of  Words.  The  subordinate  conjunctions  (see 
238  for  list),  including  the  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  and 
relative  and  interrogative  adverbs,  now  require  the  verb  to  stand  at 
the  end  of  the  subordinate  clause  :  (£r  fann  md)t  gut  fd)en,  roett  er  alt 
ift.  @8  lebte  eimnal  ein  ^6nig,  ber  fein  Jlinb  tyatte  (see  E,  below). 

The  following  exceptions  occur : 

A.  There  are  six  common  cases  where  subordinate  clauses  are  not 
introduced  by  subordinate  conjunctions,  and  consequently  do  not  have  the 
word-order  of  the  subordinate  clause. 

a.  In   substantive  clauses  bafj  may  be  dropped,  especially  in  colloquial 
language,  in  which  case  the  word-order  is  normal,  or,  if  some  other  word 
than  the  subject  introduces  the  subordinate  clause,  inverted'.  3d)  glaube,  bajj 
<Ste  bie  SBafjrfyett  fpted)en,  or  3d)  glaube,  <Ste  fpved)cn  bie  Safyrfyeit.    (5s  fd)eint,  baf 
c3  tfynett  ntd)t  Sreube  ntad)t,  or  @g  fd)etnt,  ftreube  ntad)t'$  tfjnen  ntd)t. 

There  is  a  decided  tendency  to  drop  the  conjunctions  baft  and  line  after  they 
have  been  used  once  and  to  return  to  the  normal  word-order :  S)ct  Slpotfjefcr 
unterrtd)tete  gran  (Rat  Jlirflen,  baf  ctn  alter  fettencr  SBetn  in  fo  ftaubtgcn  unb  fdjtnu 
nteligen  glafd)en  auf  ben  £tfd)  fomtnen  ntuffe ;  ba^  fei  fin:  ben  tenner  ba3  geinfle 
(H.  Bohlau's  Ratsmadelgeschichten,  p.  14). 

b.  In  conditional,  concessive,  and  temporal  clauses  toenn  if,  though,  when, 
whenever,  may  be  dropped,  in  which  case  the  word-order  is  that  of  a  ques- 
tion :  2£enn  er  fomtnt,  fo  felje  id)  tf)n,  or  Jlommt  er,  fo  fel)e  id)  tfyn  If  he  comes,  I 
shall  see  him.     The  dropping  of  toenn  is  not  so  rare  and  poetic  as  is  dropping 
7/"in  English,  as  in  Had  I  the  wings  of  a  dove.     This  dropping  of  the  tt»enu 
is,  however,  much  less  frequent  now  in  conversational  style  than  in  earlier 
periods,  as  can  be  seen  by  comparing  any  recent  novel  with  one  from  the 
classical  period. 

Note  i.  If  there  are  two  or  more  subordinate  clauses  connected  by  unb  orober,  the 
first  of  which  is  introduced  by  iwenn,  or  if  ftenn  is  dropped  and  the  question-order 
takes  place,  the  clauses  after  the  first  one,  instead  of  taking  the  regular  subordinate  or 
question-order,  often  have  the  word-order  of  a  principal  clause :  3Benn  er  bann  nad) 
Jjjaufe  font  or  &  ant  er  bann  nad)  ^aufe,  unb  bie  $rau  fyatte  bag  SWittageffen  nidjt  ferttg 
(instead  of  bie  grau  bag  3RittagefTen  md)t  ferttg  tyatte),  fo  fdjalt  er  fte. 

Note  2.  Such  subordinate  clauses  with  the  quest  ion-order  were  originally  indepen- 
dent questions,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  following  passage  from  Luther  who  places  an 
interrogation  point  where  the  revised  editions  have  a  comma :  3ft  jentanb  gitteg 
ntuts?  bet  ftttge  $falmen.  3fl  jemanb  Jlrand:?  ber  ruffe  gu  <td)  bie  (Slteften  con  bcr 
©emcine  (Janies  v.  13,  14). 

c.  In  the  combinations  ats  toenn  or  a(<3  ob  as  if,  lr>enn  and  ob  may  be  dropped, 
in  which  case,  as  in  a  conditional  clause,  the  question-order  results  :  Gr  jtcfyt 
ana,  al8  ivenn  ev  reid)  ludre  or  al^  luare  et  rcid)  He  looks  as  if  he  were  rich.     See 
also  239.  i.  e.Note. 


237.  I.E. d.      SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  425 

d.  In  concessive  clauses  the  conjunction  can  be  dropped,  in  which  case  either 
the  normal  or  the  question-order  is  found  :  Dbfd)on  e3  taiifenb  fieben  foftet,  rctte  id) 
bid),  or  Q$  fojie  taufcnb  Sebcn,  id)  rctte  bid),  or  Jtcfte  eg  taufcnb  Seben,  id;  rctte  bid?. 
If  the  subordinate  clause  is  introduced  by  nub,  the  inverted  order  is  used  : 
3)er  2ftcnfd)  tjl  fret,  unb  »urb'  er  (even  if  he  were)  in  j?etten  geboren. 

e.  To  emphasize  the  point  of  time  of  an  action  the  conjunctions  toenn  or 
al3  "when  may  be  dropped,  and  the  adverbs  faum  scarcely,  fd)on  already,  or 
nod)  still  substituted  in  their  stead,  followed  by  inverted  order :  21(3  (Etc  fcrt 
traren,  or  Jtaum  tt?aren  <Sie  fort,  fo  trat  ev  tn3  3immev.    9tod)  fjarrte  im  ^eimli$ett 
25anttttcvlid)t  bie  SBelt  bem  27?orgen  entgegen ;  nod;  ericad)te  bie  @rbe  »om  <3d)Unnmer 
nid)t :   ba  bcgann  ftd)'S  tnt  £ale  ju  regen  When  the  world,  still  enveloped  in 
shadowy  twilight,  was  waiting  for  morn  ;  when  earth  had  not  yet  awakened 
from  slumber,  there  arose  a  stir  in  the  valley.     9lnt  ©cite  fd)on  jiefjt  man  ben 
Srcunb  cmpor,  ba  jevtrennt  er  gewatttg  ben  bidjtcn  @f;or  When  they  had  begun 
to  draw  up  the  friend  (Phintias)  to  crucify  him,  behold  there  he  (Damon) 
came  pushing  his  way  with  all  his  might  through  the  throng.     Often  in  these 
sentences  the  principal  and  subordinate  propositions  as  in  English  exchange 
roles,  the  principal  proposition  becoming  the  subordinate  clause,  introduced 
by  the  subordinate  conjunction  al3  :    Jlaum  fatten  ftd)  bie  ©afie  entfernt,  al8 
fd)tm  uncbcv  nenev  SBcfud)  eintraf. 

f.  In  the  set  expression  e<3  fci  (or  ivave)  bcnn  imless,  lit.  if  it  be  (were)  not,  or 
kindred  expressions,  as  er  (jte,  e$)  tttujjte  bcnn  unless  he  (she,  it)  should,  each 
of  which  is  seemingly  a  negative  conditional  clause  in  force,  the  clause  is 
not  introduced  by  a  conjunction  at  all,  and  the  normal  word-order  is  used. 
For  fuller  explanation  of  the  construction  see  168. 1.  2.  C.  b. 

B.  The  personal  part  of  the  verb  sometimes  stands  before  an  infinitive,  or 
participle,  or  their  modifiers,  instead  of  standing  at  the  end  of  the  subordinate 
clause,  especially  in  the  following  cases  : 

a.  In  clauses  where  the  perf.  part,  assumes  the  form  of  the  infin. :  3d)  I)<5re, 
bafi  er  ba<S  $8ud)  ntdjt  fvufyer  fyat  erfdjeinen  laffen  fonnen  I  heard  that  he  has  not 
been  able  to  publish  the  book  before. 

b.  To  avoid  two  similar  forms  of  icevben  from  coming  together  :  3d)  bqwciffc, 
bafT bicfe  grudjte  je  toevben  bet  itne  rcif  iwbcn. 

c.  Sometimes  when  two  or  more  uninflected  verbal  forms  (infin.  and  perf. 
part.)  come  together  at  the  end  of  the  clause,  the  personal  part  of  the  verb 
may  precede  the  uninflected  verbal  forms  in  order  to  prevent  the  heaping  up 
of  unaccented  words  at  the  close  of  the  clause,  but  even  here  it  is  usually 
best  to  allow  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  to  stand  at  the  end  according  to 
the  general  rule  :  ($3  Idjjt  ftd)  fd)tt>et  tcftimmeii,  ob  3)cutfd)lanb  ftd)  iemads  JH  einer 
fo  t)of)cn  <2tufe  irttrbe  cmpcrgefdjtoungen  fyaben,  or  entvorgefcfyuntngeu  tyabcn  tourbe. 

Note.  In  poetry  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  may  sometimes  stand  between  the 
two  uninflected  verbal  forms  :  3d;  fyab'  e<3  ia  |  uott  btr,  bag  cr  gcfangen  fycrgefdjtcft  |  ift 
njorbett  l^Lcssing's  Nathan). 

d.  In  dialect  and  colloquial  language  there  is  naturally  a  lack  of  conformity 
to  the  stereotyped  rules  of  the  literary  language  and  a  tendency  to  place  the 
important  grammatical  elements  of  the  predicate,  i.e.  infinitive  and  participle, 
at  the  end,  and  then  place  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  either  immediately 
before  infinitive  or  participle,  or  less  frequently  after  the  subject :  9in  —  nil 
id)  bdd)tc  nur  —  id)  mcine,  (fynOet)  irett  ebcn  Ijalt  bcr  licbe  GJott  tncine  £od)tcv  barrbn 
(for  iwtout)  }itr  gnabigen  SWabant  tinl(  I)aben  (Frau  Miller  in  Schiller's  Kabale 
und  Liebe,  i,  2).    Seine  SDJnttcr  Ijaft  laffen  I)tnrid)tcn,  ivctl  bit  jn  fcig  bift  gctrefen 
(Roseggcr).    3c^t  a^  id)  wit  betfelbcn  @abct,  bie  ev  Ijatte  in  ben  ajtitnb  gcfuljvt  (id.). 
3d)  gtaube  ttr  nid)t,  JtaS  bit  5lugufld)en  gcfd)vicben  fyafl :  ®a^  bit  fofltejl  bein  bentfd)ci? 
©cfu()l  in  gvanfrcid)  ttcrloren  I)aben  (Schulze-Smidt's  Dcnk*  ich  an  Deutschland 
in  der  Nacht,  II). 


426  CONJUNCTIONS  237.  r.  c. 

C.  In  case  the  predicate  or  a  word  in  the  predicate  is  modified  by  a  clause 
or  an  infin.  with  $u,  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  usually  stands  before  the 
clause,  or  the  infin.  and  its  modifiers,  or  predicate  complement:  3d)  bemerfte, 
bafj  fie  md)t  gleid)  nwfjten,  tt>a3  fte  tun  foflten.    §U3  id)  am  nad)ften  Slbenb  mid) 
anfd)icfte,  jit  tfyr  &u  gef)en,  i»ar  ba3  SBctter  triib  unb  fturmifd)  getocrben.     ©ute 
.Rinber,  bie  fid)  mit  5Hanen  (now  usually  $(dnen)  itnb  9lu3ftd)ten  befd)aftigten,  bid) 
J)abf)aft  $u  tterben  (Goethe).     In  short  clauses,  however,  it  is  often  better  to 
place  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  clause  in  case  the 
predicate  verb  is  modified  by  a  short  infinitive  phrase  :  @$  ftefyen  genug  (Srb; 
bceten  tm  SSalbe,  baS  fyeijjt,  fur  ben,  ber  fte  ju  ftnben  toetp  (T.  Storm's  Immensee, 
Im  Walde). 

D.  Earlier  in  the  period  there  was  more  freedom  in  the  word-order,  so 
that  we  often  find  some  important  modifier  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the 
clause  instead  of  the  verb  itself:  2Qev  feine  Dfyren  »erjtopfft  fur  bent  fd)reien  ber 
Slrmen  |  £>er  nnrb  cmd)  ruffen  |  »nb  nid)t  erfyoret  toerben  (Proverbs  xxi.  13).    Al- 
though the  position  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  clause  has  in  general  become 
stereotyped,  the  older  freedom  is  preserved  in  poetry,  and  asserts  itself  not 
infrequently  in  vigorous  prose  for  the  sake  of  especial  emphasis  :  Site  er'sS  toog 
in  freter  ^anb,  |  ba3  ©cfytoert  er  »iet  ju  fd)*er  erfanb  (Uhland).    3n3  ©efid^t  nnK 
id^'s  ifjnen  fagen,  it>aS  id)  benfe  won  btr  unb  eud)  unb  eurer  ganjen  burgerttdjen 
©efittung  (Sudermann's  Heimat,  3,  14).     In  colloquial  language  also  unim- 
portant modifiers  sometimes  follow  the  verb. 

This  irregular  feature  which  is  employed  for  the  sake  of  meter  or  emphasis 
in  literary  or  colloquial  German  is  a  regular  feature  in  the  German  spoken 
by  Jews  who  have  not  eradicated  all  traces  of  Hebrew  influence  from  their 
language  :  Db  id)  bin  ber  -iKann,  ober  cb  eg  tji  ein  anberer  :  eg  ift  bod)  ju  mad)cn, 
bafj  man  fauft  »on  jebem  9Kenfd)en,  toag  er  l)at  (Veitel  Itzig  in  Freytag's  Soil  und 
Haben,  chap.  i).  This  order  is  also  found  in  the  German  of  Poles,  French- 
men, Englishmen,  and  other  foreigners  :  SBeit  id)  tocmten  unf(  tier  bent  retfj  enbcn 
2Bo(f  tm  @d>afgpetj,  i»eld)er  um^erjie^t  unb  unfdiulbige  ^erjen  nnfl  »erfuf)ren  (the 
Polish  chaplain  in  Halbe's  Jtigend,  p.  96).  Compare  also  the  German  of 
Riccaut  in  Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  4,  2. 

E.  When  two  subordinate  clauses  have  an  auxiliary  in  common  it  usually 
stands  in  the  second  clause  and  is  understood  in  the  preceding  one  :  Seine 
linrufye  »ermefyvte  fid),  ba  feine  ©efu^Ie  ntdjt  me^r  son  ben  fanften  Gotten  genafyrt  unb 
getinbert  irurben.     Sometimes  in  easy  colloquial  language  the  auxiliary  is  found 
with  the  first  clause,  and  is  understood  with  the  following  one  :  3d)  gtaube, 
toenn  unr  un$  fyeute  mat  njteber  ^infe^en  nwyben  unb  ben  5*ufl  jufammen  lefcn,  nnr 
iriirben  »t)icber  trie  junge  ©tubcnten  trerben(Hirschfeld'sZ>^ry««^6:^/^«(?r,  p.  62). 

F.  The  relative  pronoun  bet  has  arisen  from  the  demonstrative  ber,  from 
which  it  at  present  differs  little  except  in  requiring  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the 
clause,  and  in  the  familiar  language  of  every  day  life  the  demon,  is  still  used 
with  normal  order  in  the  clause  where  in  the  literary  language  we  would 
expect  the  relative  with  the  word-order  of  the  dependent  clause  :  <§3  tebte 
einntat  ein  Heiner  .ftnabe,  ber  fyief  £an$d)en.    (§3  toav  einmat  ein  Jtaifer,  ber  fyatte  ein 

Sanb. 


2.  Position.  Subordinate  conjunctions  always  introduce  the  de- 
pendent clause  with  the  one  exception  that  a  prep,  may  stand  before 
a  dependent  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun  :  2)a3  2J?tibcfyeu  gtng  an 
einen  @ptegel,  in  bent  e8  ftd)  betracfytete. 

238.  Classification  of  Subordinate  Conjunctions.  Subordinate 
conjunctions  which  join  subordinate  to  principal  propositions  may 
be  divided  into  classes  as  follows  : 

1.  Those  which  introduce  substantive  clauses.  They  are  made  up  of  the 
following  groups  of  words  (for  illustrative  sentences,  see  269,  270,  272)  : 


238.3.  B.       SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  427 

a.  The    relative    and    interrogative    pronouns :    toer,  lt?ag ;    ber,  bie,  ba3 ; 
h?eld)cr,  *t,  ;e3. 

b.  A  prep,  with  its  dependent  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun :  wit  toent, 
tttit  tt»cld)em,  &c. 

c.  The  relative  and  interrogative  adverbs  :  ba  (early  N.H.G. ;  Matthew  viii. 
20)  where,  too  where,  l»ann  when,  im'e  how,  ftarum'  why,  tootnit'  wherewith, 
woburd)'  whereby,  tooju'  to  which  end,  £c. 

d.  The  conjunctions  bajj  that,  \venn  if,  when,  tote  ( =  baf ),  and  cb  whether : 
3d)  fel)e,  bafj  et  ba  tji.    3d)  toetjj  nid)t,  ob  er  fyeute  ntttgeljt. 

.Afrte.     For  origin  of  conjunction  bafj ,  see  240.  <z. 

2.  Those  which  introduce  adjective  clauses.    They  are  made  up  of  the 
following  groups  of  words  (for  illustrative  sentences  see  271) : 

a.  Relative  or  interrogative  pronouns:  toer,  toag  (153. 1. (3));  ber,  bie,  bag; 
toeld)cr,  ;e,  -.&  ;  fo  (153.  5)  ;  berglctdjen,  be3a,letd)en  (161. 2). 

b.  A  prep,  with  a  dependent  relative  :  ntit  bent,  nttt  toeld)em,  &c. 

c.  Relative  or  interrogative  adverbs :   too  (see  153. 3.  A,  C.  c}  where,  in 
which,  when  ;  toofelbjl'  or  occasionally  bafetbfi'  in  which  place  ;  ba  (153.  3.  A. 
C.  d)  where,  when  ;  ba  benn  (see  Note  2,  below) ;  toegfyalb,  or  toeStoegen  (151. 1. 
b),  or  less  commonly  bafyet'  on  which  account ;  toenn  (see  153.  3.  C.  b)  or  toann 
(in  indirect  questions)  when ;  trie  as,  how,  in  which ;  the  compounds  toortn' 
in  which,  toobet',  tocran',  &c.,  or  occasionally  in  their  stead  the  demon,  com- 
pounds bavin',  babel',  &c. 

Note  i.  In  familiar  speech  the  compound  relative  adverbs  are  often  separated ;  see 
153.  2.  and  B.  thereunder. 

Note  2.  Goethe  is  fond  of  using  ba  betttt  in  the  meanings  in  consequence  of  which, 
under -which  circumstances  \  9lud)  fang  ber  SUte  ntdjt  ubel,  unb  ttteine  Gutter  imtfite 
fid)  bcqnemen,  tf)n  unb  ftd)  felbft  nttt  bem  ^(aciere  tdgtid)  ju  affcntpagmeren ;  ba  id?  benn 
baS  Solitario  bosco  ombroso  batb  fennen  lernte  (Goethe  s  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  I, 
i).  Qrfap  fafl  niemats,  ats  »»cnn  er  feine  Jjjarfe  na^m  unb  barauf  fpiette;  ba  et  jte 
benn  ntetftens  nttt  ©efang  begtettete. 

d.  ^a§  (168.  II.  G.  -5,  153.  3.  C.  e),  ob  (168.  II.  F.  a,  2nd  par.,  and  169.  2.  F. 
a,  3rd  par.),  line  (168.  II.  F.  a,  2nd  par.,  169. 2.  F.  a,  3rd  par.,  153. 3.  D.  (i) ), 

sometimes  ate  (153.  3.  D.  (i) ) :  SBaKenftetn  fd)ntetd)ette  ftd)  nod)  immer  nttt  ber 
^>offniutg,  baf  stele  jit  tf)tn  nod)  untfefyren  ftitrben.  3d;  arbettete  bi^  ju  bet  3ett,  bap 
er  fant. 

3.  Those  which  introduce  adverbial  clauses.    They  are  made  up  of  the 
following  groups  of  adverbial  conjunctions  indicating  : 

A.  Place:  too  where,  ftofycr'  whence,  ttiofym'  whither;  in  early  N.H.G.  and 
still  in  elevated  diction  ttcn  toanncn  (=  ftofycr)  and  ba  (=  too,  for  example  see 
John  vii.  34).     Compare  with  274. 

B.  Time  :  a($  used  of  an  actual  occurrence  or  a  definite  state  of  things  in 
past  or  present  (see  c,  below)  time,  more  commonly,  however,  the  former  ; 
hjenn  (see  b  and  c,  below)  or  now  rarely  toann  when,  whenever,  used  with 
a  present  or  past  tense  to  indicate  that  something  is  or  was  accustomed  to 
happen,  and  with  a  future  tense  to  indicate  a  point  of  time  in  the  future  ; 
\vo  (see  c,  below)  =  al*5 ;  ba  (see  c,  below)  corresponding  to  M.H.G.  do  =  al$, 
but  now  more  frequent  in  elevated  discourse  than  in  plain  prose,  though  very 
common  in  carry  N.H.G.  and  the  classical  period ;  ba  (M.H.G.  da),  earlier 
in  the  period  used  with  the  force  of  temporal  tnbcm  while  and  adversative 
ivafyrenb  while,  while  on  the  other  hand,  and  in  the  latter  meaning  still  found 
in  the  form  of  ba  bod)  while,  although  ;  tt>ie  =  alS,  common  in  colloquial  lan- 
guage, especially  with  a  present  tense  (see  c,  below),  sometimes  also  =  fobalb, 
wenu,  inborn  ;  fannt  bafj  or  faum  (see  d)  when  —  scarcely ;  fo  oft  [a(g]  as  often 
as;  fobalb'  [alg],  iwe  or  forctc'  as  soon  as-  in^tfdjcn,  injnrifdjcn  bafj,  and  less 
commonly  ntittlerfteile  while  (in  the  meantime) ;  todfyrenb,  todfyrcnb  bafj  (not  now 


CONJUNCTIONS  238. 3.  B. 

so  much  used),  intern',  Inbeffen,  inbeg',  unterbef'fen,  unterbeg'  (and  the  following 
forms  common  in  early  N.H.G.  and  still  later,  but  now  rare  in  prose:  iretl, 
beroeU,  btcweil)  while ;  feit  ba$,  feitbem  bafj,  now  more  commonly  feit  (not  rare, 
as  stated  by  some  grammarians)  and  fcitbcm  since ;  folange  [ate]  as  long  as; 
big  bafi,  no\v  more  commonly  big  until,  by  the  time  that  (see  e,  below),  in 
early  N.H.G  also  while,  as  long  as  (Matt.  xxvi.  36) ;  ef)e  or  bcvcr  before,  or 
more  emphatically  d)e  unb  bettor ;  nad)bcm'  after.  Compare  with  275. 

a.  From  the  meaning  of  contemporaneity,  tt?al)renb,  inbefien,  and  in$toifd)en 
take  on  often  adversative  or  contrasting  force :    2ftand)e  3Kenfd)eu  bleiben  in 
genriffer  SJejtefyung  etxng  Jlinber,  inbeg  anbere  cor  bet  Beit  ©reife  toerben. 

b.  The  form  itann  when  is  rare  only  as  a  conjunction.    As  an  interrogative 
adverb  it  is  the  common  form  both  in  direct  and  indirect  questions :  2Bann 
fomtnt  et?     3d)  treijj  ntd)t,  irann  er  fomntt.     The  form  luenn,  like  the  English 
•when  of  to-day,  once  had  a  wider  meaning,  being  used  as  an  interrogative 
adverb  =  toann,  and  also  as  a  conjunction  with  the  force  of  ate  in  addition  to 
its  present  force,  and  sometimes  in  dialect  or  colloquial  language  this  usage 
can  still  be  heard:  ^@rr  |  SBcnn  (  =  ftann)  fyabm  unr  bid)  fyungetig  gcfefyen  |  »nb 
I)aben  bid)  gefpeifct  (Matt.  xxv.  37).     @id)er,  bu  iiberlrgtefi  nid)t  luofyl,  o  3J?dbd)en  beg 
Sluglanbg,  |  ivenn  (=  ate)  bu,  bet  grentben  ju  bienen,  bid)  a(l$u  eiltg  entfd)loffeft,  | 
irag  eg  fyeifie,  bag  §au3  beg  gebtetenben  ^)cmt  ju  betreten  (Goethe's  Hermann,  IX, 
113-115).      SBenn   (for   toann)   gejjt  ber   befie  Bug?   (Hauptmann's  Einsame 
Menschen,  Act  iii). 

c.  There  is  considerable  fluctuation  in  the  use  of  conjunctions  which  indi- 
cate a  point  of  time.     With  reference  to  an  actual  state,  or  actual  event  or 
occurrence  in  past  time  in  connection  with  a  past  (or  historical  present)  or 
past  perfect  tense,  the  conjunction  which  is  most  widely  used  in  the  literary 
language  is  aid,  in  poetry  and  choice  prose  not  infrequently  also  ba.     After 
the  conjunction  ats  than,  ba  is  preferred  to  ate  when,  to  avoid  the  unpleasant 
repetition  of  al3  :  2Bie  eine  elegante,  junge  Same  fianb  ?enes  Softer  ba  ;  fd)tanf,  ncd) 
etn  irenig  tnager,  bod)  softer  ate,  ba  fie  fam  (Wilbrandt).     In  colloquial  language 
Jrie  is  also  in  general  quite  frequently  used  instead  of  either  ate  or  ba.     Also 
iro  is  employed  here,  especially  after  a  preceding  adverb,  as  in  bamate,  fro. 
With  reference  to  present  time  usage  is  quite  unsettled.     Site  is  sometimes 
employed  here,  and  in  poetry  and  choice  prose  also  ba :    ($3  ijl  fpat  in  ber 
€tad)t,  ate  id)  bteg  fd)reibe  (Raabe's  Sperlingsgasse,  p.  238).   2)u  fommft  nur  eben, 
ba  id)  retfen  mufi  (Goethe's  Tasso,  i,  4).     Unb  iwHft  bit  jejjt,  ba  betnen  2Bat)n 
beftegt  |  2Bal)rf)eit  unb  !£reuc,  fd)wefterlicf)  venroben,  |  ba  Salfd)  unb  (Sd)t  entfdileiert 
x>or  bit  liegt,  |  ntd)t  einmat  nod)  \\\  betnes  Solfcg  ©litrf  |  bie  SSunbcrfraft  beg  Xaltgj 
inang  evprobcn  ?  (Fulda's  Talisman,  4,  8).    SfBte  is  more  commonly  used  here : 
3d)  \vil(  uid)tbabei  fetn,  irte  SKntterg  93rautf(eib  oerfauft  wirb  (Halbe's  Das  tausend- 
jahrige  Reich,  p.  52).     3a,  Jrte  id)  bag  jefct  fd)reibe,  erfa()re  id)  eg  erft,  wie  gut 
fie  bei  fetner  5D?utter  58efd)eib  tt)U^te  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  95). 
2Bo  is  also  often  used  here,  especially  when  preceded  by  an  adverb  of  time  : 
Unb  je£t,  tto  ttnr  g(udltd)  fcaftetjen  (Halbe's  Miitter  Erde,  i).     3d)  glaube  bit 
ntd)t,  hxig  bu  5luguftd)en  gefd)rteben  f)aji  :  £afj  bu  foUtefl  bein  beutfd)eg  ©efit^t  in 
§ranfretd)  »or(oren  l)aben.    @g  iftrb  bod)  fd)on  nid)t  fo  fein,  \vo  unfev  beutfd)eg  9?etd) 
in  ^en  (S^ren  baftefyt  (Schulze-Smidt's  Denk1  ich  anDeutschlandinderNacht, 
II).     With  reference  to  a  point  in  the  future,  Irenn  is  the  most  common  con- 
junction :   Unb  ttenn  bu  bann  gef)et$t  fyafr,  ge^fi  bu  in  bie  Jlantine  (Hartleben's 
Rosenmontag,  2,  i).     SSo  is  also  used  in  colloquial  language:  3a,  Wo  bit  ttncber 
ba  bill,  fyab'  td)  tnir  gebad)t,  follen  aud)  bie  8td)tcr  icteber  brennen  (Halbe's  Mutter 
Erde,  i). 

d.  The  adverb  faunt,  usually  in  the  form  faum  bafi,  also  sometimes  simply 
laum,  has  developed  into  a  conjunction  with  the  meaning  when  —  scarcely  or 
barely.  Jtaunt  bafj  id)  25acd)ug  ben  lufttgeu  l)abe,  fomntt  aud)  fd)on  Slmor  (Schiller), 
^aum  btefe  SBorte  gefprcdjen  waren,  ivanbte  fid)  bie  junge,  fd?oue  grauengejlalt  urn  unb 
»erfd)itanb  ^inter  ber  S^ur  (Rosegger's  Martin  der  Mann,  p.  14). 


238.  3.  E.  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  429 

e.  Note  the  use  of  big  in  the  meaning  by  the  time  that :  93tS  bit  nad)  9tom 
jurucffommft,  tjl  bte  langfl  ©roptnutter  (Sudermann'sy^a««<?j,  i,  i). 

C.  Manner  or  Quality  : 

a.  Expressing  a  comparison  (see  239) :  tote,  fotote  or  gletdjtote  as,  tote  aud)  a.r 
also,  tote  benn  (Ephesians  i.  4)  even  as,  just  as,  according  as,  ate  toenn,  ate  (237. 
I.  A.  c]  or  ate  ob  «J  */",  tote  toenn  as  when.    Compare  with  276.  A  and  239. 

b.  Expressing  an  attendant  circumstance :  tnbem  as.    Ex. :  3Me  fierdje  ftngt 
iljr  Sieb,  tnbem  fte  jtd)  in  bie  Sitfte  fdjtoingt.     Compare  with  276.  B. 

c.  Expressing  a  result :  fo  — bap  so  —  that;  fold)  (or  berartig  or  simple  ber, 
fin,  or  fein  before  a  substantive ;  see  271. 1)  —  bap  such  —  that ;  with  negative 
force  :  anftatt  bap  instead  of,  ofyne  bap  "without,  bap  nid)t  that  —  not,  without, 
common  earlier  in  the  period,  where  ofyne  bap  is  now  used,  gefd)»eige  (ist  pers. 
sing.  pres.  tense,  id)  being  understood)  benn  bap  to  say  nothing  about,  much 
less.    A  question  may  replace  the  words  in  the  principal  proposition :  2Ba3 
tft  ber  £ob,  bafi  er  mid)  fdjrecfen  foflte?  (=ber  £ob  ijl  nid)t3  berartigeS,  bap,  £c.). 
Compare  with  276.  C. 

D.  Degree  or  Intensity. 

1.  Expressing  a  comparison  : 

A.  Signifying  a  degree  equal  to  that  of  the  principal  proposition  : 

a.  Expressing  a  comparison :    fo,  atfo   (rare)   or  ebenfo  (in  the  principal 
proposition)  —  ate  or  tote  (see  239. 3)  as  —  as,  fo  (with  corresponding  fo  in  the 
principal  proposition :  fo  Ijod)  er  flanb,  fo  tief  itnb  fdjmdfyltd)  toat  fein  gall)  so, 
toag  (as  in  ba  lief  er,  toa<3  er  fonnte)  as  much  as,  as  fast  as.    Compare  with 
277.  i.  A.  a. 

b.  Expressing  a  proportion  :  je  (in  the  sub.  clause)  —  beflo,  or  urn  fo,  or  tun 
beflo,  or  now  more  rarely  je  the  — the  (as  in  3e  tyofyer  er  jHeg,  um  beflo  befdjetbener 
toitrbe  er),  banad)'  (still  in  proverbs),  nad)bem'  (especially  in  early  N.H.G.),  je 
nadjbent'  (common  form)  according  as.     Compare  with  277. 1.  A.  b. 

c.  Expressing  a  restriction :  tnfofern',  fotoeit',  tnfotoeit',  or  fooicl'  (in  the  prin- 
cipal proposition)  —  al<5  (or  intoiefern'  or  tntotetoeit')  just  in  so  far,  or  to  as  great 
an  extent,  or  as  much  —  as,  (in)fofern',  (tn)fotoeit',  or  intoiefern'  (now  rare)  so 
far  as.     Compare  with  277.  I.  A.  c. 

B.  Following  a  comparative  expressing  a  different  degree  from  that  of  the 
principal  clause  :  toeber  (early  N.H.G. ;  Job  xxxiii.  12 ;  now  obsolete,  see  239. 
I.  a.  Note  2)  than,  benn  (early  N.H.G.  ;  now  less  common,  see  239.  i.  a.  Note 
2  and  6)  than,  al3  (common  form)  than,  toie  (239.  i.  a.  Note  i)  than,  a(i5  (more 
rarely  benn)  bafj  than  that,  ate  toenn  than  when. 

2.  Expressing  a  result :  fo,  ber  (see  271. 1),  or  etn  (see  271. 1)  —  bap  so  — 
that,  such  —  that ;  bap  so  that ;  fattm  bap  so  that  scarcely  ;  (in  the  principal 
proposition  jtt  +  positive,  or  more  rarely  a  comparative  instead  of  $n  +  posi- 
tive) —  al3  bap  too  —  to  (as  in  £>te  girfterne  finb  ju  toctt  ton  un3  entfernt,  al3  bap 
toir  von  ifyrcr  SJtatut  ettoaS  @enauere3  ftnjfen  fonntcn).    The  clause  of  result  may 
follow  a  genucj,  I)inreid)enb,  fyinldnglid)  in  the  principal  proposition  :  3d)  fyatte  mir 
bas  2Mlb  ifyvcr  Stebcntftourbtgfeit  tief  genng  etngebrurft,  baf  e3  fo  leidjt  au^julofd;en 
nid)t  toar  (Goethe).     Compare  with  277. 2. 

E.  Cause : 

Cause  or  reason  :  ba'utm  bap  (early  N.H.G. ;  Luke  yiii.  6)  because;  toett  (in 
early  N.H.G.  also  allbtetoeil,  bictoetl ;  Genesis  iii.  17)  or  tnbent' because  (material 
cause  and  in  case  of  ircit  also  motive)  ;  nadjbem'  (Austriacism)  =  toeit ;  ba  as, 
since  (logical  reason)  ;  ba  ja  or  ba  bod)  since  indeed  ;  anertoogeu  (in  official  or 
archaic  language)  in  consideration  of  the  fact  that,  since,  as  ;  ntapen  (dat.  pi. 
of  3.1iapc,  now  little  used)  seeing  that,  since  ;  {internal  (early  N.H.G. ;  Acts  xvii. 
24)  seeing  that,  since;  bap  that;  juntal'  especially  as;  nun  now  since,  now  that; 
bctfo,  or  inn  beflo,  or  nut  fo  (before  a  comparative  in  the  principal  proposition) 
—  al^  all  the  more  —  as ;  ba'von,  or  ba'ran,  or  ba'rin,  or  ba'l)er,  &c.  (in  the 
principal  proposition)  —  bap  from  this  (cause  or  source),  by  (because  of)  this, 
&c.  —  that.  Compare  with  278. 


430  CONJUNCTIONS  238.3.  E.a. 

a.  The  most  popular  of  these  conjunctions  is  toett,  and  it  often  has  a  wider 
use  than  the  one  above  indicated,  encroaching  upon  the  territory  of  ba. 

b.  In  the  classical  period  toetl  is  also  still  used  in  a  temporal  sense  =  fo 
lange  ate  or  todfjrenb  :  £>a$  (Sifen  ntufj  |  gefd)tniebet  toerben,  toeU  ed  glufjt  (Schiller's 
Piccolomini,  3,  l). 

The  following  five  classes  may  also  be  classed  as  sub-divisions  under  the 
general  head  of  Cause. 

F.  A  condition  or  restriction :  ob  (early  N.H.G. ;  see  I  John  ii.  i)  if,  fo 
(early  N.H.G. ;  Matthew  iv.  9)  if,  the  former  now  obsolete,  the  latter  now 
rare,  too  (rare  except  in  the  expression  too  nteglidj)  if,  toenn  (common  form)  if, 
toenn  anberg  provided  that,  toofern'  or  bafern'  (rare)  if,  provided  that,  toenn  (or 
too)  nid)t  if  not,  falls  or  im  Salle  bafj  in  case  that,  bod)  bafj  but  only  on  the  con- 
dition that,  aufjer  bafj  except  that,  aufj er  toenn  if  not,  unless,  nut  bap  if  it  were 
not  that,  except  that,  oljne  bafj  (after  a  negative)  but  that,  unless,  e$  fei  (or  todre) 
benn  bafj,  or  benn  (preceded  by  the  present  or  past  subjunctive,  with  normal 
word-order :  3d)  laffe  bid)  ntd)t,  bu  fegnefl  mid)  benn  —  Gen.  xxxii.  26,  revised 
ed.)  if  not,  unless,  trier  (159)  for  anybody  who.     Compare  with  279. 

Note.  The  explanation  of  the  force  of  the  subjunctive  in  e3  fei  or  (todte)  benn  and 
the  seeming  negative  meaning  of  benn  is  given  in  168.  I.  2.  C.  b. 

G.  A  concession :  fo  bod)  (early  N.H.G. ;  Jeremiah  iv.  10)  although,  whereas, 
cb  (Luke  xvi.  31),  or  unb  ob  although,  ob  —  ob  whether  —  or,  ob  aud),  or  toiewofyl' 
although,  and  the  more  common  words  having  the  same  general  meaning  of 
although :  cbgteid)',  cbtoofyf ,  obfd)on',  objtoat',  toenngleid)'  (sometimes  separated, 
but   not   so  frequently  as  formerly  :    ob  —  gle id),  ob  —  trotyl,   &c.)   and   the 
separable  forms  toenn  fd)on,  toenn  audj ;  and)  toenn  even  though  ;  fo  (followed  by 
an  adverb  or  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  with  its  preceding  modifying  adjectives) 
—  audj  however  (e.g.,  @o  grog  er  and)  ifi)  and  with  the  same  meaning  and 
construction  trie,  toie  aud) ;  toeldj  (followed  by  a  noun)  —  and)  however,  what- 
ever, leer  and)  whoever,  toa$  audj  whatever,  too  —  and)  in   whatever  place, 
toofyin'  —  aud)  to  whatever  place ;   ungead)tet  or  uneradjtet   (or  more  rarely 
cfyngeadjtet),  or  now  less  commonly  ungead)tet  bafj  notwithstanding  that,  trojjbem' 
or  iro$bem  bajj  in  spite  of  the  fact  that.     Also  certain  temporal  conjunctions 
assume  concessive  force  :  ba  (earlier  in  the  period),  ba  bod),  inbem  bod),  toafyrenb 
bod),  too  bod)  (colloquial)  while,  although.     Compare  with  280. 

H.  Purpose  or  end :  the  older  now  less  common  forms  b(a)rum'  (ba'runt) 
bafj,  auf  bafj,  bafj  (oldest  form,  but  still  used  in  colloquial  language),  the  newer 
now  more  common  bamit'  in  order  that.  Compare  with  281. 

I.  Means  :  ba'burd)  (or  ba'mit,  &c.)  bafj ,  or  separated  ba'burd)  —  bafj  by :  2ftan 
gefallt  oft  am  meifien  baburd),  bafj  man  anbertt  ©elegentyeit  git  gefaflen  »erfd)afft.  <£en 
2#ange(  an  9teiterei  toufte  er  baburd)  ju  erfe^en,  bap  et  gupgdnger  jwifdjen  bte 
Oieiterei  fteflte. 

J.  Material :  ba'rau^  —  toorauS'  out  of  that  —  out  of  which,  or  ba'»on  — 
toocon'.  33lad)en  @ie  nttr  ba'»on  einen  OJocf,  toowon'  @ie  meinem  ^veunbe  einen 
SKantet  getnad)t  tyaben  Make  me  a  coat  of  the  same  material  as  that  out  of  which 
you  made  a  mantle  for  my  friend. 

239.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  used  in  making  Comparisons.  The 
following  subordinate  conjunctions,  which  are  used  in  making  com- 
parisons, are  by  reason  of  their  importance  treated  at  some  length  below: 
als  than,  ffom,  but,  except,  as ;  toie  as,  like,  than  ;  benn  than ;  toeber  than ; 
afg  tote  as,  than.  Of  these  words  toie  is  the  favorite,  especially  in  N.G.,  and 
is  much  used  even  where  it  ought  not  to  be.  Hence  there  is  some  confusion 
in  the  use  of  these  words,  but  the  following  may  serve  as  a  fair  outline  of 
their  proper  usage : 

I.  8U6  is  used: 

a.  After  a  comparative  :  &anS  ijl  grofjer  ate  SBUfjelm.    CJiotev  ate 


230. 2. a.       SUBORDINATE   CONJUNCTIONS  431 

Note  i.  Site  and  the  still  older  benn  are  now  very  often  replaced  here  by  toie,  not 
only  in  colloquial  language,  but  also  in  a  serious  literary  style:  (Stltem  fd)cneren 
3ungling  tote  biefetn  ©ottfrieb  »on  £effcto  bin  id)  in  metnem  ganjen  2eben  nid)t 
begegnet  (Suttner's  Die  Waffen  nieder !  II).  Q$  tjl  mir  mer)r  ttertraut,  tine-  meiner 
toten  2JJutter  SBtcgenttefcer  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Hdnrich,  4).  £)ie  SSermogen^ 
uerfidttnijfe  Ijatten  ltd)  ate  nod)  jerriitteter  rjerausgefledt,  tote  man  annaljm  (G.  Ompteda's 
Eysen).  9H(ein  fte  ifi  itnt  »tcle3  junger  tote  bu  (H.  von  Hofmannsthal's  Die  Hochzeit 
der  Sobeide,  III).  iDucfmditfcrei  ndmltd)  fonnte  galfenfiein  nod)  toeniger  ausjleljcn  tote 
€tytel  unb  £attj  (Beyerlein'sy^«a  oder  Sedan  ?  III). 

Note  2.  In  early  N.H.G.  benn  was  usually  and  toefcer  sometimes  used  after  the 
comparative :  93nb  bie  <£d)(ange  toar  Ujligcr  benn  a((e  £fiter  auff  bent  fetbc  (Gen.  iii.  i). 
25enn  ein  9lad)bar  ijl  beffer  in  ber  neJje  |  toeber  ein  23ruber  in  ber  feme  (Prov.  xxvii.  10). 
In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  at3  begins  to  appear  instead  of  benn.  The  old 
usage  rot  aid  Slut,  wter  benn  93lut  has  become  rot  tote  23Iut,  rotcr  al^  S3tut.  See 
also  Note  i. 

b.  After  the  pronominal  ember*,  negatives,  questions  with  negative  force, 
and  sometimes  after  M-,  and  jeb; :   2J?ein  llrtetl  ijl  ein  ganj  anbereg  als  bag  3fyrige. 
3^  urtei(e  baruber  ganj  anber<5  a(3  @ie.     Oltemanb  a(g  <2ie  toitrbe  ba<5  getoagt  ^aben 
Nobody  but  you  would  have  dared  to  do  that.    3d)  fufyle  mid)  nirgenb<5  gliicflid) 
a(3  hier  I  am  happy  nowhere  except  here.    3d)  tounfd)e  mir  nidjta  aid  OJitJ)e. 
SfBaS  fann  er  mir  »ortoerfen,  ats  einen  getotffen  @totj?    ©efufjUoi?  jebem  ©d)merj,  al3 
ungetiebt  ju  (ein  (Wieland).    ?ln  a((em  3Jlanget  leibenb,  al^  an  ©d)merj  (Grillparzer's 
Medea,  i)  suffering  a  lack  of  everything  but  pain. 

Note.  SSie  is  often  used  here  instead  of  alg,  especially  in  colloquial  language  :  3dj 
Ijabe  iljn  eigentttd)  gern,  toeit  et  anbers  ift  toie  anbere  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  XIII).  '  @ie 
toerten  anber^,  tote  3^re  @(tern  toerten  (Hauptmann's  Einsame  Mcnschen,  4).  @tc 
toar  fo  gani  anbere  toie  bie  anbercn  (Paul  Keller's  Waldwinter,  XV).  3eber  Jrofc 
toar  au$  i^rer  @eele  toie  toeggetoifd)t.  Olidjts  toar  barin  toie  ma^lofer  Samtner 
(Boy- Ed).  SDu  (jajl'e  ja  felber  p  tragen!  ^ein  anberer  tote  bu!  (Halbe's  Das 
tausendjiihrige  Reich,  p.  45).  Also  even  in  the  higher  forms  of  literature :  Vtnb  ba  i(!j 
nun  einmal  ntd)t(5  toie  jU  lieben  toetg  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  3,  10). 

c.  After  foba(b,  fo  oft,  fotange,  fofern,  fowet,  &c.,  in  which  cases  it  is  now  more 
commonly  suppressed :  Jlomm  fobatb  [atg]  bu  fannft,  unb  btetb  fotange  [a(3]  bu 
barffl.    Although  atg  may  be  omitted  the  verb  must  stand  at  the  end  of  the 
clause :  <£obalb  [ate]  bit  SSege  fafyrbar  ftnb,  fomme  id)  ju  bir. 

d.  In  the  combination  fctoofyt  —  a(3  as  well — as,  both  —  and:  ©otoofyt  bem 
gegcntodrtigen  a((3  aud)  bcm  »ergangenen  Saljrljunbert  uerbanfcn  toir  grof e  gortfd^rttte  in 
^unjl  unb  SBiffenf^aft.     Here  we  also  now  find  fotootjt  .  .  .  tote,  and  indeed  toie 
is  more  common  than  atS  if  the  identifying  ate  described  in  4,  below,  follows : 
fotoofyl  in  fetner  (§tgenfd)aft  ate  93erltner  tote  ate  3Kenfd)  uOetfiaupt  (Raabe's  Die  Villa 
Schonow,  V). 

e.  In  the  combinations  ate  toenn  (or  also  toie  toenn),  ate  ob  as  if,  as  though,  in 
comparisons  that  are  represented  as  resting  not  upon  absolutely  assured 
facts,  but  upon  personal  impressions,  appearances,  or  even  represented  as 
unreal,  contrary  to  fact :  @S  fd)ctnt,  ate  toenn,  or  ate  ob  fte  rcid)  todren.    3d)  tat,  ate 
toenn,  or  ate  ob  td)  e<5  nidjt  bemerfte. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  ate  could  be  used  alone  without  toenn  or  ob  and  still  be 
followed  by  the  dependent  word-order ;  see  i  Sam.  xx.  20.  If  al3  be  used  alone, 
present  usage  requires  the  question- order;  see  237.  i.  A.  c. 

z.  SSte  is  used : 

a.  After  the  positive  of  adjectives  :  toetfj  tote  <£d)nee  white  as  snow.  Jtart  ijl 
ebcnfo  fleiptg  tote  bu.  .Rarl  ijl  fo  alt  tote  ©ilhelm. 

When  the  adjective  which  would  stand  in  the  second  member  has  already 
been  mentioned,  it  may  be  suppressed  in  colloquial  speech :  Richard : 
Slmtttd)  ?  (Is  the  dispatch)  official?  Holtzmann :  <£o  gut  toic  (Sudermann's 
Es  lebe  das  Lebcn,  pp.  43-44). 


432  CONJUNCTIONS  239. 2.  a. 

Note.  Formerly  at3  (of  the  same  origin  as  English  as)  stood  after  the  positive, 
as  is  still  occasionally  found  in  early  N.II.G. ;  see  Matt,  xxviii.  3.  A  survival 
of  this  older  usage  is  still  preserved  in  certain  constructions,  especially  after  fo  and 
fold},  where  ate  can  occasionally  be  found :  fo  gefdjhn'nb  ate  (or  hne)  nteglidj.  This 
accounts  for  its  use  in  i.  c  and  d,  above. 

b.  Also  in  connection  with  verbs  to  indicate  likeness,  similarity :    2)a3 
(Sdn'ff  flog  bafn'n  hne  fin  5pfeil.    Jtart  fprid)t,  hn'e  er  benft,  but  @r  fprad)  anbett,  ate 
(i.*)  er  benft. 

Note.  In  early  N.H.G.  ate  was  here  still  frequently  used,  and  even  later  in  the 
classical  period  :  see  Matt.  xxii.  39.  A  survival  of  this  former  usage  is  still  preserved 
in  the  construction  mentioned  in  i.  e,  above. 

c.  Often  in  the  combination  hne  h>enn  as  when  (or  also  ate  ftenn  after  fo  or 
a  negative)  in  comparisons  which  are  represented  as  real :  (§3  jifd)t,  hne  h>enn 
28affer  fid)  ntit  geuer  mtfd)t.    .Rein  grii&Ung  toeifj  fo  traut  unb  toofil  ju  flingen,  old 
h>enn  $um  £er$en  greunbesworte  bringen.    !£er  2Kenfd)  ifl  me  fo  fd)6n,  ate  toenn  er  um 
SSerjet&ung  btttet  ober  felbft  tterjetftt. 

d.  After  the  comparative;   see  6,  below,  under  benn;   also  I.  a,  Note  I, 
above. 

e.  After  negatives ;  see  I.  b,  Note,  above. 

3.  In  one  case  usage  fluctuates  between  ate  and  hne,  with,  perhaps,  the 
preponderance  on  the  side  of  hne,  namely,  in  comparing  different  objects 
or  actions  as  to  the  degree  or  intensity  of  certain  qualities  or  forces.     The 
grammarians  demand  ate  when  degree,  intensity,  is  to  be  expressed,  and  hn'e 
to  express  manner,  likeness,  quality.    Degree :   (Sr  fd)reibt  fo  fdjlecbt  ate  bit. 
Manner  :    (Sr  fd)rciot  fd)(ed)t  hn'e  bu.     Degree :    (Sine  ptofclidje  greube  ifl  fo 
gefdhrlid)  ate  etn  ptofclicfyer  @d)recf.     Likeness :    33a3  £erj  h?ar  fo  rufyig  hne  bte 
2Biefenque(le.  This  distinction  is  a  nice  one  theoretically,  but  it  is  not  supported 
by  practice,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  best  modern  authors :    @3   gibt  feinen 
anberen  3Jienfd}en  mehr  auf  (Srben,  ber  fo  aUein  ijl  hjie  id;  (Raabe's  Zum  wilden 
Mann,  chap.  5). 

4.  In  the  predicate,  however,  a  sharp  distinction  is  now  made  between 
h?ie  and  ate.     Here  ate  is  used  in  all  appositional  constructions  and  hence 
denotes  identity,  oneness  with,  while  hne  expresses  mere  similarity.  3d)  efire 
tl)tt  ate  tneinen  93ater  I  honor  him  as  my  father  (which  he  is).    3d)  efire  ihn 
hne  ntetnen  SSater  I  honor  him  just  as  I  would  my  father,  or  like  my  father. 
@ie  fprad)en  wit  einanber  ate  Steunbe  They  were  speaking  together  as  friends 
(which  they  were).     @ie  fprad)en  tnit  einanber  hn'e  greunbe  (like  friends,  but  they 
were  not).   8eomba3  fod)t  bei  X^ermopttd  h>te  etn  2ci»e  unb  ftc(  ate  ein  £elb.  grtcbrid) 
SBil^elm  ber  SSierte  ^a^te  bte  9ie»o(utton  ntd}t  btop  h)te,  fonbern  ate  bte  @unbe.  For 
that  class  of  appositional  constructions  which  merely  add  an  explanatory 
word  or  words  to  a  previous  noun,  see  233.  C. 

a.  The  distinction  between  ate  and  hn'e  described  above  is  quite  commonly 
neglected  in  the  colloquial  language  of  the  North,  as  hne  here  as  elsewhere 
replaces  ate:  3d)  hne  bein  SUter,  Jfcrlcfyen,  id)  Ijdtt'  aK  meinen  ffiotfpon  felber 
getrunfen  »or  tnetnem  Snb'l !  (Halbe's  Mutter  Erde,  3,  p.  157). 

5.  Site  hne  was  frequently  used  in  the  classical  period  instead  of  hne  after 
a  positive  and  instead  of  ate  after  a  comparative,  and  is  still  so  used  in 
colloquial  N.G. :    Unb  bin  fo  Hug  ate  hne  jusor  (Goethe's  Faust,  I,  Nacht). 
2Bet§cr  ate  hne  @d)nee  (Wieland).     SSir  ftnben  h?cl)t  fycute  abenb  feine  ©tatte  in 
SlmeUtngSborn,  »o  er  beffer  rufite  ate  h)te  hier  (Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap.  xxiv).     Some- 
times even  in  the  higher  forms  of  literature  :  ©elbft  bte  Slbenbrote  |  fdjaut  anbers 
au^  ate  hue  5ut»or  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedem,  5,  2). 

6.  2)cnn  (see  Note  i  under  I,  a,  above),  which  was  so  common  after  the 
comparative  in  early  N.H.G.,  is  now  in  general  much  less  used  there,  but 


240.  a.        CO-ORDINATE  OR   SUBORDINATE  433 

it  is  not  so  rare  as  grammarians  often  represent,  at  least  so  in  the  North : 
mefyr  bcnn  fyunbert  3al)te  tang  (Treitschke),  mefjr  benn  fin  3Jlenfd)cnalter  bnrd) 
(Raabe's  Hbxter  und  Corvcy,  chap.  13),  wafyrenb  femes  mefyr  benn  fed)$tgjdl)rtgen 
£eben6(auf?0  (id.,  Eulenpfingsten,  chap.  6),  blufyenber  benn  je  (H.  Hoffmann). 

It  is,  moreover,  quite  frequently  employed  after  the  comparative  instead  of 
otsS  when  there  is  already  an  a(3  (the  identifying  al<3  described  in  4  above) 
in  the  sentence :  35a<3  bctrad)ten  unr  efyer  a(3  cine  £ugenb  bcnn  al-3  einen  Seller 
(G.  Keller).  SBte  is  perhaps  still  more  common  here,  especially  in  colloquial 
language :  91(3  fie  itafyrnafym,  bafj  t()r  33cfud)  mefyr  ate  ©toruna,  nne  als  ftreube 
empfunbcn  unir.be  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap.  9).  aStel  fyofyct  une  als  (Ipifer  ftefyt  £ebbel 
a(3  fctyrifer  (Adolf  Bartels). 

a.  !Dcnn  was  common  in  early  N.H.G.  after  a  negative  or  ember*,  and  sur- 
vives in  poetic  language :  £9et  bit  gilt  ntd)ts  bcnn  ®nab  attetn  (Luther).  9lodj 
je|jt  erfd)etnt  bcr  Sofyn  mir  im  £raume  anbera  nie  benn  frtfd)  unb  bliiljenb  (Uhland). 
£)cr  SB  into  fyatte  feine  ©timme  unebevwn  er^obcn  ;  bod^  ntcljt  fo  laut  benn  ju»ct  (Raabe's 
Else  von  der  Tanne). 

7.  After  comparatives,  nxber  than  has  become  entirely  obsolete ;  see  Note. 
2,  under  i.  a,  above. 

CONJUNCTIONS  USED  AS  CO-ORDINATE  OR  SUBORDINATE. 

240.  The  following  conjunctions  may  introduce  either  co-ordinate  or  sub- 
ordinate propositions:  barmn  (early  N.H.G. ;  I  Thess. iii.  5  ;  now  obsolete  as 
a  subordinate  conjunction)  therefore,  since ;  ba  then,  when  ;  tnfoir>ctt,  infofern 
thus  far,  so  far  as,  intefjeit,  tnbe3,  wttetbefjen,  untevbes,  tnjiwfcfycn  in  the  meantime, 
while ;  trojjbem  nevertheless,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  ;  feitbem  since,  nun  now, 
now  that,  fo  so  (which  though  usually  an  adverbial  conjunction  is  also  a 
subordinate  conjunction  in  concessive  clauses  (see  238.  3.  G),  imbrtgenfatl* 
otherwise,  foil  ft  or  anfonft  (now  little  used)  else,  otherwise,  both  usually  with 
inverted  word-order  ;  and  the  compound  forms  mentioned  in  239.  i.c:  @r  foar 
franf ;  (rc^bcm  gtng  ct  aug.  Xrcjjbcm  cr  franf  n? at,  ging  er  att3.  5) it  ^aft  bit  9JJufie  gcgeben, 
infofern  fann  idE)  bic^  loben.  3nfofevn  bit  bit  3Kul)e  gcgeben  Ijaft,  fann  ic^  bic^  iobeti. 
2)u  fyaft  mir  ba3  verfproc^en ;  nun  mupt  bu  SSort  Ijaiten.  9tun  bit  ba^  »crfproc^en 
^aft,  nwjjt  bu  SBort  Ijalten.  JBeja^t'  tnic^  je^t ;  ixnbrigenfaKS  ntu§  id)  bid)  »crflagen. 
9San  bet  ©ttaaten,  ber  e3  fytie,  »crbat  ftd}  af(e  berarttg  intrifatcu  2Bortfptc(ercicn, 
wijDtigeitfalW  er  on  bte  93raitt  tclegravl)ieren  trerbe  (Fontane's  UAdultera,  chap.  viii). 
©ib  bent  ,f?tnbe  ba3  ©pieljeug,  fonft  fangt  cs  an  jit  lucinen.  £)te  fletnen  fietben  ntit  ber 
aitfbrtiu3[tcfeen  ^rapule  unb  «?a3  batnit  jufamnten^dngt,  ge^en  aucf)  bet  ntir  imnter  fort, 
adcin  cd  Ic^nt  am  (Snbe  ntd)t  bcr  9JJuf)c,  lange  ba»ott  ju  fprecfjen,  anfonft  man  |a  bo^^ette 
SJefdjtvernia  t)at  (G.  Keller  an  T.  Storm,  5.  Juni  1882). 

a.  The  above  small  list  of  conjunctions,  once,  however,  large,  still  illustrates 
very  nicely  the  origin  of  most  subordinate  conjunctions,  which  were  originally 
modifiers  of  the  principal  proposition.  Thus  3d)  fcfyc,  bafj  (the  same  word  as 
the  demonstrative  ba<3  nom.  and  ace.,  from  which  it  is  first  distinguished  in 
orthography  in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century)  er  jufviebcn  ift  originated  in 
3d)  fct)e  bag  :  er  ift  jufrieben.  Thus  also  3d)  tue  e3  ntcbt,  ofyncbafj  id)  3fyve  (Sr(anbni<5 
fyabc  originated  in  3d)  tue  e3  tiidit  ofyue  ba3 :  id)  ^abe  3fyre  (Srlaubni3.  In  both 
examples  ba3  is  ace.  neut.,  but  later  when  it  passed  over  into  the  subordinate 
clause  the  distinct  feeling  of  its  case  passed  away,  and  it,  in  a  number  of 
conjunctions,  passed  as  a  connective  without  inflection,  the  form  ba<5,  later 
baf? ,  standing  even  after  a  prep,  governing  some  other  case  than  the  ace.,  as 
in  auger  bap  except,  u?db,rcnb  bafj  while,  anftatt  bag  instead,  or  after  a  verb  which 
governs  the  gen. :  3d)  erinnere  mid)  ntd)t,  bap  id)  btetS  gefagt  fyabe.  In  other  con- 
junctions the  proper  case  of  the  original  demonstrative  still  stands,  as  in 
nadjbem  after,  fettbcm  since,  inbem  while.  In  the  list  given  above  the  conjunc- 
tions can  still  stand  either  in  the  principal  or  subordinate  proposition,  while 
most  of  the  subordinate  conjunctions  now  are  restricted  to  the  subordinate, 
although  they  too  once  stood  in  the  principal  proposition. 

Ff 


434 


INTERJECTIONS 


240.  a. 


In  the  same  manner  the  demonstratives  ber,  bie,  bag  were  moved  from  the 
principal  to  the  subordinate  proposition,  and  became  what  is  now  called  the 
relative  pronoun.  Even  as  late  as  early  N.H.G.  we  find  sentences  in  which 
the  demon,  stands  as  a  word  common  to  both  clauses,  but  still  with  the  case 
that  belongs  to  it  according  to  its  function  in  the  principal  proposition  :  2ftit 
all  bent  id)  fanit  imb  sermag  (Hans  Sachs).  Latery.  the  demon,  passed  as  a 
relative  pronoun  over  to  the  subordinate  clause,  and  took  the  case  that  was 
required  of  it  according  to  its  function  in  the  subordinate  clause. 


INTERJECTIONS. 

241.  An  interjection  is  a  single  particle,  or  some  other  part  of  speech 
used  as  such,  or  a  combination  of  particles,  or  a  fragment  of  a  sentence  used 
to  give  vent  to  some  sudden  outburst  of  feeling  or  passion,  or  to  give  ex- 
pression to  some  intimation  of  will,  or  on  the  other  hand  to  imitate  some 
sound  in  nature.  In  order  to  facilitate  an  understanding  of  the  more  idiomatic, 
illustrative  sentences  are  given  under  the  several  words.  A  few  of  the  most 
common  or  most  difficult  here  follow  in  alphabetical  order,  others  must  be 
looked  for  in  the  dictionary : 

aber  nein  !  expressing  surprise. 

ad) !   expressing  pain,  anger,  regret, 

displeasure. 

of)!  expressing  joy,  admiration,  sur- 
prise. 
atfo  bod) !  Well,  I  never  should  have 

expected  that ! 
atfd)  or  eetfdj !    teasing,  expression  of 

joy  at  the  loss  or  discomfiture  of 

another. 

an  !  expression  of  physical  pain, 
bauj !   imitating  a  falling  body :  33an$, 

ba  liegt  er ! 

betleibe  nid)t  =  tint  ©otteg  wften  nidjt  1 
fein  93em  !  (colloq.)  not  at  all ! 
betwfyre!  by  no  means  ! 
nein,    id)    bitte  @ie!    expressing  sur- 
prise. 

brrr !  whoa  !  (to  stop  a  horse), 
buntg,  imitating  a  falling  body :  93umg, 

ba  Uegt  er ! 

bald  (colloq.)  =  flinf !  quick ! 
i  bu  nteine  ©ute !  good  gracious  ! 
Jjolterbipotter,  a  heavy,  dull  noise  :  £>ag 

gtng  tjolterbipolter  (in  great  haste  and 

noisily). 
IjcWta,  or  Ijottyfa,   or   (jo^faifa !    excl. 

when   some  one  stumbles  or  lets 

something  fall, 
ljui'ra !  (or  fjnrra')  hurrah  1  ljurra  fyodj ! 

hip,  hip,  hip,  hurrah ! 
Jjufd) !  expression  of  rapidity  :  -§ufd) ! 

fort  tear  ber  93oget. 

feine  3bee,  or  fein  ©ebanfe!  not  at  all ! 
i  h?o !  by  no  means  ! 
jucfyfje' !  or  jndjljet' !  heigh-ho  !  hurrah  ! 
flabberabatfd),  imitating  a  falling  body, 
f  nacf  g,  imitating  the  breaking  of  some 


brittle  substance:  Jtnadg,  fagte  eg,  ba 
irar  ber  J£>enfe[  an  ber  £ajfe  abgebrodxn. 

ja  J?udjen  !  (colloq.)  It'sall  imagination! 

man  ja  nid)t  !  in  no  case  ! 

na  !  unusually  frequent,  expressing 
surprise,  displeasure,  an  urgent 
admonition  to  do  something  desired 
by  the  speaker,  or  encouraging 
words  to  some  one  to  proceed  : 
2Ber  fomtnt  mit  ?  9f  a  (surprise)  ? 
Jteinet?  (What!  no  one?)  91a, 
bag  feljtte  nod)  !  Well  !  That  caps 
the  climax  !  9la,  »ortt>art<3  !  Often 
used  when  the  speaker  thinks  that 
something  confirms,  or  soon  will 
confirm  his  ideas,  words  :  9Ja,  bag 
fagte  id)  3f)tten  ja  gleid)  !  Used  when 
one  forms  unwillingly  a  resolution 
which  he  cannot  well  avoid  :  sJlu, 
id)  \vi((  benn  nut  better  gefyctt.  To  ex- 
press doubt  as  to  the  outcome  :  9ia, 
na,  »t>enn  t&  nur  gut  au^lauft!  A 
warning  :  9la,  na,  na,  md)t  fo  f)t$ig  ! 
Sharp  rebuke:  na,  na  !  Appeas- 
ingly:  9ta,  na,  eg  tear  nid)t  beg 
gemetnt  ! 

nanu,  strengthened  na,  expressing 
surprise,  pity,  indignation,  disap- 
pointment, impatience:  9iann,  loag 
bebeutet  benn  bag  ? 

na  ob  or  unb  cb  !  in  responses  =  well, 
I  should  think  so  !  rather  ! 

ne,  very  frequent  =  nein. 

c!  olj!    O!  oh! 

t  !  for  shame  !  shame  on  you  ! 


\i\i  I  or  fd)t  !  sh  !  hush  ! 
expressing 
!  tyatte  cr  eine 


suddenness  : 


241.  INTERJECTIONS  435 

Note.  As  bitte !  short  for  idj  bitte  /  beg,  is  usually  used  with  some  expression 
understood,  the  suppressed  words  being  easy  to  supply  from  the  connection  and  in  the 
spoken  language  from  the  tone  of  voice  or  gesture,  it  often  has  varied  meanings : 
bitte !  please  !  SBitte  lint  SSerjetfjung  !  Beg  your  pardon  !  SMtte,  bitte !  Please,  do  it ! 
S3itte !  Please  let  me  pass.  *8itte !  Please  enter  this  room !  33itte,  taS  bletbt  ttteitt 
©efyeimntS.  Please  don't  inquire,  that's  my  secret.  93itte  !  \Vhat  did  you  say  ?  9Jcin, 
id)  bitte  <£ie !  Well,  I  declare !  (expression  of  surprise).  Sitte !  Don't  mention  it 
(answer  to  one  returning  thanks  for  a  favor).  93itte  fefyr  /  beg  your  patdon,  used  to 
introduce  politely  something  contradicting  that  which  has  just  been  stated  by  the 
person  addressed. 


F  I  2 


PART   III 


WORD-FORMATION. 

242.  Words  are  divided  with  reference  to  their  formation  into 
three  classes :  Primitives,  Derivatives,  and  Compounds. 


PRIMITIVES. 

243.  The  most  primitive  element  of  a  word  is  the  root.  The 
exact  form  of  the  original  roots  cannot  be  ascertained.  They  may 
have  consisted  of  one,  two,  or  more  syllables,  but  usually  appear 
to-day  in  a  reduced  monosyllabic  form  which  may  be  styled  the 
stem.  To  this  stem  the  inflectional  endings  are  added,  and  from  it 
new  words  may  be  formed  by  the  addition  of  prefixes  or  suffixes. 
These  new  words  thus  formed  may  in  turn  become  the  stems  from 
which  by  the  addition  of  other  suffixes  still  other  words  may  be 
formed.  Words  which  spring  up  directly  from  the  root  syllable  with- 
out the  addition  of  other  suffixes  than  the  usual  inflectional  endings, 
and  which  are  themselves  the  stem  from  which  other  words  by  the  aid 
of  suffixes  spring,  are  called  primitives.  The  strong  verbs  of  the  pre- 
sent and  past  periods  of  the  language  form  the  primitive  stems  from 
which  a  large  number  of  German  words  have  sprung.  In  these  primi- 
tives it  is  the  consonants  that  give  consistency  to  the  roots,  for  the  root 
vowels  themselves  differ  in  the  different  tenses :  fingen,  fang,  gefungen. 
This  difference  of  vowel,  called  gradation,  is  due  to  a  difference  of 
accent  in  an  earlier  period  ;  see  197.  A.  It  is  no  longer  possible  to 
tell  what  the  original  root-vowel  was.  Thus  the  original  root  has 
thrown  up  different  stems  which  have  become  remarkably  fruitful. 
The  different  classes  of  the  gradating  verbs  are  treated  in  articles 
198-205.  The  numerous  nouns  and  adjectives  which  have  been 
formed  from  the  same  roots  as  these  strong  verbs  are,  like  the 
verbal  stems  themselves,  in  direct  association  with  the  root  and  are 
also  true  primitives.  Usually,  however,  such  nouns  and  adjectives 
are  associated  directly  with  strong  verbs,  as  the  original  roots 
cannot  be  ascertained,  and  the  strong  verbs  are  the  oldest  related 
forms  which  can  shed  light  on  their  real  meaning.  For  fuller 
explanation  of  this  point,  see  197.  a.  Note.  As  certain  primitive 
nouns  and  adjectives  have  the  same  gradation  as  the  related  strong 
verbs,  they  have  been  treated  in  detail  under  the  different  gradation 
classes  (beginning  at  art.  198)  rather  than  here.  A  number  of 
primitive  nouns  and  adjectives  have  no  relation  to  any  existing 
strong  verb,  but  can  be  traced  back  to  verbs  found  in  earlier 


245. 1. 1.  A.  DERIVATIVES  437 

periods  of  German  or  some  older  related  language.  Some  primi- 
tives, however,  cannot  thus  be  traced  back  to  verbal  forms.  Also  a 
number  of  weak  verbs  must  be  regarded  as  primitives. 

a.  Next  in  nature  to  these  primitives  are  those  derivatives  with  endings 
that  have  no  appreciable  meaning.  Such  are  the  substantives  formed  by 
adding  e,  be,  te,  b,  bt,  ft,  ft,  t,  or  tt  to  a  primitive  stem,  and  adjectives  in  el,  er, 
en,  t :  ©rube  ditch,  @tcmb  condition,  ©tabt  city,  ©tuft  tomb,  ettel  vain,  bitter 
bitter,  eben  level,  bidjt  close. 

Note.  Such  words  have  a  change  of  b  to  f  and  g  or  Ij  to  (Jj  before  the  suffix  t : 
ireiben  to  drive  —  £rtft  pasture,  fcfylagen  to  strike — ©djtadjt  battle,  gefcfyefyen  to 
happen  —  ©efdjtdjte  history.  See  also  40.  \.b.Note  i.  After  ;l  and  ;ti  we  often  find 
ft,  and  after  -,m  the  ending  ft  instead  of  simple  t :  ©efcfjttmlft  swelling,  from  fdjttjettcn 
to  swell ;  ©uttft  from  geitnen,  Jtunft  from  fonnen,  ©efpinnft  (ftrinncn)  j  Slnfunft  from 
aufomjnen,  23eraunft  from  »ernefimen. 


DERIVATIVES. 

244.  Derivatives  are  formed  by  adding  or  prefixing  to  a  simple 
word  a  syllable  that  has  an  appreciable  force  and  thus  influences 
the  meaning  of  the  word  :  3on  accent,  tonlog  unaccented.     To  such 
a  derivative  still  other  suffixes  can  be  added  :  Sonlofujfcit  absence  of 
accent. 

Note.  In  student  slang  there  is  a  tendency  to  form  for  comical  effect  hybrid 
derivatives,  consisting  of  a  German  word  and  a  foreign  suffix :  *J}ftfjtflt3  sly-boots, 
aajfatitn  or  gaffatum  (gefien  to  rove)  about  the  streets  at  night,  fdjauberca'  terrible, 
.Rlteipier  (knafyje1)  host,  keeper  of  a  beer-hall,  &c.  A  number  of  hybrids,  however, 
from  their  frequent  use  have  become  naturalized,  the  accent  alone  indicating  their 
foreign  origin,  especially  those  in  a'ge,  al',  ei',  ta'be,  te'reit  (verbal  suffix),  is'muS,  ift', 
let',  ctf:  Sofela'ge,  Sittteraf,  3dgerei',  .SpanSttjurftia'be,  Baufte'ren,  33erlims'mu$,  33lu« 
ntttV,  aflerlei',  ftatic^'  (slang)  pretty,  elegant.  The  strong  foreign  influences  at  work 
in  former  periods  can  still  be  seen  even  in  certain  names  derived  from  German  cities 
and  states,  especially  nouns  in  a'net,  en'fer,  i'ner:  SBeimara'tter,  33aben'fer,  2lns 
Jjalti'ner,  &c.,  inhabitants  of  Weimar,  Baden,  Anhalt,  &c.  In  popular  language  these 
words  usually  have  a  German  ending :  SBeimarfcifje,  93abener,  Slnftattf^e,  &c.  Scholars 
now  recommend  the  use  of  the  forms  in  #er :  SSetntarer,  SBabener,  Slnhalter,  &c., 
sometimes  also  in  foreign  names,  Sltlje'ner  instead  of  Sltfjenien'fet. 

FORMATION  OF  WORDS  BY  MEANS  OF  SUFFIXES. 

I.   Derivative  Substantives. 

245.  1.  A.    t  (from  O.H.G.  I,  hence  producing  mutation),  fceit 
(cognate  with  hood,  as  in  falsehood),  feit  (corrupted  form  of  O.H.G. 
icfkjheit,  hence  another  form  of  fyett),  which  form  abstract  feminine 
substantives.     Those  in  *e  may  be  formed  from  adjectives,  and 
those  in  fyeit  from  adjectives,  perfect  participles,  present  infinitives, 
and  nouns  :  ©ute  kindness,  «§drte  cruelty,  SHefre  love,  8'rci^eit  freedom, 
£>umm^eit  stupidity,   (Srgcbentyett  devotion,  Qlftoiffenfyeit  omniscience, 
Jttnbfcett  childhood.     Grammarians  who  claim  that  SBebeutcnbbeit  (or 
also  ^Bcbeuten^ctt)  is  the  only  case  where  fyeit  is  added  to  a  present 
participle  are  not  in  accord  with  the  facts  of  the  language :  Sreffenb* 


438  DERIVATIVES  245. 1. 1.  A. 

fjeit  be3  5(u3brutf3  (Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  II,  chap.  2).  <ste  ftnb 
einer  gerciffen  llnauStcicfyenbtyeit  fcegegnet  (ib.,  Stechlin,  chap.  4,  p.  48).  The 
*fy\i  may  be  added  to  adjectives,  and  hence  also  to  adjective 
participles. 

Those  in  =feit  are  chiefly  formed  from  derivative  adjectives  in  *6ar, 
*et,  =er,  *ig,  =lid),  =fam :  ^etligfeit,  &c.  Nouns  formed  from  adjectives  in 
*Io3  and  4aft>  and  from  certain  monosyllabic  adjectives,  add  the 
lengthened  form  *tgfeit :  ©fyrlofigfeit,  ^^ren^aftig!eit,  ©eicfytigfeit,  &c. 

a.  The  forms  in  =c  and  (ig)feit  often  take  on  concrete  meaning : 
<§of)e  hill,  height,  £tefe  the  deep,  ©itjjigfeit  something  sweet. 

b.  Sometimes  =e  and  =^eit,  or  =feit  and  -^eit,  stand  in  contrast  with 
each  other,  the  former  representing  something  concrete,  the  latter 
something  abstract :  (£6ene  level,  plain,  (Sbenfyeit  levelness ;  SReuigfeit 
something  new,  piece  of  news,  Steufyeit  newness ;  (Sujjigf  ett  something 
sweet,  <Sttfje  and  (Sitfjfyett  sweetness.      These  three  suffixes  have 
the  same  general  force,  but  when  they  are  affixed  to  the  same 
stem  a  little  different  shade  of  meaning  usually  develops,  as  plainly 
as  in  the  preceding  examples  or  in  finer  shades  of  abstract  meaning. 
See  13.  2,  below.     In  earlier  periods  of  the  language  e  (O.H.G.  I) 
was  used  much  more  frequently  than  now.     It  has  been  in  many 
cases  replaced  by  fceit  and  also  by  ung  and  nig.    In  early  N.H.G.  we 
still  frequently  find  words  in  e  which  are  now  replaced  by  other 
suffixes :  £>ie  @tetrf?e  (now  ®leici$eit  or  Qlljnticfyfett),  ©cbone  (now  <Scfy6n= 
Ijeit),  &c.    These  words  in  e,  however,  have  found  favor  with  poets  : 
9Bir  tragen  |  bie  Srummern  in3  9lt$t3  f)initfcer,  |  unb  flagen  iifcer  bie  sjerlorne 
©cfyone  (Goethe*s  Faust,  1613-16). 

c.  The  suffix  tyeit  and  its  corrupted  form  feit,  both  of  the  same 
origin  as  our  hood  and  head  (in  manhood,  Godhead),  represent 
a  once  independent  noun  with  the  meaning  of  condition,  kind,  which 
accounts  for  the  meaning  of  these  suffixes  to-day,  and  sometimes 
leads  to  the  use  of  tyeit  to  express  a  collective  idea :    ©efunb^eit 
health,   lit.   healthy  condition,    2ftenfd$eit  human  race,   mankind, 
6f)rtfien^eit  the  Christian  world. 

d.  Not  all  the  feminine  words  in  =e  are  of  the  same  origin  as 
those  described  above.     These  other  words  in  *e  distinguish  them- 
selves by  their  lack  of  mutation  in  many  cases  and  also  by  their 
concrete  meaning:   bie  Sloffc  (O.H.G.  flozza)  fin,  ®rube  (O.H.G. 
gruoba)  pit,  &c. 

B.  There  is  another  e  (Gothic  a(n)  and  ja(n),  the  latter  of  which 
has  left  its  imprint  in  the  mutation  of  the  preceding  vowel),  which 
forms  weak  masc.  nouns  denoting  persons  or  other  living  beings : 
9Bote  messenger,  93itrge  bondsman,  (Srfce  heir,  ®efdf)tte  companion, 
©efefle  fellow,  comrade,  @c^u|e  marksman,  «§aje  hare,  &c.  Some 
have  lost  the  distinguishing  suffixal  ending  in  the  nom. :  ©cfyultfjeifj 
(gen.  beg  @d:>ultf)ei£en)r  «£err  (gen.  be3  «§errn),  &c.  In  many  words  *e 
has  been  replaced  by  the  foreign  suffix  =er  (see  5,  below),  which  is 
a  great  favorite:  (Gothic)  fiskja,  (O.H.G.)  fiscari,  (N.H.G.)  8'ifcfyer, 
&c.  Formerly  *e  was  also  found  in  many  weak  masc.  nouns  denoting 
lifeless  things,  of  which  a  few  traces  are  left :  9kme,  &c.  For  the 
history  of  these  nouns  denoting  things  see  67,  2nd  paragraph. 


245.  I.  2.1.6.      SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES  439 

In  older  periods  three  suffixes  were  much  used  to  denote  living 
beings,  namely  *e,  =ef,  and  =er,  each  of  which  was  a  live  force  in  the 
language.  Of  these  *er  has  been  gradually  replacing  the  other  two. 
The  suffix  *t\  is  now  least  common,  and  its  former  meaning  is  no 
longer  vividly  felt.  The  *e  is  best  preserved  in  names  of  peoples, 
where  it  competes  with  *er:  $reuf?e,  0tuffe,  £c.,  but  (Sngldnfcer, 
(Spanier,  &c. 

2.  Accented  el,  ie,  and  unaccented  ten,  different  forms  of  the 
same  foreign  suffix,  from  which  are  made  abstract  and  concrete 
substantives.  The  M.H.G.  form  was  ie,  which  in  N.H.G.  passed 
over  into  et.  Later,  especially  in  foreign  nouns,  the  French  form 
was  restored  to  some  of  the  words :  33jeorei  (Klopstock,  Gellert), 
now  £fyeorie.  In  a  few  cases  both  suffixes  remain :  -DMoDte  or 
sometimes  in  poetry  for  sake  of  a  rhyme  2J?elobei.  In  one  word 
differentiation  of  meaning  has  taken  place  :  Cartel,  party,  faction  ; 
SJ3artte  parcel,  match  (in  matrimony),  game,  party,  picnic. 

The  suffix  =et  does  not  usually  mutate  the  stem  vowel.  However, 
as  a  number  of  the  derivatives  to  which  it  is  added  already  have 
a  mutated  vowel,  as  in  the  case  of  Srar&er,  tdnbeln,  &c.,  mutation 
has  in  several  instances  spread  by  analogy :  (Sdmerei,  33uberei, 
5lnbacfytelei,  &c. 

The  following  general  points  with  regard  to  their  use  may  be  of 
service : 

i.  The  form  ei  is  found  : 

a.  Affixed  to  derivatives  in  «er,  which  denote  persons  engaged  in 
a  certain  business  or  occupation.     Here  the  ei  denotes  the  idea  of 
a  trade,  business,  art,  profession,  or  an  act  or  state  of  the  class  of 
people  in  question :  ^drfcerei  the  dyeing  business,  ©er&erei  the  tanning 
business,  £Uerrdterei  treachery,  Ufcerldufetet  desertion.     These  words 
often  take  on  concrete  meaning,  and  then  denote  the  building  where 
the  business  is  carried  on :  g-drfrerei  dyeing  establishment,  2>rucferei 
printing-house,  Sdcferei  bakery,  &c. 

Note.  The  suffix  et  is,  after  the  analogy  of  the  above  words  in  ttt,  sometimes  added 
to  the  plurals  in  ttt,  as  Jttnbetet  childishness,  Slbgptterei  idolatry,  &c.  This  frequent 
reoccurrence  of  ei  after  ftt  has  led  to  the  erroneous  idea  that  the  suffix  is  ;er,fi :  SBubetei 
knavery,  ©djurferet  rascality,  <Sf(a»erei  slavery,  ^fafferei  or  ^fdfferet,  &c.  In  a  few 
cases  only  is  set  added  directly  to  the  stem :  Slbtei  abbey,  JDecfyanei  deanery,  *pfattei 
parish,  parsonage,  ^rcpftei  provost's  residence  or  office,  SBcgtei  prefecture,  9tatret 
(early  N.H.G.)  or  now  -jjjarretei  tomfoolery,  which  has  resulted  from  the  mingling  of 
the  older  Sftami  with  9tarrentetbtng  or  9tatrenteit>ung  (Faust,  1.  5798).  However,  in 
student  slang  ei  is  still  (not  so  much  though  as  formerly)  in  some  university  towns 
added  to  the  name  of  a  family,  to  indicate  a  house  where  students  live  :  <Sd)|[(er 
tooljnte  ju  3ena  in  einet  ©cbrammei  unb  J&cffmann  »on  gaf(er«Icben  in  etner  Jtnabn. 
Also  the  beer-halls  where  the  different  academic  societies  meet  take  this  suffix :  bit 
Serfei,  Dppelei,  &c. 

b.  Affixed  to  verbs,  to  denote  the  abstract  idea  of  repetition  or 
prolongation   of  the   activity  expressed   by   the  verb :    etne  grope 
©rafcerei  (Frenssen's  Jdrn   Uhl,  chap.  26)  extensive  excavations, 
^(acferei  pestering,  ^lauberei  chatting,  chat,  -iftecfem  teasing,  £dnbelet 
toying. 


440  DERIVATIVES  245. 1. 2.  i.  b. 

Note.  Only  ci  is  added  to  stems  in  ?et  and  ;tr,  but  monosyllabic  stems  affix  ;eret : 
Stermt  affectation  from  ftdj  jieren.  The  noun  Slnbdcbtelei  (see  d,  below)/a/^  devotion 
affixes  ;eUt  after  the  analogy  of  the  verbs  in  ;eltt. 

c.  Sometimes  »ei  has  collective  force :   3Retterei  cavalry,  SBiicfyerei 
library,  bie  ganje  Xreifcelei  (Fontane)  the  whole  family  or  tribe  of  the 
Treibels. 

Sometimes  we  find  in  *el  the  combined  force  of  c  and  d:  £>iefe 
Sreifcelei  rear  ein  Srrtunt  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  XVI)  This  whole 
Treibel  business  (striving  to  get  into  the  Treibel  family  by  marriage) 
was  a  mistake. 

If  the  stem  of  the  word  does  not  end  in  *et  or  *er,  the  suffix  here 
is  *w\  :  bie  ganje  ^elgentreuerei  (Fontane)  the  whole  Felgentreu  family. 

d.  In  the  uses  a  and  b  and  sometimes  c,  the  *t\  very  often  has 
a  disparaging  force :    Surtfieret  business  of  a  pettifogger,  i'auferei 
much   unpleasant   running  about,    Seferei   indiscriminate   reading, 
SHeinterei  poem  without  poetic  merit  containing  jingling  rhymes, 
5lu3ldnberet  predilection  for  everything  foreign,  affectation  of  foreign 
manners,   (Sngldnberet  Anglomania.      Unb  bafj  bag    2ftdbel    fret    biefcr 
etrigen  QBarterei  inefletcfyt  unt  bie  fcfyonjten  $artten  fomntt,  baS   fummert 
<Ste    rcofyl    gar    ntdjt  ?    (Beyerlein's  Damon    Othello,    i,    8).      The 
©e  —  e  (see  83.  b)  formations  have  a  somewhat  similar  meaning, 
but  more  distinctly  abstract  and  verbal  force,  and  cannot  be  used 
in  the  plural,  as  can  those  in  *d,  as  in  3u  atlem,  ivag  er  fonfl .  .  .  auf 
fitf)  genommen,  nun  au^  no^  bie  J?0miteeft|ungen  iregen  be§  ^trc^enbafarS  unb 
bie  5}aufereten  »on  einem  $um  anbern,  um  eine  aUgemeine  SBeteiligung  ber  ge* 
ttlbeten  ^retfe  jurcege  ;\u  fcringen  (Telmann's  Wahrheti,  XI). 

e.  In  a  few  geographical  terms ;  see  3,  below. 

2.  The  form  ie  is  used  mostly  in  foreign  words,  especially  in 
a  number  of  scientific  and  geographical  terms  :  ^eologie,  ©eograp^ie, 
©eologte,  $tcatbte,  0torntanbie,  &c.      Also  in  the  arts :    <2ten0grapf;ie, 
JJitfyogra^fjie,  $f)otogra^te,  &c. 

3.  The  form  ten  is  found  in  a  number  of  geographical  terms : 
©panien  (pro.  ©pan'jen),  Stafien,  (Sijirien,  &c.,  but  S^icarbie',  ^Jorniantite', 
&c.     These  foreign  names  in  *ien  have  been  conformed  to  the 
German  model  $reu§en  Prussia,  &c.,  the  ie  becoming  ten.     In  a  few 
geographical  names  the  form  is  ei:  Siirfei,  £om6arbet,  sIBalacfyei,  SKaub* 
fcfyurei,  2KongoIet. 

3.  el,  masc.,  less  commonly  fern,  and  neut.  suffix,  denoting  on  the 
one  hand  an  instrument,  implement,  a  belonging  to,  on  the  other 
hand  a  person  or  other  living  being  :  ber  «£>e6el  lever,  SKeipel  chisel, 
©tfinpel  stamp,  pestle,  ©ptegel  mirror,  ^trmel  sleeve,  bie  ©etfjel  scourge, 
Qtngel  (formerly  also  masc.)  hook,  trommel  drum,  &c. ;  ber  33itttel 
beadle,  sheriffs  officer,  ^rii^pel  cripple,  (£d)linget  rascal,  lofyel  dunce, 
Summel  lubber,  $ubel  poodle,  bie  (now  less  commonly  ber)  ©etfet 
hostage,  baS  (less  commonly  ber)  QBiefel  weasel,  &c.  For  important 
additional  matter  see  i.  B,  above,  2nd  paragraph. 

Note.  The  ft\  of  these  words  represents  O.H.G.  il,  al,  ul,  of  which  il  has  left  its 
imprint  in  the  mutated  vowel  of  the  stem.  The  el  is  frequently  in  case  of  strong  verbs 
affixed  to  the  stem  of  the  past,  in  other  cases  to  the  present  stem  :  gliigel  wing,  from 


245.  1.6.  d.         SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES  441 

fliegen  to  fly ;  ©djlujjiel  key,  from  fdjtiefien  to  lock :  ©effet  easy-chair  —  ftfcett ;  3uflet 
rein  —  jiefyen  ;  ©riffel  slate-pencil  —  grcifen ;  <Sd)legel  mallet  —  fcfylagen ;  ficffcl 
(corrupted  N.H.G.  form  of  M.H.G.  fieffel)  spoon  —  O.H.G.  laffan,  to  lick,  lap. 

4.  fit  or  sometimes  only  c  or  even  disappearing  entirely,  usually 
a  masc.  suffix,  less  commonly  neut.     It  is  of  different  origin  in 
different  words,  and  has  to-day  no  appreciable  meaning.     It  is  used 
in  words  which  denote  : 

«.  An  instrument :  @Vatcn  spade,  93ogen  bow,  <£afen,  hook,  &c. 

b.  A  place  for  storing  or  securing  something :  £abeu  store,  (Scfyuppen 
shed,  «§afcn  harbor,  &c. 

c.  A  part  of  the  body:    2ftagen  stomach,  Surfeit   back,  2>aumen 
thumb,  &c. 

d.  An  abstract  idea  in  a  few  cases :  ©laute(n)  faith,  ^riebe(n)  peace, 
(Sctyrccf  or  (Scfyrecfen  fright. 

e.  Various  other  things  :  ©ante  or  ©amen  seed,  Dft  or  Often  east,  &c. 

5.  cr  (O.H.G.  ari,  from  Latin  arius  =  English  er,  as  in  baker), 
masc.  suffix,  used  to  form  appellations  of  male  beings.     Compare  1. 
B,  and  paragraph.     Mutation  of  the  stem  vowel  is  the  rule  when 
the  suffix  is  added  directly  to  the  stem-word,  but  there  are  some 
exceptions :    SBdcfer  &c.  ;   S)ampfer,  Stager,  Staler,  &c.     When  =cr  is 
preceded  by  another  suffix  mutation  is  not  so  common,  perhaps,  as 
non-mutation  :  <£tamni(e)(er,  &c.,  but  also  ^fortner,  £c.     The  leading 
points  as  to  use  are  as  follows : 

a.  Affixed  to  substantives  it  indicates  that  the  person  either 
manufactures  the  article  or  thing  named  in  the  stem  of  the  sub- 
stantive or  is  associated  with  it  in  a  business  or  professional  way : 
«§afner  potter,  ©drtner  gardner,  ©anger  singer,  <2d?aufpteler  actor  (on 
the  stage). 

b.  Affixed  to  verbal  stems  it  indicates  either  that  the  person  is 
temporarily  engaged  in  the  activity  expressed  in  the  verbal  stem,  or 
is  engaged  therein  in  a  business  or  professional  way :  £er  gefer  the 
reader,  Settler  beggar,  ©(fynctfcer  tailor,  &c.    It  is  also  used  of  animals : 
SBeibenfcofyrer  caterpillar  of  the  goat-moth,  &c. 

Note.  After  the  analogy  of  the  numerous  derivatives  from  stems  in  el  and  en  in  a 
and  b,  above,  as  23cttler  beggar  and  .§afner  potter,  the  suffix  er  is  lengthened  to  Jet 
and  net  in  a  large  number  of  words  with  stems  not  ending  in  el,  en  :  JDcrffev  (now 
more  common  than  the  older  form  !£crfet)  villager  from  25 erf,  ©cgenfujjUt  antipode, 
§ittterfta(blet  backwoodsman,  .Rricgmiercinler  (Raabe's  Villa  Schbnow,  v)  member  of 
a  club  of  veteran  soldiers,  JfiinftUr  artist,  9iaturrt)i|Tcnfd)aft(er  scientist,  9ieufvra<f)tet 
one  who  devotes  himself  to  the  scientific  study  of  modern  languages,  (R abler  cyclist, 
<£cmmerfvifd)Ier  visitor  at  a  summer  resort,  £tfd)ler  joiner,  &c. ;  ©Icdfner  bell-ringer 
from  ©Icrfe,  Jpatfncr  harpist,  &c.  fiiigner  liar  does  not  belong  here,  as  it  is  derived 
from  the  older  form  Sugcil  (still  in  use  in  early  N.H.G.),  now  Suge.  There  is  no  dis- 
paraging sense  in  fltt,  as  is  sometimes  claimed.  If  such  force  exists  it  lies  in  the 
meaning  of  the  stem  word,  as  in  3ud)tt)du3ler  (convict}  —  3ud)tl)au<5  {penitentiary)  +  ler. 

c.  Figuratively  er  is  often  applied  to  names  of  lifeless  objects : 
SSccfev  alarm  clock,  SBofyrer  gimlet. 

d.  It  forms  a  few  masculines  corresponding  to  feminines  in  e: 
Stater  tom-cat  —  ^a|e  cat,   Saufcer  or  Dauber  male  pigeon  — 
pigeon,  QBitrcer  widower  —  SSitrce  widow. 


442  DERIVATIVES  245. 1. 5.  e. 

e.  Affixed  to  names  of  cities,  countries,  and  continents,  it  indi- 
cates a  resident  or  subject  of  the  place  in  question  :  Otijmer  Roman, 
3rldnbcr  Irishman,  (Juropd'er  inhabitant  of  Europe. 

Note  I.  There  is,  however,  much  irregularity  in  forming  such  nouns  from  names  of 
countries,  and  often  there  is  no  mutation.  Foreign  names  in  ten  drop  n  and  add  r,  as 
@a((icr  inhabitant  of  Gaul  ^©afiien),  €tyaniet  inhabitant  of  Spain  (©panten),  but 
exceptionally  Stattetter  (pro.  italje'iier).  In  some  other  foreign  names  the  endings  a'ner, 
t'ner,  eit'jet  are  added  to  the  stem  in  imitation  of  the  Latin  endings  anus,  inus,  ensis  : 
Slmertfa'net  American,  gtoventi'net  Florentine,  SUfcemen'fer  Athenian.  See  also  244. 
Note,  towards  end.  In  many  other  names  the  words  end  in  e,  and  are  inflected  weak  : 
^reufe  Prussian,  $ole  Pole,  &c. 

Note  2.  In  popular  language  ;er  and  ;erilt  are  often  replaced  by  tfdj.  The  ifcfj  is 
added  to  the  stem,  and  the  word  is  then  inflected  as  an  adjective :  bet  ©pflltifdje 
instead  of  ber  ©pantet,  bie  ©panifcfje  instead  of  bie  ©pauievin,  &c. 

f.  In  a  number  of  foreign  words  accented  =ter  (pro.  tr)  and  =eur 
(pro.  ~QI)  are  found  instead  of  er :  Officer'  officer,  3urcelier'  jeweler, 
Sftebafteur'  editor.  In  a  few  words  the  German  suffix  has  been  added 
to  the  foreign  ter:  Jtaffte'rer  or  less  commonly  Jtaffter'  cashier, 
$a£e$ie'rer  or  Sape^er'  paper-hanger.  The  =er  indicates  that  the  noun 
has  been  brought  into  relation  to  the  corresponding  German  form 
of  the  verb  :  f affteren,  tapejieren.  In  a  few  cases  only  has  the  French 
pronunciation  of  the  prefix  been  retained,  as  in  Dottier  (pro.  £ort=je') 
door-keeper,  Scantier  banker,  &c.  In  some  foreign  words  or  (un- 
accented in  the  sing,  and  accented  in  the  pi.)  corresponds  to 
German  er :  ber  $rofef  for  professor,  pi.  $rofeff 6'ren. 

6.  i.   in  (usually  causing  mutation),  fern,  suffix,   used  to  form 
fern,  from  masc.  appellations  denoting  a  rank,  dignity,  occupation  : 
©rdftn  countess,  ©rcif  count ;  ^farreriu  pastor's  wife.     For  use  with 
titles,  see  92.  6. 

a.  Words  ending  in  e  drop  it  before  adding  in,  as  in  Branjo'fm 
French  lady,  from  ^ranjo'fe.     Words  ending  in  erer  may  drop  one 
of  the  cr's  before  adding  in,  as  in  3^6erin  sorceress,  from  3fl»kerer. 

b.  In  popular  language  in  is  often  weakened  to  en  or  n:   bie 
2Bud$oIjen  Mrs.  Buchholz,  fcie  grew  Sunfern  Mrs.  Junker.    See  92.  6. 

2.  Most  appellations  of  male  persons  have  corresponding  forms 
for  female  persons,  only  a  few  words  as  ©afi  guest  and  most  nouns 
in  *UnQ  have  the  same  form  for  both  genders :  ^aifer  emperor, 
^atfertn  empress ;  £ef)rer  teacher,  £ef)rerm  lady  teacher.  But  <§ie  ifl 
unfer  ®afl.  @ie  ifl  ber  Stealing  after.  In  the  use  of  the  feminine 
form  the  German  goes  very  much  further  than  the  English.  See, 
however,  253.  III.  2.  a  for  other  exceptions  to  the  rule. 

7.  iiifl  (related  to  ung  in  14.  i,  below),  now  commonly  written 
Hug  (cognate  with   Eng.  ling,  as  in  sapling],  except  in  the  cases 
mentioned    in   a   and    b,   usually  a  masc.  suffix  whether  it   be 
applied  to  males  or  females,  sometimes,  however,  in  the  form 
lingin    with    reference    to    the    latter,    as    bie    fcritifcfye    3unglingin 
(Raabe's  Pechlin,  II,  chap,  u),  usually  causing  mutation  if  affixed 
directly  to  the  stem.     It  is  affixed  to  nouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  and 
in  a  few  cases  to  other  parts  of  speech,  to  form  designations  of 
persons  or  other  living  beings,  less  commonly  of  things,  with  the 
meaning  of  origin,  intimate  relation,  or  association :  (Sdmling  that 


245.  1. 7.  b.       SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES  443 

which  comes  from  the  seed,  seedling,  ^duptltng  one  who  serves  as 
the  head,  chieftain,  ©unftling  one  who  receives  favors,  favorite, 
^etnltng  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  p.  204)  one  who  gives,  causes 
pain,  pedant,  Suftling  one  who  seeks  the  gratification  of  his  senses, 
sensualist,  ©rimbling,  groundling  (a  kind  of  fish  that  stays  upon 
the  bottom  of  a  body  of  water),  «&anfling  a  bird  that  feeds  upon 
hemp-seed,  linnet,  8'dufHing  mitten,  «£dftling  prisoner;  derivatives 
from  verbs  sometimes  with  active,  sometimes  with  passive  force, 
as  (Sinbrtngling  intruder,  lit.  one  who  intrudes,  (Straffing  convict, 
lit.  one  who  is  being  punished;  ^ritfyllng  spring,  9leultng  novice, 
Sinfterling  a  friend  of  darkness  and  ignorance,  obscurant.  The 
idea  of  origin,  descent  from,  or  association  with  may  come  from 
that  of  littleness  and  the  derived  ideas  of  youth,  dependency, 
recency,  which  meanings  still  occur :  (Sealing  small  rooted  plant  for 
setting  out,  young  fish  to  be  put  into  a  pond  for  the  purpose  of 
propagation,  ©cfyofltng  shoot,  ©dugltng  suckling,  9teftltng  young  bird, 
5)aumling  hop-o'-my-thumb,  $flegling  ward,  (Scfyufcling  protege,  S&gh'ng 
pupil,  £efyrltng  apprentice,  5(nf6mmling  new-comer,  &c.  In  dialect 
this  idea  of  littleness  is  still  quite  commonly  associated  with  *tng  ; 
see  8.  i.  f,  below.  Also  in  the  literary  language  the  diminutive 
force  in  sling  is  so  strongly  felt  that  an  additional  diminutive  suffix 
is  rarely  added.  In  Old  Norse  and  in  modern  English  this 
suffix  still  has  in  a  number  of  cases  pure  diminutive  force,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  the  corresponding  Latin  and  Greek  k-suffix. 
Others,  however,  regard  the  idea  of  association  which  is  now  the 
most  common  meaning  of  Ain$  as  the  original  one  from  which  the 
other  meanings  have  been  derived. 

A  number  of  words  in  =ltng  have  a  depreciatory  meaning :  SKietling 
hireling,  (Sinbringling  intruder,  &c.  This  4inQ,  from  association  with 
such  words  as  have  in  themselves  a  depreciatory  meaning  or  from 
the  general  idea  of  dependency  developed  in  the  suffix,  often  assumes 
depreciatory  force  and  has  become  productive  especially  in  this 
sense  :  «§of  ling  courtier,  2)icfyterltng  poetaster,  ©imfUtng  one  supported 
by  the  favor  of  a  king,  lord,  &c.,  £Bt§ling,  would-be-wit,  Gtmpor* 
fommling  upstart,  parvenu,  Ginfeitltng  (H.  Seidel's  Lang  lang  isfs 
her)  onesided,  narrow-minded  person,  &c.  Sometimes  in  a  milder, 
humorous  sense :  ^eifiling  (Raabe's  Stopfkuchen,  p.  129)  fat  fellow, 
'fatty.' 

a.  The  idea  of  origin  can  be  more  clearly  seen  in  proper  nouns.     Many 
S.G.  family  names  end  in  sing,  as  Denning,  ©tuning.     In  the  North  corre- 
sponding to  these  names  in  sing  are  names  in  &  or  fen  :  @bcr<3  (gen.)  «=  @ber3 
©ofcn,  3anfen  «=  3al)n$  ©of)it.     Also  many  names  of  places  in  the  South  are 
derived  from  these  family  names,  usually  ending  in  stngen,  the  en  being  the 
dat.  pi.  ending  after  the  prep,  jit  understood  :  Tubingen  city  of  Tiibingen,  &c. ; 
see  88.  I.     In  case  of  certain  ruling  families  er  is  added  to  sing :  Jtaroltngcu 
descendant  of  Jtavl  bcr  ©rofjc,  Carlovingian,  &c.     This  is  a  survival  of  older 
usage,  which  employed  here  linger  interchangeably  with  ;tng.     Luther  still 
uses  both  Stratbling  and  Srembltnger  (Luke  xvii.  18). 

b.  The  earlier  form  of  the  suffix  was  sing.    As  it  very  commonly  stood  after 
al,  il,  ul,  the  preceding  1  became  associated  with  it,  and  finally  the  lengthened 
form  sling  supplanted  it  in  most  words.    The  few  existing  forms  in  sing  are 


444  DERIVATIVES  245. 1. 7.  b. 

thus  older,  and  the  force  of  the  suffix  is  not  now  vividly  felt :  Bering  herring, 
so  called  because  these  fish  move  in  great  armies  (£em)  or  schools,  Surfing  or 
93ucfling  bocking  (fish),  &c.  The  particular  group  in  a,  however,  always 
take  ;ing. 

As  the  form  sling  is  added  to  many  words  in  ;er,  the  suffix  has  from 
analogy  assumed  the  form  setting  in  a  few  words:  $eiberltng,  23inbling  or 
SBinberling,  £c.  For  the  form  linger  see  a,  above. 

8.  i.  lein  (O.H.G.  illn)  and  cf>ctt  (earlier  ichin,  cognate  with  Eng. 
kin  as  in  lambkin),  neuter  diminutive  suffixes  affixed  to  nouns, 
usually  causing  mutation  when  they  follow  an  accented  syllable. 
The  former  is  the  original  H.G.  suffix,  which  in  different  dialectic 
forms  is  still  used  everywhere  in  the  South  in  familiar  language 
(seey,  below).  In  the  form  of  lein  and  tin  (more  common  in  his 
later  writings)  it  was  employed  by  Luther  in  his  translation  of  the 
Bible  and  elsewhere  as  the  more  dignified  form,  in  preference 
to  the  M.G.  *fyt\\,  but  it  has  only  limited  use  to-day  in  the  lite- 
rary language  and  only  in  the  form  of  letn,  being  largely  confined 
to  a  beautiful  style  and  a  few  common  words  with  endings  that 
are  difficult  to  unite  with  cben,  as  SButfylein,  g'ifcfylein,  &c.  Modern 
authors,  however,  do  not  seem  to  regard  a  number  of  these  com- 
binations as  harsh  :  bic  SHfcfycfyett  (Spielhagen's  Freigcboren,  p.  15). 
After  stems  in  cfy  and  g  it  is  common  to  employ  a  double  diminutive 
formed  by  adding  cfyen  to  =el  (the  shortened  form  of  4etn) :  SSudjelcfyen 
booklet,  @dd?elcfyeit  little  matter,  pretty  little  thing,  gimcrack,  QCagela 
cfyen  little  wagon. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  Middle  German  suffix  *c6en  replaced 
f\t\\\  in  the  language  of  the  prose  writers  Lessing,  Wieland,  Herder, 
and  others  who  had  taken  the  Upper  Saxon  dialect  as  their  standard. 
Gradually  «cf)en  became  established  in  the  literary  language  in  general 
and  the  familiar  language  of  the  North  in  particular,  while  under  the 
influence  of  the  poets  Goethe,  Burger,  Voss,  and  others  »Iein  secured 
a  permanent  place  of  honor  in  poetry. 

a.  If  a  word  ends  in  e,  ct,  or  en,  these  endings  are  often  dropped  before 
adding  the  diminutive  suffix:  SSubdjen  from  93ube ;  9idglein  from  Jftagel,  but 
SJlagetdjen ;  ©drtd)en  from  ©arten,  &c. 

b.  The  diminutive  endings  are  usually  added  to  the  sing.,  but  may  in 
familiar  language  be  affixed  to  plurals  in  er,  and  also  to  the  plural  form  Seute 
people'.  Sag  Jlinbd)en,  pi.  bte  Jttnbdjen  or  Jttnberd)en  (see  73. a),  2eutd)en  "small 
fry"  good  people,  people  spoken  of  slightingly  or  in  a  tone  of  friendly 
familiarity. 

c.  The  mutation  is  often  dropped,  especially  when  the  suffix  expresses 
irony,  and  in  case  of  proper  names  where  the  suffix  has  more  the  force  of 
endearment  than  littleness  (see  z,  below) :  3d)  fyabe  bte3  3afyr  eincn  Sftcggen  unb 
23eijen,  iiberfyaupt  ein  Jlorndjen  (=  eitt  prad)tflolle3  .torn  a  splendid  crop  of  grain) 
gebaut  iwe  nod)  me.    JDann  ram  and)  nod)  ein  fletnea  @d)laganfattd?en !  (Suder- 
mann's  Die  Heimat,  I,  4)  Then  there  came  in  addition  a  nice  little  (ironical) 
stroke  of  paralysis  !     By  dropping  mutation  we  may  emphasize  the  idea  of 
largeness  or  efficacy,  while  the  use  of  mutation  makes  prominent  the  idea  of 
littleness :  £)er  ^fynfiolog  fpridjt  von  5Mutfiige{d)en,  ein  Sagbfreunb  abet  fprtdjt  mtt 
bcgcifterter  £icbe  v$n  feinen  nie  fefylcnbm  Jlitgeldjett.    aSorlaujig  ftiert'3  nnb  fdjneit'd 
nod)  lujlia,  Better.     S)a3  gibt  tmebet  ein  SBafferdjen  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  20) 
a  great  flood.    In  the  literary  language  it  is  the  rule  that  the  suffix  does  not 


245. 1. 8. 2.  SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES  445 

cause  mutation  if  it  follows  an  unaccented  syllable:  2J?onatd)en,  £offnungd)en, 
&c.     Most  of  the  exceptions  to  this  rule  occur  after  words  in  tti  and  ;et : 
Sficgffdjen,  33rubcrd)cn,  &c. 
We  say  §dnfct  (also  $anfc(  —  Rosegger),  .£dn3d)en,  Slnnd)en  (but  also  9lnnd)en 

—  Bismarck  to  Herr  von  Puttkamer,  April  5,  1848),  grdn$d)en,  9lc$d)en,  but 
usually  proper  names  remain  unmutated  :  £onnerl,  2ottd)en,  ^artcfcen,  &c. 

The  use  of  mutation  varies  a  good  deal :  graucfyen,  but  tfrduletn ;  Dnfetd)en, 
but  S5dterd)en,  3itngd)en  (also  3ungd)en  —  Sudermann's  Der  Stunngeselle 
Sokrates,  3,  3)  or  3ungetd)en  ;  £antd)en,  but  93d3d)en,  3Kuttcrd)en  (also  2)?utterdjen 

—  Sudermann's  D.  S.  S.,  I,  17  ;  Sdjroiegermuttddjen —  Hauptmann's  Friedens- 
fest,  p.  59),  &c. 

d.  Sometimes  the  diminutives  are  fern,  according  to  the  natural  sex  instead 
of  neut.  according  to  grammatical  gender :  tie  (or  bag)  ©rctdjen  little  Mar- 
garet.    See  263. 1. 1.  2.  3.  4. 

e.  These  prefixes  are  usually  affixed  to  nouns  only,  but  in  familiar  language 
can  be  added  on  to  the  case  ending  or  the  stem  of  an  adjective  used  as  a 
noun,  and  also  to  other  parts  of  speech  '.  9lUerd)en  or  9Utd)en  dear  old  fellow, 
tncitt  licbcS  SDtcfcrdjen  (Raabe)  my  dear  fat  friend,  ©ebulbd)en  (noun  used  as  an 
imperative)  !    Just  have  a  little  patience !     3d)  hnfl  mid)   fad)td)cn  in  mettt 
S3ettd)cn  ftefjlen  (Goethe).    Smarting  (see/)  nod) !  Wait  a  moment !     25ie  jungcn 
aJldbdjenS,  bte  ftnb  ja  tyiet  fo  fetnittg  gc$egen  (M.  Dreyer's  In  Behandlung,  i). 
In  verbs  the  form  I  is  very  common :  Iddjeln  to  smile,  from  Iad?m  to  laugh, 
&c. ;  see  III.  2,  below. 

f.  In  dialect  these  suffixes  assume  various  forms  :  e(,  'I,  crt  in  Austria,  as 
in  53iifccl  boy,  jebcg  Albert  every  fiber,  SMnbcrl  (with  lengthened  stem,  after  the 
analogy  of  many  words  ending  in  cr)  necktie  ;  in  Switzerland  and  in  part  in 
Bavaria  t  and  It,  as  in  <£cpjn  Joseph,  Sftablt  =  SftaCcfyeu ;  tc  in  Wurttemberg, 
as  in  Jltnble ;  le  or  la  (pi.  ltd))  in  Franconia,  as  in  £tfd)[c,  pi.  ^tfct)ltdj ;  in  the 
North  fe,  cfc,  fen,  as  in  SWdfett  =  2)?dtd)en.  In  Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania 
ing  (see  7,  above)  is  still  used  in  its  original  meaning  as  a  diminutive  : 
Winning  =  JlinbdKit,  fanning  =  Jpdnbdien,  Shutting  =  9Jh"tttevrf)cn.  Writers  from 
the  ing-section  have  introduced  this  diminutive  into  literature  :  2Ba<3  btr 
cigcntlid)  fc^lt,  ntctn  3!od)ttng,  ba3  ivcip  id)  gatt5  gcttau  !  (M.  Dreyer's  Winterschlaf, 
l).  This  suffix  in  the  form  of -ling,  as  in  gosling,  has  diminutive  force  also 
in  English. 

Note  i.  The  Austrian  and  Swiss  dialects  are  especially  inclined  to  the  use  of 
diminutive  endings,  which  in  consequence  of  their  frequent  use  naturally  lose  somewhat 
of  their  force.  Hence  some  words,  as  ^>6tnl  (=  ^)orn(ctlt),  &c.,  are  often  found  with 
diminutive  ending,  whether  the  reference  is  to  something  small  or  large,  beautiful 
or  ugly. 

Note  2.  In  some  dialects,  as  in  Rhine-Frankish,  the  plural  of  ;d)en  becomes  ;d)er, 
the  ;d)cr  being  added  directly  to  the  simple  stem  or  to  a  lengthened  form,  made  by 
adding  cr :  bte  Sdmmd^cr  or  Sdmmcrdjev  =  bic  2dmmd)cn.  Also  nouns  whose  plurals 
do  not  end  in  et  may  add  this  er  to  the  stem  in  the  plural :  bte  2J?dbcvd)cr  =  3Rdbdjen. 

2.  These  suffixes  have  not  only  diminutive  force,  but  are  also 
used  to  express  the  idea  of  endearment,  tenderness,  comeliness, 
neatness,  something  affording  satisfaction  and  pleasure,  as  well 
as  the  idea  of  slyness,  stealth,  and  lastly  contempt.  These  ideas 
naturally  grew  up  out  of  that  of  littleness.  Here  kin  and  cfcett 
often  form  somewhat  different  shades  of  meaning.  In  the  literary 
language  of  the  North  d?m  has  usually  the  idea  of  endearment, 
comeliness,  sarcasm,  contempt,  slyness,  pleasure,  and  even  of 
largeness,  as  the  diminutive  is  often  used  ironically,  implying 
the  opposite  of  what  is  actually  asserted  :  <yraud>en  dear  wife, 
^apa'djen  dear  Papa,  «§ittcfyen  a  pretty  hat,  Jtd|ld;en  an  ornamental 


446  DERIVATIVES  245. 1. 8. 2. 

little  box  or  jewel  casket,  bie  jungen  ^errcfcen  the  young  gentlemen 
(sarcastic),  ein  $otentdt'd)en  an  insignificant  little  potentate,  ein  fyubfd)e§ 
<£ummd)en  a  nice  little  (meaning  a  big)  sum  of  money.  Sein,  besides 
its  use  in  beautiful  poetic  style,  is  also  found  sometimes  in  common 
style,  be  it  prose  or  poetry,  where  it  has  more  strictly  than  cfyett  the 
idea  of  littleness  and  more  intensely  the  idea  of  contempt :  ein 
«£unblein  a  little  dog,  but  ein  <§iutr>d;en  a  nice  dog ;  bag  arme  gefcfylagene 
Jtaiferletn  (a  contemptuous  reference  to  Napoleon  in  a  poem  appear- 
ing in  1813),  feifie  $fdfflein  (contempt.),  bag  $robuftlein  moberneti  Qluf* 
?ldrid)tg  (Spielhagen's  Was  will  das  werden,  I,  chap,  viii)  the  pro- 
duct of  modern  sham  enlightenment,  &c.  As  lein  is  so  little  used  in 
the  North  in  plain  prose,  the  simple  idea  of  littleness  is  best  expressed 
by  placing  the  adj.  tletn  before  the  noun.  In  South  German  authors 
the  very  opposite  use  of  lein  and  cfyen  above  mentioned  may  be  found. 
Setndenotes  something  nice  and  large,  and  cfyen  something  spoken  of  in 
a  sense  of  disparagement  and  littleness :  ein  @iebentrdufcert(Rosegger) 
a  nice  large  bunch  of  seven  cherries.  £)ag  Ie|te  fd^dbige  <ftned;td)en,  bag 
er  getyafct,  fyatte  Ujn  fd)on  feu  eintgen  3Bod;en  serlaffen  (G.  Keller).  @in  paar 
fd)Ied)te  ^dmmerd)en  (id.). 

The  two  forms  djen  and  lein  are  in  certain  cases  differently  dis- 
tributed, the  one  being  used  in  connection  with  certain  words,  the 
other  employed  with  others :  We  say  Dtyrld££d)en,  3&nb$d!|$en, 
£iefcd;en,  ein  bifjcfyen,  S3Iei6  nod}  ein  @tunbd)en  6ei  mir,  but  SBdiierletn, 
SBriinnlein,  fein  @d)erflein  beitragen,  <£etn  (Stitnblein  fjat  gefdilagen.  Some- 
times differentiation  takes  place:  S^aitcfyen  dear  wife  and  ^rdulein 
Miss ;  5DJdnnIein  and  SBetfclein  of  human  beings,  2)idnndien  and  2Betbdjen 
of  animals. 

In  a  large  number  of  idiomatic  figurative  words  and  expressions 
which  reveal  a  lively  play  of  imagination  or  feeling,  only  the 
diminutive  form  of  the  noun  is  used  :  ©dnfefitfjdjen  quotation  marks, 
Srdutein  Miss,  unmarried  woman,  ©rufafyen  dimple,  fetn  <Sd;dfd)en  fd;eren 
to  feather  one's  own  nest,  (ein  SOWttcfyen  on  eineni  fiifylen  to  vent  one's 
anger  upon  a  person,  ing  jVdufhften  ladjen  to  laugh  in  one's  sleeve,  &c. 
In  case  of  Srd'itlein,  d)en  is  in  colloquial  language  added  to  lein  to 
bring  out  the  diminutive  force  or  to  give  expression  to  the  idea  of 
endearment,  &c.,  as  the  original  meaning  of  the  lein  is  no  longer 
vividly  felt :  2)a  auf  bent  Stfd;,  gndbigeg  8rdiileind;en  (Sudermann's  Fritz- 
chen,  i). 

9.  iti§  (cognate  with  ness  as  in  goodness ;  see  14.  2,  below),  earlier 
in  the  period  also  nujj  (nufj)  especially  in  S.G.,a  neut.  and  less  com- 
monly fern.  (99.  2.  b  and  3.  c)  suffix,  usually  causing  mutation,  affixed 
to  verbs  (especially  such  as  have  prefixes),  nouns  and  adjectives,  to 
denote : 

a.  An  act,  performance,  activity,  function  or  something  concrete 
which  is  represented  as  having  active  force :  ©elobnig  vow,  SSagnig 
daring  deed,  Seforgnig  fear,  concern,  (Sretgnig  occurrence,  SBegrdfcmg 
funeral,  ®ebdd)tnig  memory,  23erftdnbnig  understanding,  comprehen- 
sion, 93ermdd?tnig  testament,  legacy,  •£nnbernig  hinderance,  that  which 
hinders,  5(rgernig  that  which  gives  offence. 

b.  That  which  is  the  result  or  object  of  the  activity  implied 


245.  1. 10.  2.      SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES  447 

in  the  verbal  stem  of  the  noun,  or  that  which  is  at  the  same 
time  the  result  of  an  action  and  yet  is  itself  an  active  force : 
93er^eicfymg  catalogue,  list,  ©rjeugnig  product,  Srgefmig  result,  SBeburfmg 
need,  that  which  one  needs,  23iint>ntg  alliance,  that  which  is  the 
result  of  union  and  at  the  same  time  has  active  binding  force. 

c.  A  condition  or  quality  or  something  concrete  which  possesses 
the  quality  indicated  by  the  stem  of  the  word :  ^infiermg  darkness, 
ftaulnig  rottenness,  ©efyeimmg  secret  thing,  a  secret,  SBittermg  bitter 
thing. 

d.  The  place  where  the  condition  implied  in  the  stem  of  the  word 
is  found  :  ©efangmg  prison,  lit.  a  place  where  one  is  caught,  SBUbnig 
wilderness. 

10.  i.  fat  or  its  more  common  weakened  form  fel  (O.H.G.  isal), 
usually  neut.,  but  in  a  few  cases  fem.  (99.  3.  c),  and  also  in  a  few 
cases  masc.  (99.  3.  c),  sometimes  causing  mutation.  They  are  usually 
found  after  verbal  stems,  and  only  in  several  instances  are  affixed  to 
nouns.  These  suffixes  have  in  part  a  force  similar  to  that  of  nig,  but 
differ  often  from  it  in  that  they  have  a  more  comprehensive  and  in- 
tensive force.  They  have  usually  an  abstract  meaning  and  contain 
a  collective  idea,  implying  that  the  activity  expressed  in  the  verbal 
stem  is  long  continued,  oft  repeated,  customary,  or  is  extended 
over  a  considerable  field,  or  is  associated  with  a  large  number  of 
objects.  Sometimes  they  may  take  on  concrete  meaning,  especially 
ffl.  Nouns  having  these  suffixes  denote  : 

a.  A  thing  which  is  represented  as  the  subject,  or  the  object, 
or  result  of  the  activity  implied  in  the  verbal  stem  of  the  noun  : 
£>ag  (Sdn'cffat  that  which  sends,  or  is  sent,  hence  fate,  destiny,  ber 
(Stopfet  that  which  stops,  a  stopper,  Dag  (also  ber)  ^a'cffet  that  which 
is  chopped,  chopped  feed,  bag  ftitflfet  that  which  is  filled  in,  stuffing, 
bag  Oiinnfal  that  which  has  resulted  from  flowing  water,  a  channel, 
watercourse,  bag  fiafefal  anything  (as  food,  drink,  encouragement, 
&c.)  which  refreshes  body  or  mind. 

b.  A  condition,  state,  or  an  action  :  bag  SBtrrfal  confusion,  confused 
state,  bie  Stu&fal  affliction,  bte  and  bag  SKufjfal  difficulty,  misery,  bag 
Srrfal  state  of  erring,  erring  course,  erring,  serious  error  (as  in 
religious  belief),  which  causes  a  train  of  errors.     In  these  same 
words  and  others  the  meaning  may  sometimes  become  more  con- 
crete, indicating  something  that  causes  this  condition  or  state,  or 
the  place  where  the  condition  is  found  or  the  action  takes  place : 
bag  2Ku|fciI  that  which  causes  misery,  bag  SEBebfal  that  which  causes 
serious  trouble,   sorrow,   bag  <2rt?eufal  that  which  instils  fear  and 
aversion,  a  monster,  bag  Srrfal  a  place  where  one  can  easily  err, 
a  labyrinth. 

c.  <2ct  often  denotes  something  insignificant  or  contemptible  :  bag 
fttJerfcleifcfel  something  left  over,  remnant,  bag  ©cfcfyreibfel  a  miserably 
written  production,  bag  ^erwovlmnajel  inferior  production.    (Srfdjacfyert, 
inborn  er  fiiv  ein  SWitbringfel  (insignificant  acquisition)  unfrc  ©tyre  preiggafc 
(Fontane's  Schach  von  Wuthenow,  chap.  6). 

2.  In  derivatives  in  ig  formed  from  words  in  *fat,  this  suffix 
becomes  fcl :  5Bef)faI  sorrow,  but  ivebjelig  sorrowful.  Sometimes  the 


448  DERIVATIVES  245. 1.  10.  2. 

original  noun  has  gone  out  of  use:  armfelig  miserable,  from  M.H.G. 
armsal,  misery.  This  (dig  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  adj. 
felu]  in  compounds  such  as  gottfelig  pious,  rebfeltg  talkative. 

11.  frfjaft  (from  fd)affen  to  shape,  create ;  cognate  with  Eng.  ship 
as  in  friendship],  once  an  independent  noun,  now  a  fem.  suffix, 
affixed  to  the  sing,  or  pi.  of  nouns,  also  to  adjectives,  participles, 
and  verbs,  to  denote  : 

a.  An  act,  activity:  SBanberfcfyaft  travelling,  journeying,  Urtjefcerfdjaft 
act  of  originating,  authorship,  Saterfdjaft  perpetration,  JHecfyenfcfyaft 
account,  9Birtf$aft  management  of  a  house,  business  or  government, 
SBtfjenfcfyaft  scientific  study,  4?errfd?aft  rule,  authority,  Jfaufnumnfdjaft 
business  of  a  merchant,   ©efanfctfcfycift   duties  and  position  of  an 
ambassador,  embassy. 

This  suffix  often  assumes  concrete  meaning,  denoting  some 
person  carrying  on  the  activity  or  something  which  is  associated 
with  it  or  resulting  from  it :  bte  «§errfd)aft  master  or  mistress  or 
according  to  c  both,  SBirtfcfynft  restaurant,  ©efanbtfdjaft  dwelling  or 
office  of  an  ambassador,  (Srrungeufcfyaft  something  won,  achievement, 
SBiffenfcfyaft  news,  information. 

b.  Conduct,  attitude,  relationship,  condition  :  33ruberfd)aft,  or  now 
more  commonly  Sriiberfdjaft  relationship  of  brothers,  close  friendship, 
8'reunbfdjaft  friendship,  Setnbfdjaft  enmity,  SWeifhrfdjaft  championship, 
9Bemtfd?aft  readiness,  @efangenfd?aft  captivity,  9Brautfcfa;aft  state  of  being 
betrothed,  engagement,  5Bttivenfd)aft  widowhood. 

c.  A  collective  idea :  SBijfenfdjaft  science,  SBrufcetfdkft  or  now  more 
commonly  33ruberfd?aft  fraternity,  33urgerfd)aft  all  the  citizens  of  a  place, 
meine  >§errfcfyaften !  (in  direct  address)  ladies  and  gentlemen !  Jtcwfmamts 
fdjaft  all  the  merchants  of  a  place,  ©efanbtfdjaft  embassy,  an  ambassador 
with  his  corps  of  assistants,  Ottfdjaft  city,  town,  village,  SBirtfdjaft 
family,  doings,  goings-on,  <£>tnterlaffmfd)aft  property  left  by  a  person 
at  his  death,  33rtend)aften  papers,  written  documents. 

12.  tel,  reduced  form  of  $eit  part,  a  neuter  suffix  added  to  the 
stem  of  ordinals  to  form  fractions.     The  final  t  of  the  stem  of  the 
ordinal  is  dropped  before  the  t  of  the  suffix :  S5rittel  third,  (Sedjftel 
sixth,  SrcanjtjjfieL    See  also  126.  2.  a. 

Note.  Both  ordinal  and  suffix  were  formerly  independent  words:  M.H.G.  daz 
viinfte  teil.  Later  both  words  entered  into  a  compound.  By  reason  of  its  weak  accent 
in  the  compound  tett  has  been  reduced  to  let.  This  change  of  the  noun  £etl  when  it 
becomes  the  unaccented  component  of  a  compound  has  taken  place  in  the  present 
period,  and  fitly  illustrates  the  process  by  which,  in  general,  words  used  as  component 
elements  have  gradually  under  loss  of  accent  changed  their  form,  and  at  last  lost  their 
identity  with  the  original  word.  £etl  was  formerly  masc.  or  neut.  The  suffix  tel  is 
now  exclusively  neut.,  and  the  noun  Xetl  is  almost  always  masc.,  and  thus  the  two 
forms  differing  in  form  and  gender  are  drifting  apart.  Preceding  the  change  of  form 
the  suffix  usually  takes  on  a  little  different  shade  of  meaning  which  facilitates  the 
separation  from  the  original  word  and  the  change  of  form. 

13.  i.  turn  (cognate  with  Eng.  dom  as  in  kingdom),  once  an 
independent  noun,  now  a  neuter  (except  in  the  two  masc.  nouns 
SRetcfytum  wealth,  Srttitm  error)  suffix,  added  to  nouns,  adjectives, 
and  verbs,  to  denote : 

a.  The  dignity,  rank,  profession  of  the  class  of  persons  mentioned 


245. 1. 14.  i.  a.       SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES  449 

in  the  stem  of  the  noun,  with  all  the  peculiar  characteristics  which 
attach  to  such  a  dignity,  rank,  or  profession :  Jtatfertum  office  and 
power  of  an  emperor,  ^rieftertum  priesthood. 

b.  A  condition,  state,  or  an  action  :    ©iecfytum  a  state  of  poor 
health,  2Bacfy3tum  a  state  of  healthy  growth,  9fteid)tum  wealthy  state, 
3rrtum  state  of  error,  erring,  error. 

c.  A  collective  idea :  SBiirgertum  the  citizens  of  a  place,  Subentum 
the  Jewish  people,  jJtetcfytitm  all  that  which  is  implied  by  the  word 
'rich/  riches,  Qlltertum  all  that  period  of  time  which  can  be  said 
to  have  age,  antiquity.     These  words  may  also  take  on  concrete 
meaning :  «§>eiltcjtum  sanctuary,  Jlaifertum  empire,  (Stgentum  property, 
lit.  all  that  which  is  one's  own,  Ulltertitm  an  object  that  has  been 
preserved  from  a  former  age. 

Note.  If  tum  and  fdjaft  may  both  be  affixed  to  the  same  stem  to  show  the  collective 
idea,  there  is  a  little  shade  of  difference  in  their  meaning.  The  latter  marks  more 
distinctly  the  collective  idea,  the  former  the  dignity  or  the  peculiar  character  or  nature 
which  attaches  to  the  dignity,  rank,  or  profession  :  ^rteflerfdjaft  priests  taken  collec- 
tively, sprieflertum  peculiar  character  and  nature  of  the  priesthood. 

2.  The  suffixes  Ijett,  fcfyaft,  turn  had  originally  about  the  same  force, 
and  are  still  so  used,  but  in  cases  where  these  suffixes  are  added 
to  the  same  stem  as  in  the  Note  above,  differentiation  of  meaning 
usually  takes  place  :  (Hjrifienfyeit  Christian  world,  Gtfyrtftentitm  Chris- 
tianity, peculiar  character  and  nature  of  the  Christian  faith  and 
life;  (ligentum  property,  (Stgenfyeit  peculiarity, ©igenfcfyaft  quality ;  SSeretts 
fcfyaft  outward  readiness,  preparedness,  23ereitfyett  inward  readiness, 
willingness.  Their  use  is  sometimes  subject  to  caprice,  not  to  a 
fixed  difference  of  meaning :  «§eibenfcfyaft  heathenism,  heathen  world, 
but  GJjriflenljett  Christianity,  Christian  world. 

14.  i.  ting  (cognate  with  Eng.  ing  as  in  warning],  usually  a  fern, 
suffix,  affixed  in  most  cases  to  the  stem  of  transitive  verbs,  especially 
compounds  and  derivatives,  rarely  to  the  stem  of  nouns.  It  is  related 
to  f\n$  (see  7,  above),  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the  few  words  where 
the  suffix  is  masculine :  bie  9U6elungen  the  children  of  the  mist 
(iUefcel),  name  usually  given  to  the  sons  and  vassals  of  iUtfoelung, 
a  mythical  king ;  «&ornung  (here  «£>orn  =  corner  as  in  Old  Norse) 
February,  literally  cornerling,  one  who  takes  a  back  seat,  i.  e. 
unimportant  in  amount  of  days  in  comparison  with  the  other 
months.  Others  explain  4?ornung  as  the  little  Horn,  January  being 
the  large  Horn. 

The  feminine  suffix  has  become  exceedingly  fruitful  and  is  now 
used  to  denote : 

a.  An  activity :  SBeroadjung  guarding,  SBeiraffnunq  arming,  (Srjteljiing 
education.  This  suffix  gives  the  noun  sometimes  almost  pure 
verbal  force,  so  that  it  can  usually  take  a  dependent  objective 
genitive  and  sometimes  a  real  direct  object,  which  must  then  be 
written  as  one  word  with  the  verbal  noun,  and  sometimes  it  takes  a 
prepositional  phrase  with  almost  the  force  of  an  adverbial  modifier: 
bte  (Srjte^ung  ber  Jlnaben  the  education  of  the  boys,  Jtnafcenerjteljung  (see 
also  249.  II.  i.  D.(i))  the  education  of  boys,  bte  SBefreiung  ouS  bee  Sttot 


450  DERIVATIVES  245.  1. 14.  i.  a. 

deliverance  from  distress.  It  is  also  added  to  intransitive  stems  : 
Die  SMnben  ftiflten  bie  SBlutung  The  bandages  stopped  the  bleeding. 
With  intransitive  stems  it  can  take  a  predicate  noun,  which  is 
written  as  one  word  with  the  verbal  substantive :  bie  SKenfcfytrerbung 
the  incarnation,  lit.  the  becoming  a  man.  These  derivatives  cannot 
only  have  active  force  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  but  also  some- 
times passive  and  even  reflexive  force :  @eine  (Srfyebung  auf  ben  Jfyron 
tterbanfte  er  feinen  (Siegen  He  owed  his  being  raised  upon  the  throne 
to  his  victories.  3n  ber  Dpferung  fiir  anbere  fetner  <£eele  ®lucf  ^u  ftnbcn, 
ift  nur  njenigen  gegeben  Only  a  few  find  happiness  of  soul  in  sacrificing 
themselves  for  others.  See  189. 

Note.  These  derivatives  with  verbal  force,  though  still  much  used,  seem  to  be  be- 
coming less  popular,  as  many  formations  common  in  the  eighteenth  century  and 
even  later  are  now  replaced  by  shorter  formations:  bie  (Srbltcfung  (Goethe),  now 
replaced  by  bet  Slnbluf ;  bie  3urudne(jmung  (Lessing),  now  bie  Surucfnahme ;  bie 
Seftidjung  (Wieland),  now  ber  93efud) ;  bie  (SrUaummg  (Wieland),  now  bag  (Jrftaunen ; 
bie  fflefc&Uejjung  (Heinrich  v.  Kleist),  now  93efdjlujj,  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  the  use 
of  these  derivatives  seems  to  be  growing  more  frequent  in  that  common  construction 
which  prefers  to  clothe  the  chief  idea  of  the  predicate  in  the  form  of  a  noun  rather 
than  that  of  a  verb  :  (§8  hnrb  in  (Srttxigung  gejogen  (instead  of  ertrogen)  It  is  being 
considered.  !Da$  @tucf  ftn'rb  balb  gitr  2luffuf)ruttg  gebradjt  (instead  of  aufgefiifcrt)  The 
piece  will  soon  be  played.  See  252.  i.  a.  Note  2. 

b.  A  condition,  state :  Qlufregung  excitement,  93eftemmung  anxiety. 

c.  Sometimes  it  denotes   something  concrete  which  is  closely 
associated  with  an  activity  in  the  relation  of  a  result,  product, 
means,  place,  &c. :   Seicfynung  the  product  of  drawing,  a  drawing, 
©rfrifdjung  refreshment,  that  by  which  we  are  refreshed,  Jtletbung 
that  with  which  one  is  clothed,  i.  e.  clothes,  SBofjnung  a  dwelling- 
house,  SBtegung  a  bend  in  the  road,  Jtriintmung  a  turn  in  the  river, 
gefiunci  fortress,  0tteberung  low  ground. 

d.  A  collective  idea,  since  a  number  may  be  engaged  together  in 
the  same  activity :  SRegteriing  government,  SBebteniing  body  of  servants 
in  a  house,  SBemcmmmg  crew.     This  collective  idea  is  also  seen  in 
derivatives  from  nouns  and  such  as  are  now  felt  as  belonging  to  a 
noun  :  SBalbung  large  forest  (in  its  entirety),  «£oljitng  wood,  grove, 
SBefagung  garrison,  &c. 

2.  The  suffix  m3  sometimes  approaches  near  to  the  force  of  ung : 
93erlo6nig  or  SSerlobung  betrothal,  £tnbermS  and  QSerfyinberung  hinderance, 
&c.  However,  in  most  cases  the  verbal  force  is  stronger  in  ung,  as 
can  be  seen  in  the  objective  gen.  which  may  follow  it.  In  other 
cases  the  meaning  of  the  two  suffixes  drifts  still  farther  apart : 
SBilbntS  picture,  lit.  that  which  has  been  formed,  Stlbung  education, 
culture,  lit.  that  which  has  been  formed ;  (SrgetmiS  result,  (Srgefcung 
resignation,  submission. 

15.  A  few  suffixes  which  were  originally  used  in  forming  proper 
names  are  later,  as  also  to-day,  used  in  common  class  nouns : 

a.  bolb  (from  M.H.G.  bait)  bold:  Seopolb  (the  bold  one  among  the 
people).  This  suffix  in  common  class  nouns  indicates  an  inclination 
to  that  which  is  indicated  by  the  stem  of  the  derivative :  SBtfcbolb 
wit,  one  fond  of  getting  off  witty  things,  9ftauf  bolb  one  fond  of  getting 
into  a  fight,  £runfenbolb  drunkard,  &c. 


245. 1.  17.          SUBSTANTIVAL  SUFFIXES  451 

Note.  Jtcfcolb  does  not  belong  here.  It  is  derived  from  Jtobetl  house  (formerly 
for  human  beings,  but  now  in  the  sense  of  pig-sty)  and  jftjalt  protector  or  Ijolb  favorably 
inclined  to,  formerly  applied  to  friendly  house-spirits,  now  usually  to  unfriendly  spirits 
in  general. 

b.  iait,  Low  German  form  of  3otyctnne8  John,  added  to  adjectival 
and  verbal  stems  to  indicate  a  person  endowed  with  the  quality 
or  inclined  to  the  activity  expressed  in  the  stem  of  the  derivative : 
£>ummerjau  a  stupid  fellow,  lit.  stupid  Jack,  SKurrjan  grumbling 
fellow. 

This  suffix  may  be  replaced  by  the  foreign  suffix  ian  of  like 
meaning ;  hence  there  is  sometimes  a  double  form,  as  in  Summer* 
jcm  or  S5ummrian.  Some  have  more  commonly  the  foreign  form : 
©robtan,  @d?tenbrtan,  &c. 

16.  A  few  suffixes  occur  only  in  a  few  words  and  have  a  force 
that  is  not  always  felt  distinctly : 

a.  id)t,  usually  a  neut.,  sometimes  a  masc.   suffix,  sometimes 
both,  affixed   to   nouns,  adjectives,  verbs  to   denote  a  collective 
idea:  bag  jRof)rtd)t  reeds  or  a  place  where  reeds  grow,  bag  J)idHd)t 
thicket,  ber  or  ba3  ,ftefyrid)t  sweepings,  &c. 

b.  rtc&,  in  Gothic  an  independent  word  reiks  ruler,  in  M.H.G.  an 
adjective  rich  mighty,  rich,  surviving  in  the  adjective  reicfy  rich  and 
the  suffix  rid?,  which  is  affixed  to  names  of  persons  and  plants  with  its 
original  meaning  ruler,  but  weakened  in  force  :  Sriebrid?  Frederic,  lit. 
prince  of  peace,  SBegerid)  plantain,  liL  ruler  of  the  road,  &c.     (Snterid? 
is  of  different  origin.    The  last  part  of  the  word  is  of  the  same  origin 
as  Eng.  drake.    The  first  part  is  the  German  (Snte.     ©anferid)  and 
Sd'u&erid;  have  been  formed  after  the  analogy  of  (Snterid). 

c.  lib,  present  participle  ending,  but  not  felt  as  such ;  hence  all 
words  with  this  suffix  have  the  inflection  of  nouns  and  are  true 
fossils :  £ei(anb  (fyeilen  to  heal)  the  Savior,  lit.  the  healing  one,  8Btnb 
(treljeu  to  blow)  wind,   freinb  (Gothic  fijan,  to  hate)  enemy,  $reunb 
(Gothic  frijon,  to  love)  friend,  &c. 

d.  tf),  a  masc.  suffix  found  in  a  few  names  of  plants,  animals,  and 
things  :  5tttid?  dwarf-elder,  Jtranid)  crane,  SBotttdj  vat,  &c. 

e.  A  few  in  at,  ut :   bie  ^eimat  native  city,  ber  2Nonat  month,  bie 
5lrmut  poverty,  &c. 

/  A  few  in  ig,  mostly  masc.:  3"fu3  greenfinch,  Jtdftg  cage,  ba8 
QReifta,  brush-wood. 

Note.  In  a  few  words  ig  is  the  reduced  form  of  an  earlier  ing  (see  7,  above)  : 
Jtonig  (O.H.G.  kuning  head  of  the  triGe)  king,  pfennig  or  until  recently  also  ^Pftniting 
penny. 

17.  The  names  of  a  number  of  rivers  and  smaller  streams  and 
places  named  from  them  end  in  ad)  =  M.H.G.  ahe  river=  Latin 
aqua.     The  names  of  rivers  and  streams  are  feminine,  but  the 
names  of  places  are  of  course  neuter  according  to  the  rule  for 
such  names.     This  suffix  is  not  a  genuine  suffix,  as  it  is  in  the 
Alps  also  used  as  an  independent  noun,  bie  9ld?  or  in  the  fuller 
form  Qld)e  little  stream :  bie  4)afteiner  Qld?e  (tributary  of  the  Salzach). 
In  Jlufjnacfyt  (place)  it  has  the  form  of  ad?t. 

Gg2 


452  DERIVATIVES  245. 1.  18. 

18.  at,  an  accented  foreign  suffix  from  the  Latin  -atus,  affixed  to 
foreign  stems  to  denote  a  rank,  office,  position,  building  where  the 
office-holder  resides,  state.  It  is  always  neuter  in  a  number  of 
words,  as  Oteftorat'  rectorship,  Jt  onfulat'  consulship,  $afbrat'  pastor- 
ate, parsonage.  In  others  under  learned  influences  the  masculine 
gender  is  also  found  as  in  Latin :  bag  and  ber  (£6Ii6at'  celibacy, 
bag  and  ber  (Spiffityat'  episcopate,  bag  and  ber  $rimat'  primateship, 
&c.  In  2ftagiftrat/  city  council,  Ornat'  official  costume,  Sraftat'  treaty, 
treatise,  it  is  usually  masculine. 


II.  Derivative  Adjectives. 

1.  artio,   (=  5trt  kind,  manner  +  ig),  an   independent   adjective 
with  the  meaning  well-behaved,  and  also  added  as  a  suffix  to  nouns 
and  adjectives  to  indicate  a  kind,  manner,  resemblance  :  nalarttg  like 
an  eel,  eely,  fcergartig  resembling  a  mountain,  turmarttg  tower-like, 
&c.  ;  frembarttg  strange,  gropavtig  .grand,  magnificent,  gutartig  good- 
natured,  &c.  :  ein  oalartiger  lofting  ;  nut  feiner  affenartigen  ©efcfyrcinfctgfett. 
5trtig  is  now  felt  as  a  suffix,  but  in  a  number  of  cases  the  real  suffix 
is  ig  :  gutartig  =  gute  2lrt  +  ig  ;  &c, 

2.  bar  (from  be'rn,  to  carry,  bear),  once  an  independent  adj.  bari 
bearing,  now  a  suffix,  affixed  to  nouns  and  verbs,  to  denote  : 

a.  That  the  stem-  word  in  the  derivative  is  the  object  of  the  verb 
that  is  implied  in  the  suffix  :  fdnffbar  navigable,  lit.  bearing  a  ship, 
frucfytfcar  fertile,  lit.  bearing  fruit,  banffcar  grateful,  lit.  bearing  thanks. 

b.  The  possibility  or  ability  to  perform,  or  more  commonly  to 
receive  the  activity  implied  in  the  stem  of  the  derivative  :  jireitfcar 
able  to  fight,  legbar  legible,  capable  of  being  read,  gang&ar  passable, 
fldjtbar  visible. 


Note.     In  some  words  both  active  and  passive  force  lies  in  fat.;   Ijattbare 
strong  linen,  linen  that  will  hold  ;  eine  Ijaltbare  33eljauphing  a  tenable  assertion,  one 
that  can  be  held. 

c.  Rarely  with  other  parts  of  speech  :  offentar,  fonberBar. 

3.  en  (M.H.G.  in),  it  (after  er),  ent,  a  suffix  sometimes  causing 
mutation,  affixed  to  a  name  of  a  material  to  indicate  that  the 
substantive  which  the  adj.  modifies  represents  an  object  made  of 
that  material  :  gotben  golden,  tyanfen  or  tyanfen  hempen,  fUfcern  silver, 
tydljern  wooden. 

a.  The  form  en  is  usually  added  to  the  stem  of  the  noun  unless 
the  latter  ends  in  e  or  er,  in  which  case  only  n  is  added  :  9Botle  wool, 
woflen  woolen  ;  Jtupfer  copper,  fupfern  copper  (adj.).  In  a  number  of 
cases  the  suffix  n  is  added  to  the  plural  of  such  words  as  form  a  pi. 
in  er:  £olj  wood,  tybljern  wooden;  <5)Ia§  glass,  gldfern  glass,  of 
glass.  After  the  analogy  -of  many  adjectives  thus  ending  in  ern 
a  number  liave  likewise  mutated  the  stem  vowel  and  added  ern  to 
the  stem  as  if  this  were  the  regular  suffix,  especially  in  cases  of 
stems  ending  in  I,  n,  8  :  ftat)tern  steel,  fcetnern  made  of  bone,  fteinern 
made  of  stone,  jinnern  tin,  tonern  earthen,  roacfyfern  waxen. 


245.  II.  7.  i.  c.        ADJECTIVAL  SUFFIXES  453 

Note.  As  explained  in  73.  «,  the  et  of  the  plural  of  nouns  was  originally  not  a 
plural  case  ending,  but  a  suffix  which  was  also  found  in  the  singular.  Thus  in  case 
of  nouns  ending  in  ;€t  in  the  plural  the  adjective  suffix  n  is  only  seemingly  added  to 
the  plural,  as  it  was  in  fact  originally  added  to  the  singular.  The  ;er  in  the  plural  of 
nouns,  however,  has  long  been  felt  and  construed  as  a  plural  case  ending,  as  the  ?er  of 
the  singular  was  dropped  and  its  existence  forgotten.  Thus  the  ;er  in  the  adjective 
suffix  ;tm  is  now  felt  as  belonging  to  the  plural  of  the  noun  in  question,  or  as  a  forma- 
tion made  after  the  analogy  of  such  words,  while  in  fact  it  is  a  fossit  remnant  of  the 
original  stem  suffix.  In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  not  really  the  old  stem  suffix,  as 
words  not  entitled  to  it  have  only  assumed  it  after  the  analogy  of  the  original  group. 

b.  This  suffix  denotes  that  the  object  in  question  is  entirely  made 
of  the  mentioned  material  :  f)6I$erne  SSdnf  e  wooden  benches,  but  fjoljige 
JRftticje  radishes  of  a  woody  fibre. 

c.  This  suffix  is  not  much  used  in  the  predicate;  being  there 
replaced  by  the  preposition  »on  and  a  noun,  and  in  the  attributive 
relation  is  sometimes  replaced  by  a  compound  noun  :  2)er  $if$  ift 
Son  <§olj.    5WarmorfduIc  marble  pillar,  instead  of  marmorne  <£dute.    But 
in  elevated  diction  the  suffix  is  also  found  in  the  predicate  :  3)er 
@tut)I  ift  elfenfceinern,  barauf  ber  Jlatfcr  jl£t  (Riickert's  Barbarossa}.     In 
figurative  use  adjectives  with  this  suffix  are  quite  commonly  found 
in  the  predicate  :  @etn  ©eflcfyt  irat  je§t  grau  unb  fieinern  (rigid)  rote  boS 
ber  Otiefen  am  $or  (Volkmann's  Die  beiden  IVeiser). 

4.  erlci/  see  126.  i.  a. 

5.  fad),  see  126.  i.  b. 

6.  faltt$,  see  126.  i.  b. 

7.  Tjaft  (related  to  £aft  clasp),  once  an  independent  adjective,  now 
a  mere  suffix.     It  is  usually  added  directly  to  the  stem,  but  a 
number  of  weak   masculines  take   en   between   stem  and   suffix, 
which  is  probably  felt  as  a  weak  genitive  ending,  although  corre- 
sponding  strong  genitive   formations    do    not   occur  .-     bdtenfyaft, 
fna&entjaft,  fyelbenfjaft,  riefenfyaft,  but  fcfyulerfyaft,  metftertyaft,  &c. 

The  leading  points  as  to  use  and  form  are  as  follows: 
i.   a.  Added  to  abstract  nouns,  it  represents  something  as  in- 
fected with,  marred  by,  or  as  possessing  the  qualities  implied  in 
the  stem  of  the  derivative  :  funbtyaft  sinful,  laflerfyaft  vicious,  fetylertyaft 
faulty,  tiiflcnbfyaft  virtuous,  fcfyamfyaft  bashful,  &c. 

b.  Added  to  concrete  nouns  it  represents  something  as  possessing 
or  inclining  towards  the  thing  or  the  characteristics  of  the  thing 
mentioned  in  the  stem  of  the  derivative  :  tetlfyaft  having  a  part, 
share  in,  fefj^aft  having  a  dwelling,  settled,  icofyntjaft  residing,  fd?alf« 
fyaft  having  the  characteristics  of  a  wag,  waggish,  tiefenfyaft  gigantic, 
schoolboy-like. 


Note.  Here  jfyaft  touches  close  to  ;if<§  and  ;ltdj  ;  Ijelbettljaft  and  Ijclbifd)  heroic, 
Qottlid)  divine. 

c.  In  the  adjectives  boStjaft  malicious,  franftjaft  morbid,  roafjr^aft 
truthful,  lecfertyaft  loving  nice  things  to  eat,  &c.,  it  represents  persons 
as  resembling  in  their  manner  and  ways  the  attribute  mentioned 
in  the  stem  or  as  having  a  fondness  for  things  possessing  this 
attribute. 


454  DERIVATIVES  245.  II.  7.  i.  d. 

d.  Added  to  verbal  stems  it  implies  an  inclination  towards  that 
which  is  mentioned  in  the  stem-word,  or  indicates  that  the  person 
or  thing  to  which  reference  is  made  possesses  something  which  is 
connected  with  the  activity  mentioned  in  the  stem-word :  nafdjtyaft 
fond  of  eating  tit-bits,  fcfyrcafctjaft  talkative,  fcfymetcfyelfyaft  containing 
something  which  flatters,  hence  complimentary,  glaufcfyaft  containing 
that  which  inspires  belief,  hence  credible,  trustworthy,  ef  elfyaft  contain- 
ing that  which  nauseates. 

2.  In  some  words  the  lengthened  form  *fyaftig  is  also  used  with 
the  same  general  meaning  as  the  shorter  one :  ircu^rfjaftig  truthful, 
tetlfyaftig  having  a  part,  share  in,  lei&tyaftig  bodily,  in  person,  &c. 
The  4g  is  always  thus  added  before  *tt\i  to  form  abstract  nouns : 
tugenb^aft  virtuous,  Saigenbljafttgfeit  virtuousness. 

8.  id)t,  closely  related  in  origin  and  meaning  to  *tg  (see  9,  below), 
so  that  in  most  cases  it  has  been  entirely  supplanted  by  the  latter, 
or  survives  only  as  a  less  common  variant :  bergtcfyt,  or  more  com- 
monly fcergig,  &c.    Only  the  form  toricbt  is  established.    Grammarians 
since  Adelung's  day  have  without  fixed  results  tried  to  establish 
in  a  few  cases  a  shade  of  difference  between  *ig  and  *ifyt.     In  the 
former  should  lie  the  idea  of  having  or  possessing  the  thing  men- 
tioned in  the  stem  of  the  derivative,  while  icfyt  should  denote  only 
an  outward  resemblance:  fieintge  5lcfer  stony  fields  fletnicfyte  SMrnen 
pears  which  are  as  hard  as  stone. 

a.  In  M.H.G.  =tcfyt  appears  as  e"ht,  oht,  aht,  and  hence  there 
is  no  mutation  in  these  words,  except  toricfyt  foolish. 

b.  Formerly  «id)t  was  most  common  after  the  suffix  «el,  and  is 
still  occasionally  found  there  in  the  form  of  *\$  instead  of  the  more 
common  tg;   fiinf  »on  ben  ireifjimdntttcfyen  Jlitrafjleren  (Fontane's  Vor 
dem  Sturm,  III,  chap.  12);  furjarmlicfy  (id.,  Ill,  4). 

c.  In  S.G.  dialect  id)t  often  appears  as  et:  flad^aaret  for  flacfyg* 
fyaatig,  &c. 

9.  ig  (cognate  with  y  in  hungry},  a  very  common  suffix  with  the 
general  meaning  of  having,  possessing.     The  leading  points  as  to 
form  and  meaning  are  as  follows : 

1.  a.  Its  O.H.G.  form  was  ag  or  ig;  hence  there  have  resulted 
two  groups  of  words,  one  with  mutation,   the  other  without  it: 
frofh'g,  burftig,  &c.,  but  flitcfytig,  fiinbig,  &c. 

b.  It  is  affixed  to  all  parts  of  speech,  and  in  a  number  of  cases  it 
is  even  added  to  compounds  which  do  not  exist  outside  of  this 
combination,  as  in  fcielfopftg  many-headed  (but  not  93ielfopf). 

2.  Affixed  to  some  parts  of  speech,  it  has  a  definite  meaning, 
while  after  others  it  is  a  mere  mechanical  form  used  to  make  an 
adj.  out  of  some  other  part  of  speech.     The  following  points  may 
be  a  guide  as  to  its  use : 

A.  It  denotes : 

a.  The  possession  or  the  presence  of  the  thing  implied  in  the 
stem  of  the  noun :  fonntg  sunny,  bufcfyig  bushy,  fletfjtg  diligent,  fanbtg 
sandy.  This  idea  leads  sometimes  to  a  causative  relation  :  freubige 
Stacfyrtcfyten  news  that  contains  joy,  hence  news  which  makes  us 
rejoice,  fcerbocfytig  causing,  arousing  suspicion. 


245.  11.10.  i.       ADJECTIVAL  SUFFIXES  455 

b.  The  presence  of  the  quality  implied  in  the  adj.  stem,  usually, 
however,  in  a  less  degree  or  a  different  shade :    fpifc  running  to 
a  sharp  point,  fpifcig  (possibly  from  the  noun  <8pi§e)  pointed ;  fett  fat, 
fettig  greasy ;   lafj  wearied,  Idfftg  indolent,  lacking  energy. 

c.  An  inclination  toward  or  a  quality  naturally  associated  with 
the  activity  implied  in  the  verbal  stem  :  bifftg  inclined  to  bite  (as  of 
a  dog),  brumnug  inclined  to  grumble,  fdfjig  (fafyen  =  fangen)  capable, 
gefdtlig  of  a  nature  such  as  to  please,  agreeable,  ergiebig  productive, 
freigebig  liberal,  fdflig  due,  lit.  which  should  now  fall  or  be  paid, 
Ijartfjotig  hard  of  hearing. 

d.  It  has  much  the  same  force  as  tynft.     Some  stems  regularly 
take  the  one  suffix,  some  the  other,  and  some  have  both.     If  both 
suffixes  are  added  to  the  same  stem,  they  sometimes  have  the  same 
force,  sometimes  a  differentiation  of  meaning :  flatfcfyig  or  flatfd^aft 
prone  to  gossip ;  fyer;ig  lovely,  but  fyfrjtyaft  courageous ;  gldubig  believing, 
but  gfaubfyaft  inspiring  belief,  credible. 

B.  It  is  a  mere  formal  suffix  used  to  make  an  adj.  out  of  other 
parts  of  speech,  when  added  to  the  stem  of  pronouns,  prepositions, 
and  adverbs  :  berjenige,  ber  metnige,  bte  itbrigen  (uber  over,  above)  ^erfoneu 
the  remaining  persons,  bte  je|igc  (jefct  now)  5ftobe  the  present  fashion, 
bie  tyeutige  (tjeute  to-day)  3*i*"ng  to-day's  newspaper,  ber  obtge  <2a£  the 
above  sentence,  bie  bortigen  ©ebrducfye  the  customs  of  that  place.  In 
a  few  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  the  stem  is  shortened  :  bie 
morgige  5eier,  in  ber  itbermorgtgeit  (Strung  (Sudermann's  Der  Sturmgeselle 
Sokrates,  i,  15).  In  several  cases  an  f  is  now,  contrary  to  earlier 
usage,  inserted  between  the  adverbial  stem  and  the  suffix  to  prevent 
two  vowels  from  coming  together :  bie  fytejtgen  (fyie  here)  ftabrifen  the 
factories  of  this  place,  baftg  (ba  there)  of  that  place.  Thus  also  any 
noun  or  expression  denoting  the  time  or  duration  of  an  act  or  state 
may  take  on  adjective  function  by  affixing  ig  :  ba3  ndcfytige  QBegfcfyleppen 
ber  Qtngeflagten  the  dragging  away  of  the  accused  in  the  night,  biefe 
oierjefynmoncuige  <§aft  this  fourteen  months'  imprisonment.  Also  lid? 
can  be  affixed  to  such  nouns  and  expressions,  but  it  denotes  the 
repetition  or  manner  of  the  activity ;  see  11.  2.  A.  e,  f.  All  such 
formations  in  ig  and  licfy  are  in  fact  true  adverbs,  as  they  denote 
some  circumstance  of  time,  place,  or  manner,  and  hence  are 
adjectives  only  in  form. 

10.  ifdj  (cognate  with  Eng.  ish  as  in  childish}  or  frf>  (see  i.  a,  below), 
a  common  suffix  denoting  a  belonging  to  that  mentioned  in  the  stem 
of  the  derivative.  This  original  meaning  can  still  be  seen  in  the 
following  groups  which  illustrate  its  present  use  as  to  meaning  and 
form : 

i.  Affixed  to  names  of  persons,  countries,  peoples,  districts,  and 
places,  it  usually  has  the  force  of  an  English  noun  in  the  possessive 
case,  or  the  objective  after  the  prep,  of,  and  thus  indicates  a 
belonging  to,  or  something  concerning,  or  a  coming  or  descent 
from  the  person,  people,  or  place  mentioned  in  the  stem,  or 
indicates  a  participation  in  their  personal  or  local  peculiarities 
and  characteristics :  bie  <8cfytrrmacfyer?cb,e  «£>typotf)ef  the  mortgage  held 
(,  i.  e.  owned)  by  Mr.  Schirrmacher,  baS  <2c^mibtj'(^e  4?au3  the  Smith 


456  DERIVATIVES  245.  II.  10.  i. 

residence,  bie  $reifcelfd)en  2)tnerg  the  dinners  given  by  the  Treibels, 
ber  Jtommer^ienrat  Sreifcelfdje  Jtutfd;er  the  coachman  of  Mr.  Treibel, 
councillor  of  commerce,  ein  €>d;nttbtfd;eg  £ie6linggtf)ema  a  favorite 
theme  of  Mr.  Schmidt,  bag  (Scfymibtfcfye  that  which  characterizes 
a  true  Schmidt,  id?  perfonltd)  tin  ntefyr  ing  ®iegfyii6Ierfd)e  gefdjlagen 
I  myself  have  taken  more  after  the  Gieshilblers  (the  father's  side 
of  the  speaker's  family),  bte  $aitl  <§ei)fefd)en  SftooeUen  Paul  Heyse's 
novelettes,  bag  <£>atttfd)e  2Batfenf;aug  the  Orphans'  Home  of  Halle, 
bte  ftrajj&urgifdje  llnttterffta't  the  University  of  Strassburg,  bie  barm* 
ftabtifdje  23ent»altung  the  government  of  the  city  of  Darmstadt,  bie 
romifdje  ®efd)td)te  the  history  of  Rome,  or  Roman  history. 

Adjectives  formed  from  names  of  persons  do  not  suffer  mutation, 
and  likewise  most  adjectives  from  names  of  places,  but  a  few,  as 
tyannijtterifd;  or  Ijannouerifcty,  rontifd?,  and  those  in  =jkbt  (frtebrid)fia'bttfd), 
&c.,  after  the  analogy  of  fta'btifd)  formed  from  the  common  noun 
<Stabt),  are  mutated.  Those  derived  from  names  of  peoples  usually 
mutate  :  franftfd),  fronjoftfd),  jubifdj,  fad?ftfd),  &c.  A  number,  however, 
especially  foreign  words  and  new  formations,  do  not  suffer  muta- 
tion :  amertfantfd),  artfd),  gotifd?,  rufftfd),  fpanifd),  &c. 

a.  The  original  method  of  adding  the  suffix  was  to  affix   it 
directly  to  the  simple  stem,  as  in  fcrentifd),  ®oetf)ifd),  but  the  modern 
trend   is   to   shorten   the   suffix   to   fdj   (also   'f<$),   and    then   add 
it  to  the  full  name :    fcremenfd?,  ©oetljefd).     In  this  way  the  name 
is  not  mutilated,  and  can  always  be  inferred  from  the  adjective 
form.     Proper  adjectives  do  not  uniformly  follow  this  new  trend, 
however,    and    hence   both   forms   are   found.      The   full    suffix 
ifd)  is  still  used  if  the  preceding  syllable  is  accented :    «§ome'rifd?, 
«§ora'$tfd),  &c.     Differentiation  of  meaning  between  the  two  forms 
sometimes  takes  place.     The  form  fdj  is  employed  where  there  is 
reference  to  one  person,  and  ifd)  where  the  meaning  becomes  general 
or  abstract :  bte  Suttyerfdje  €>prad)e  Luther's  language,  but  bie  Iut§e'rifd?e 
(see  also  47.  2.  A.  d)  •Strdje  the  Lutheran  church.     The  form  ifdj  is 
most  commonly  employed  thus  in  the  predicate  relation :  bie  ©ott* 
fcfyebfdje  Drtfyogra^ie  the  orthography  of  Gottsched,  but  2>ie  Drtfyograpfyie 
ifl  ®ottfd)ebifd;.    2)ie  Stanfifcfye  or  more  commonly  9^anfefd;e  SOBeltgefdjicfyte 
Ranke's  History  of  the  World,  but  (Sr  cerfudjt  jn?ar  Sftanfe  nad)^ual;men, 
afcer  fetne  5)arfieUung  Hingt  gar  nid^t  9lan!ifd).     However,  we  also  now 
find  the  shortened  form  in  the  predicate :  Sfyte  Sofung  ifl  t)ier  ja,  trir 
ftnb  fonferoatty,  fe^r,   after  nid)t   3?igmarrffd;  (Bismarck  to  his  wife, 
July  20,   1849).      3a,  6ortnnd)en,  in  biefem  93elang  fcift  bit  and)  ganj 
©djmtbtfd?  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap.  n).      ©mil,  ber  $rofeffor, 
SBruber  beS  SRajorg,  ein  grower  sjiefleidpt  s?on  alien  am  rcemgften  @*)fenfd?  au8« 
fetyenber  2)?ann  (G.  Ompteda)  looking  least  of  all  like  an  Eysen 
(family). 

b.  Many  names  of  cities  form  indeclinable  adjectives  in  =er  (see 
111.  7.  a)  instead  of  taking  (i)fd),  and  some  admit  of  either  suffix : 
£tmlhtrger  Jtafe    Limburg   cheese,   ber  folntfd)e    or  Joiner  2)om   the 
cathedral  of  Cologne.     It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  only 
the   form    in   (i)frt)   can   be   used   in   the   substantive    relation   or 
predicatively  in  the  adjective  relation:    Dag  S3erlimfd?e  the  dialect 


245.  II.  10.  2.  b.    ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES  457 

of  Berlin,  not  bag  Setliner.     J)a8  ijl  SBetlinifcf)  (not  Serliner)  that  is 
a  Berlin  trait. 


I.  Also  some  names  of  countries  or  sections  of  a  country  take  the  suffix  ;er 
instead  of  tfd),  especially  @cjj»eijer.  (or  fcfcttietjevifd)),  ^clldnber  (or  fyottdnbtfd}), 
.§olfteiner  (orfyolftetnifd)),  ©djwarjwdlber  (very  common,  as  in  @d?U>ar*lr>dlbcr  Ufiren), 
and  the  names  of  many  Austrian  states  or  sections  :  !£)a{matiner  21'etn,  ifldrnthner 
Siebcr,  33anatcr  ©renjfclbat,  drainer  J&oijlen,  ©tetyrer  25agen,  £iro(er  Sanbfturnt,  &c. 
Grammarians  do  not  favor  such,  and  other  similar  formations,  but  some  of  them  are 
more  or  less  widely  used. 

Note  2.  The  adjectives  of  this  group  which  take  ifd)  usually  add  the  suffix  directly 
to  the  name,  but  fcfywetjertfd)  and  tt>tenerifd)  regularly  suffix  tfd)  to  the  lengthened 
form  in  ;er. 

c.  In  a  number  of  cases  usage  adopts  here  the  Latin  adjective 
suffixes  anus,  inus,  and  ensis,  converting,  however,  the  last  syllable 
into  ijcfy:  amerifa'nifdj  American,  florenti'nifd)  Florentine,  axemen/fifty 
or  attye'nifd?  Athenian,  &c.  The  foreign  form  should  be  avoided  in 
case  of  German  words  :  fyannooerifcfy  or  f)anno»ertfcfy  rather  than  fyanno* 
oerantfcfy  ;  tcetmarifcfy  rather  than  rceimaranifcfy  j  &c. 

2.  Affixed  to  common  nouns  denoting  persons  or  things,  it  de- 
notes : 

a.  The  peculiar  manner  and  character  of  the  class  of  persons 
or  things  mentioned  in  the  stem  word  :   teitfltfcfy  devilish,  bicfytertfcfy 
poetic,  fwgerifcfy  warlike,  erftnberifd)  inventive,  tierifcb;  animal,  brutal, 
tyofifcfy  courtly,  fawning,   ftdbtifcfy  after  the  manner  of  city  people, 
trbifcfy  earthly,  fyoflifcfy  infernal,  bemofvattfcfy  democratic,  &c.     There 
are  a  few  contracted  forms:   beutfcfy  (O.H.G.  diot  people  +  ifcfy,  used 
of  the  popular  language  in  contradistinction  to  the  Latin  of  the 
learned  class)  German  ;  -iKenfdj  (contracted  form  of  mdnnifcfy,  hence 
originally  an  adjective)  human  being  =  Latin  homo;   l)i'tbfcfy  (origi- 
nally another  form  of  §6fifcfy  courtly,  but  now  with  differentiated 
meaning)  pretty. 

The  suffix  usually  causes  mutation  here.  Those  in  scrifd?,  how- 
ever, only  mutate  when  the  stem  word  is  mutated  :  trdumerifcfy,  from 
3!rdumer  ;  but  malerifcfy,  from  Staler. 

Note.  Here  tfdj  has  the  signification  of  Itdj,  but  when  both  can  be  added  to  the 
same  word  their  meanings  often  diverge,  the  former  sometimes  taking  on  a  disparaging 
sense:  finblicf)  child-like  (in  a  good  sense),  finbtfd)  childish;  uxibltd)  womanly, 
ftetbifdj  (in  early  N.H.G.  still  in  good  sense  ;  see  Peter  iii.  7)  womanish  ;  mdmtlid) 
manly,  utdnnifd)  (see  also  £)  like  a  man,  when  used  in  a  derogatory  sense  of  a  woman, 
or  coarse,  when  used  of  a  man,  referring  to  his  lack  of  refinement  ;  l)6fHdj  polite, 
Ijofifd)  fawning,  &c.  Thus  nouns  meaning  primarily  something  good,  as  *Red)t  right, 
©ott  God,  3  ittigfrau  virgin,  do  not  usually  take  ifdj,  and  those  signifying  something 
bad,  as  <£atan  Satan,  Stbgctt  idol,  do  not  take  Ii$.  On  the  other  hand,  ifdj  does  in 
some  words  occur  in  a  good  sense  :  3cfy  bin  fetn  £elb,  itnb  bci$  £elbifd)e  Idjjt  fid)  nidfjt 
Icrnen  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap.  viii).  @r  braudje  ja  nitr  etit  Saufrngetnanb,  benn 
fyerrifd)  (dressed  like  a  gentleman)  burfe  niemanb  fommen  (Berlepsch's  fortunate 
Roman,  p.  183). 

b.  Somebody  or  something  concerned  or  connected  with,   or 
restricted  to  that  which  is  mentioned  in  the  stem  word,  usually 
causing  mutation  only  in  native  German  words  :  f)iftorifcfy  historical, 
Vt)iloloijifd)  philological,   feeltfcfy  of  the  soul,  eitt  gireimdnmfcfyeg  (pro- 
vine.;  or  more  commonly  jireifcfyldfertgeg)  SBett  a  bed  for  two  persons. 
We  usually  find  mdnnltcfy  male,  njetblicfy  female,  on  account  of  the  dis- 


458  DERIVATIVES  245.  II.  10. 2.  b. 

paraging  sense  often  found  in  *ifd),  but  mannifd)  is  quite  commonly 
used  in  a  good  sense  in  compounds :  mdnnltd^e  <Stubenten,  but  in  fadb,= 
mannifcfyen  Jlretfen  in  professional  circles,  fcmfmdnntfrfje  SBejieljungen,  &c. 

Note.  Though  tfdj,  here  as  in  a,  has  the  same  general  meaning  as  (id),  it  is 
decidedly  the  favorite  with  words  of  foreign  origin,  as  nicely  illustrated  by  the  following 
sentence :  Unb  bod),  Uebet  $enfc,  id?  med)te  finite,  icenn  e3  gefjt,  etwad  anbercg  »on 
Sfiiun  fcoren  als  Jtulinatifd)e$  cber  Sriifitiucflidjea  (Fontane's  Unwiederbringlich, 
chap.  16).  Compare  3.  A.  c  under  lid),  below. 

c.  As  in  i  above,  it  contains  the  possessive  idea,  but  this  idea  is 
more  commonly  expressed  in  this  category  by  lid?  (see  11.  2.  A.  b, 
below) :  tierifdje  ©ercebe  tissues  of  animals,  animal  tissues,  but  £flan$= 
Itcfye  ©ercefce,  &c. 

3.  Affixed  to  stems  of  abstract  nouns  or  verbs,  it  denotes  an  in- 
clination toward  the  thing  or  quality  denoted  by  the  stem,  usually 
causing  mutation :   gcinfifd?  quarrelsome,  wdHfd)  inclined  to   tease, 
droll,  miirnfd)  morose.     This  is  a  favorite  formation  with  the  people, 
who  extend  it  beyond  the  literary  limits :  OtoBinfon  ipt  immer  fo  menu], 
irieirot)l  er  ben  <Streu$eI  ungefyeuer  gern  mag.     5l6er  fo  ftnb  bte  (Sngldnber,  fie 
jtnb  nid)t  fo  giigretffd;  (Frau  Imme  in  Fontane's  Stechlin,  chap.  14, 
p.  186). 

Note.  Here  f\\i)  has  the  same  force  as  ;toaft  and  ;tg,  some  stems  preferring  one 
suffix,  some  another.  Also  ;fant  has  the  same  general  force,  but  it  differs  from  the 
other  three  in  not  having  as  wide  a  range  of  meanings,  expressing  usually  only  an 
inclination  toward  praiseworthy  things  :  folflfam  obedient ;  arbeitfam  industrious. 

4.  It  is  suffixed  to  an  adj.  in  the  one  word  linfifd)  awkward,  lit. 
left-handed,  to  an  adverb  in  tyeimtfd)  home-like,  to  a  pronoun  in 
felbftifdj  selfish. 

5.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  4frt)  after  stems  in  =er,  as  in  2, 
above,  has  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  the  suffix  is  ^erifd;,  as  can  be 
seen  in  tegnertfcfy  rainy. 

11.  Hcfc  (cognate  with  Eng.  ly  as  in.  friendly),  once  an  independent 
word,  now  a  suffix  with  the  general  meaning  of  resembling  or 
befitting  that  which  is  contained  in  the  stem  of  the  derivative. 
The  following  points  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  its  use : 

i.  It  is  affixed  to  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs :  mdnnltd;  manly, 
rotlicfy  reddish,  wjldnblirt)  intelligible,  fcegreifltcfy  conceivable. 

a.  When  4icfy   is   added  to  the   present  part.,  b  appears  as  t, 
according  to  older  usage :   tjoffentlicfy  as  is  to  be  hoped,  iriffentltcfy 
wilful.     After  the  manner  of  these  part,  adjectives,  other  adjectives 
have   inserted   a   t :    rcocfyentlicfy  weekly,   gelegentlicfy    occasional,  &c. 
Other  good  grammarians  look  at  this  matter  differently.     They 
regard  the  t  in  all  these  cases  to  be  an  excrescent  growth,  as 
it  does  not  usually  appear  in   the    M.H.G.   period.     Thus   the 
basal   component  according  to  this  view  is  the  infinitive   (rciffen, 
&c.).     In  case  of  tunlid?  the  infinitive  form  is  actually  found,  but 
earlier  in  the  period  tulicfy  was  also  common. 

b.  In  some  words  the  lengthened  form  *erltd)  is  found  instead 
of  ltd? :  Iad?erlid?,  leferlid),  furcfyterlid;,  &c. 

c.  If  the  stem-word  is  a  monosyllable  the  vowel  is  mutated,  except 

i'tltd;/  gebanflid;,  glaublid;,fad;ltd;,fanglid;, 


245.  1  1.  11.2.  B.  a.    ADJECTIVAL  SUFFIXES  459 

forgtid?,  fportlid?,  fpracfylicb,  ftaatlicfy,  flattlid),  taugltd),  unerforfdjlid),  fcerbaulid;, 
n?afyrlid),  nnberrufltd?.  If  the  stem-word  is  a  dissyllabic,  it  is  also 
sometimes  mutated  :  23ruberlid?,  mittterlid),  oaterlicfy,  jdmnterlid;,  neSenfdd?* 
ltd).  The  same  stem-word  may  be  mutated  or  not  with  a  difference 
of  meaning  :  fdd?lid?  neuter,  fad)(id?  sticking  to  the  question  at  hand. 

2.  It  differs  somewhat  in  meaning  according  to  the  part  of  speech 
to  which  it  is  affixed  : 

A.  Affixed  to  nouns  it  denotes  : 

a.  An  attribute  which  naturally  belongs  to  the  person  or  thing 
denoted  by  the  stem  :  ein  t>dterlid?er  Otat  a  piece  of  paternal  advice, 
ntdnnlicfyer  5Kut  manly  courage  ;  feftltd)  festive,  tyerbftltd)  autumn-like, 
autumnal.     2Rir  \]i  nur  immer  merfrcitrbig,  ba§  bit,  nebert  Corner  ttnb  fogar 
neben  (£d?Iiemann,  mit  folder  SSorliebe  ,ftodf&ud)ltd?e3  (matters  which  be- 
long to  a  cook-book)  befycmbelft  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap.  vii). 

b.  Possession  or  origin,  often  equivalent  to  an  attributive  genitive  : 
faiferlid?e  (Sdjloffcr  castles  of  the  emperor,  pfianjltcfye  ©nrebe  tissues  of 
plants,  plant  tissues,  fprad)lid?e  (ftgenfyetten  peculiarities  of  speech,  fein 
mittterlicfyeJS  33ermogen  property  inherited  from  his  mother,  ein  ntittterltdjer 
£)ljm  an  uncle  on  the  mother's  side.     Compare  10.  2.  c,  above. 

c.  Something  concerning,  or  concerned  or  connected  with,  or 
effected  by  that  which  is  mentioned  in  the  stem-word  :    nebenfdcfylid} 
concerning   a   minor  point,   of  secondary  importance,   £iterarifd)e3 
matters  with  regard  to  literature,  Briiljfiiirflid^eg  (Fontane's  Unwieder- 
bringlich,  chap.  16)  matters  pertaining  to  breakfast,  frieblid?  peaceful, 
dngftlid)  anxious,  ftnnltdje  SBatjrndjmung  perception  through  the  senses, 
^ottjftltdjeg   Ginfdjretten  intervention   by  the   police,   fitnftlid;e 
artificial  teeth.     Compare  10.  2.  b.  Note,  above,  under  s\]fy, 


Note.  Notice  the  difference  here  between_;tg  and  4idj  :  bet  frentbfpracf)Ii(ie 
ridjt  instruction  in  foreign  languages,  but  C  fiemtd)  ift  ein  Wtetfprac^tgefJ  8anb  ttnb  ^at 
JWeii  unb  bretfpradjtge  (Smitten  Austria  is  a  land  in  which  many  languages  are  spoken, 
and  hence  it  has  schools  in  which  two  or  even  three  languages  are  used  as  mediums 
for  imparting  instruction. 

d.  Somebody  afflicted  or  blessed  with  that  which  is  mentioned 
in  the  stem-word  :  gebred/lid?  afflicted  with  infirmities,  glitcflid?  happy. 

e.  Repetition  :  eine  jafjrltd^e  Oteife  a  journey  taken  every  year,  ein 
tdglicfyer  (^afl  a  daily  guest.    In  such  cases  ig  would  denote  duration  : 
eine  gjceijd^rtge  9Reife  a  journey  that  lasts  two  years. 

f.  An  attribute  of  an  abstract  noun,  indicating  the  manner  in 
which  an  activity  proceeds  :  eine  tdtltd;e  33etctbigung  an  insult  offered 
in  the  way  of  blows,  brief  lid?e   Qtueftinft   information   obtained   by 
letter,  eine  fdmftltd?e  3»r^?«r»«3  a  written  assurance.     The  suffix  is, 
with  this  meaning,  also  added  to  adjectives,  as  ein  gdnglid?er  2)Janget 
a  complete  lack.     Such  adjectives  are  really  adverbs  in  the  form  of 
adjectives,  and  hence  cannot  be  attributes  of  objects,  as  they  only 
modify  the  activity  implied  in  the  noun.    Even  when  such  adjectives 
modify  nouns  representing  persons,  they  refer  more  to  the  activity 
exercised  than  to  the  persons  :  ein  glurflid>er  (Spieler  a  lucky  gambler. 

B.  Affixed  to  adjectives  and  participles  it  has  : 
a.  Adverbial  force,  being  used  just  as  the  derivatives  from  nouns 
described  in  A./  above,  to  denote  an  attribute  of  an  abstract,  verbal 


460  DERIVATIVES  245.  II.  11.  2.  B.  a. 


noun  :  bitterltd)  bitterly,  fcoflig  complete,  gdn$ttrf)  complete, 
wilful  (sin,  lie),  gutlicfy  amicable,  &c.  Ex.  :  bie  gutlidje  SBetfegung  beS 
@treite§  the  amicable  settlement  of  the  quarrel.  In  a  number  of 
cases  such  formations  are  only  used  adverbially  :  fretltcfy  to  be  sure, 
surely,  fur^Iicfy  lately,  befanntltd;  as  is  well  known,  &c.  ;  see  also  IV. 
2.  b,  below. 

b.  Diminutive  force  with  reference  to  things  and  the  idea  of 
inclination  toward  when  applied  to  persons  :    fcfyredrflltcij  blackish, 
Itinglid?  oblong,  runblid?  roundish,  &c.  ;  flemlicfy  inclined  to  be  small, 
pedantic,  mean-souled,  frdnflid)  sickly,  fufllid)  sweetish,  affected,  soft, 
fulsome,  &c. 

Note.  Earlier  in  the  period  and  in  dialect  still  the  form  Itdjt  is  found  :  2)er  <£onne 
rotlid&ter  Untergang  (Schiller). 

c.  In   other  cases  where  there    is  a  simple  adjective  and  a 
derivative  in  licfy,  a  differentiation  of  meaning  takes  place:    arm 
poor,  a  rnilidj  having  the  outward  signs  of  poverty  ;  &c. 

C.  Affixed  to  verbs  it  has  : 

a.  Active  force,  representing  the  person  or  thing  to  which  it 
refers  as  acting,  or  acting  upon  something  :  erbaulid)  edifying,  fcfydb= 
lid)  injurious,  [corner  glidj  painful,  &c.     Exs.  :   etn  imtet|)altu'ctye8  SSeib 
(Anzengruber's  Schandfleck,  chap.  21),  etroaS  ttef  Setrublicbeg  (Fon- 
tane's  Unwiederbrmglich,  chap.  22),  ntcfyt^  gcrabeju  33erfUmmIidje3  (id., 
Stechlin,  chap.  viii). 

b.  Passive  force,  representing  the  person  or  thing  to  which  it 
refers  as  a  possible  or  deserving   (usually  in    a   reprehensible 
sense)  recipient  of  an  action  :   beftecfylid)  capable  of  being  bribed, 
bribable,  berceglicfy  movable,  fafjUcfy  comprehensible,  jtrdfltcfy  deserving 
punishment,  fcerrcerfltdj  deserving  rejection,  bad,  abominable,  &c. 

£icfy  here  touches  close  to  s&ar,  but  is  more  common  in  composition 
with  prefixes,  and  not  so  common  with  simple  stems  :  6red?&ar,  fcrenn* 
Bar,  &c.,  not  usually  fcrecfyltdj,  brennlicfy,  &c.,  on  the  other  hand  more 
commonly  jerfcrecfyltcfy,  oerbrennlid?,  &c.  The  =bar,  however,  can  also 
usually  be  employed  here,  as  it  has  a  little  different  shade  of 
meaning  :  it  has  more  verbal  force  and  emphasizes  the  idea  of 
possibility.  £tcfy,  however,  is  always  used  in  moglicfy,  letbltcfy,  unau8= 
fiefjlicfy,  itblid),  lofcltcfy,  &c» 

c.  Either  active  or  passive  force,  as  the  verb  has  active  or  passive 
meaning  :  jerbrecfyHcfy,  oerbrennltcfy,  &c.    The  positive  form  is  sometimes 
active,  while  the  negative  form  is  passive  :  oergefjlid;  forgetful,  but 
unfcergefilicfy  never  to  be  forgotten,  &c. 

3.  The  meanings  of  4tcfy  often  touch  very  close  to  those  of  4>aft 
and  *bar.  When  =lid)  and  *l)aft,  or  =lid?  and  «bar,  may  be  added  to  the 
same  stem  or  two  stems  of  kindred  meanings,  the  different  words 
sometimes  have  about  the  same  force  :  @3  rear  bei  aflent  Santltcfyen 
etreag  aii^gefyrocfyen  DnfelfcafteS  in  ber  Qlrt  unb  SBcife,  itie  fie  baS  junge 
angftlic^e  5DJdbc^en  an  ben  4?anbgelenfen  ffgriff  (Raabe's  Eulenpfingsten, 
chap.  5).  Sometimes  a  shade  appears  :  fcfcabfyaft  injured,  broken, 
fcfyabltcfy  injurious  ;  fcfymer^aft  accompanied  with  pain,  as  eine  fcfymerj* 
l^afte  Jlranf^eit,  SSunbe,  Dperatton,  f^mcrjli^  causing  pain,  as  eine 


245.  II.  12.2.        ADJECTIVAL   SUFFIXES  461 

fdjmerjttdje  $flid)t ;  foftfcar  costly,  fofHicfy  precious ;  leSSar  legible,  also 
readable,  interesting,  leferlid)  legible.  See  12.  i.  b.  Note,  below. 

12.  fam,  related  to  the  Latin  similis  similar,  Eng.  same  and  -some 
(,  as  in  winsome),  and  German  famt  together  with,  denoting  originally 
a  close,  intimate  connection  with  or  similarity,  but  this  meaning 
cannot  always  easily  be  detected. 

It  is  now  usually  affixed  : 

1.  To  abstract  nouns  and  'verbs  to  denote : 

a.  An  inclination   toward  a   thing  implied  in  the  stem  of  the 
noun,  or  an  attribute  which  naturally  belongs  to  it :  forgfam  careful, 
furcfytfam   (originally   belonging   here,    but   now  felt   as   belonging 
to  b)  timid,  geujaltfam  violent,  rcounefam  delightful,  mafjfam  requiring 
laborious  toil. 

Note.  Here  jfattt  touches  close  to  slid),  sometimes  with  no  difference,  sometimes 
with  a  greater  or  less  variation  of  meaning,  ;fattt  referring  more  to  the  inclination  of 
the  mind  and  character,  and  ;licfj  pointing  more  to  the  exterior  nature  of  the  thing  in 
question:  ein  frubfamer  9Kenfdj  a  peaceful  man,  but  eilt  frtebttdjea  £al  a  peaceful 
valley  ;  ftttfant  inclined  to  keep  within  the  bounds  of  proper  conduct,  modest,  but  fitt(tti) 
moral,  concerning  or  conforming  to  the  established  code  of  morals.  Other  shades 
appear :  hnmberfam  (poetic  for  nntnbevbat)  wonderful,  tounberltdj  queer ;  eljrfam 
honorable  (used  to-day  in  a  half  comical  sense),  ebtlidj  honest,  upright. 

b.  In  a  passive  sense  a  possibility  that  the  activity  implied  in 
the  verbal  stem  may  be  performed,  or  in  an  active  sense  a  pos- 
sibility of  performing  it,  or  a  natural  inclination  to  do  so :   fcilbfani 
capable   of   being    moulded,    fashioned,    tfegfam    flexible,    tctrffant 
efficacious,  capable  of  making  an  effect,  ftetbfam  becoming,  folgfam 
willing    to    follow,   obedient,    fcfyrccigfam    taciturn,    fyarfam    saving, 
economical,  fiorfam  disturbing,  apt  to  disturb. 

Note.  The  suffixes  jfcar,  ;tidj,  and  t-fam  here  touch  close  to  each  other  in  their 
passive  meaning,  sometimes  blending  entirely  together,  sometimes  diverging.  In  ;bflt 
lies  often  the  general  idea  that  something  can  be  done,  while  4tdj  implies  sometimes 
more  particularly  that  it  can  be  done  with  reasonable  ease:  -Ipartetf  jjleifdj  tfl  tttelleicfot 
tterbaubar,  aber  jebenfa((3  nidjt  cevbanltdj  Tough  meat  can  perhaps  be  digested,  but  at 
any  rate  it  cannot  easily  be  done.  Somewhat  different  from  ;{i(jj  is  ;fattt,  which  not 
only  implies  that  the  activity  can  be  performed  with  fair  ease,  but  also  indicates  that 
the  reason  for  the  easy  performance  lies  in  the  nature  of  the  object  in  question  :  25ie 
9J?eta((e  finb  behnbar  Metals  are  capable  of  being  drawn  out  (into  a  wire,  &c.),  but 
©olb  ift  fetor  bctjnfam  Gold  is  very  ductile.  Also  when  they  have  active  force  jfatlt 
and  ;li(jj  have  meanings  more  or  less  similar:  empftltblid)  sensitive,  entpjxntfam 
sentimental.  Sometimes  sbat  has  passive,  while  ;fant  has  active  force  :  furchtbat 
dreaded,  dreadful,  formidable  (cin  fur<i)tbare3  .RnegSheer,  ©emitter,  also  in  weakened 
meaning  :  eint  fltrd)tbare  -!pifee),  furdjtfam  fearing,  timid,  and,  with  a  meaning  differing 
somewhat  from  that  of  the  former,  furdjtctUcfj  instilling  fear,  horror  (as  in  tilt  furdjter* 
lidjea  ©ffcfyrei,  also  in  weakened  meaning:  tin  furdjterltcfyer  ©erudj). 

2.  Affixed  to  a  few  adjectives,  it  denotes  an  inclination  toward 
the  quality  indicated  by  the  stem  of  the  adjective  or  some  condition 
associated  with   it :    lancjfam   slow,  etnfant   lonely,    ijemeinfam  joint, 
common.     Differentiation  takes  place  also  here  between  adjectives 
in  4tcfy  and  »fam :  Idnglicfy  oblong,  langfam  slow ;  (un)Iteblicfy  (un)lovely, 
Itefcfam  (now  little  used)  affectionate,  urrlie&fam  (not  infrequent)  un- 
pleasant, disagreeable  (unlie&famtd  Qluffc^en  erregen,  unUefcfame  6rfal)= 
rungen  macfyen). 


462  DERIVATIVES  245.  II.  13. 

13.  jig  (in  the  form  of  fig  in  bretfjig),  formerly  an  independent 
noun  with  the  meaning  decade,  related  to  jefjn,  now  used  to  form 
numeral  adjectives  :  ^njan^ig,  &c.  In  the  lengthened  form  jtger  it  is 
also  employed  to  form  nouns  and  adjectives;  see  121.  2.  b  and  5. 


III.  Derivative  Verbs. 

Derivative  verbs,  which  are  in  most  part  weak,  constitute  by  far 
the  greatest  number  of  German  verbs.  They  cannot  only  be  formed 
from  simple  words  but  also  from  compounds,  as  explained  at  length 
in  217.  a.  b.  c. 

The  following  suffixes  are  used  in  the  formation  of  derivative 
verbs : 

1.  cu  (representing  older  jan,  on,  en),  sometimes  lengthened  to 
igcit  after  the  analogy  of  the  many  verbs  that  have  an  ig  in  the 
stem  preceding  en,  as  fyeiligen  to  hallow,  from  fyeiltg  holy.  Sometimes 
both  of  these  forms  may  be  added  to  the  same  stem  without  a  shade 
of  meaning,  sometimes  the  one  form  is  more  common  and  the  other 
more  choice,  sometimes  a  slight  shade  of  meaning  has  developed  : 
beenfcen  or  fceenbigen  to  end  ;  ftcfy  erfunben,  or  more  commonly  erfunbigen 
to  inquire ;  freu  ^en  to  cross,  freu  jigen  to  crucify ;  reinen  to  cleanse, 
reintgen  to  clean.  Derivatives  with  the  prefix  6e=  show  a  preference 
for  the  forms  in  igett;  see  246.  II.  i.d.Note.  The  same  tendency 
is  found  in  student  slang  :  berap^igen  to  pay  for  foramen. 

A  large  number  of  these  words  suffer  mutation  (d  often  appearing 
in  the  form  of  e)  of  the  stem-vowel,  as  they  had  a  j  in  the  suffix  (-jan) 
in  an  earlier  period  of  the  language :  fatten  (falljan)  to  fell,  legen 
(lagjan)  to  lay.  Mutation  has  become  very  popular,  spreading  by 
analogy  to  words  that  originally  had  no  j.  Mutation  is  in  general 
characteristic  of  transitives  and  the  lack  of  it  the  mark  of  in- 
transitives:  rodrmen  to  warm,  make  warm,  but  enrctrmen  to  grow 
warm. 

The  following  common  groups  illustrate  the  meaning  and  use 
of  this  suffix : 

(1)  Affixed  to  the  past  tense  of  intrans.  str.  verbs  it  makes  a 
trans,  factitive  verb  :  legen  to  lay  from  lag,  past  tense  of  Itegen  to  lie. 
See   197.  A.  d,    and   under  each   class   of  str.  verbs   (beginning 
at   art.  198)   for  a   full   treatment  of  this    interesting   group  of 
words. 

Also  other  derivatives  are  formed  from  the  gradation  forms  of 
strong  verbs.  For  examples  see  198.  2.  Division,  c. 

(2)  Affixed  to  the  positive  or  comparative  of  modifying  adjectives 
it  is  used  : 

(a)  To  make  factitive  verbs  :  fydrten  to  harden,  gasmen  to  tame, 
fjeijen  (from  fyeifii ;    see  197.  A.  d)  to   heat,  fcefreien  (fret)  to   free ; 
ttergrofjern  (grof?)  to  make  larger,  tterfcfylecfytern  to  make  worse. 

(b)  To  make  verbs  which  denote  a  passing  over  into  a  condition 
or  the  condition  itself:  faulen  to  rot,  errcarmm  to  grow  warm,  lawmen 
to  be  lame,  fyimgern  to  be  hungry. 


245.  III.  3.6.  VERBAL   SUFFIXES  463 

(3)  Affixed  to  sing,  or  pi.  of  nouns  it  denotes : 

(a)  An  activity  which  is  directed  toward  the  object  implied  in 
the  stem  of  the  noun,  or  which  is  employed  to  produce  or  procure 
this  object :  fopfen  to  cut  off  the  heads  or  tops,  er  Sldttert  (from  pi.  of 
the  noun)  ira  33ud)e  he  is  turning  over  the  pages  of  the  book,  locfyen 
(from  the  sing.)  to  put  in  the  lock-up,  lit.  hole,  burcfylocfyern  (from  the 
pi.)  to  punch  holes  in,  fwttetn  to  churn,  ftfdjen  to  fish. 

(b)  A  working  or  busying  oneself  with  the  object  implied  in  the 
stem  :  pfli'igen  to  plow,  eggen  to  harrow,  mei§eln  to  chisel. 

(c)  In  student  slang  verbs  are  made  from  nouns  in  the  freest 
manner  :  ocfyfeit  or  bujfeln  to  study  hard  (especially  for  examination), 
'  cram/  '  bone/  tjol^en  to  cane,  becfyettt  to  drink  freely,  &c. 

(4)  It  is  sometimes  affixed  to  other  parts  of  speech  : 

(a)  To  particles :  bejafyen  (ia)  to  answer  affirmatively,  uernemen  to 
answer  in  the  negative. 

(b)  To  numerals  :  tteteinigen  to  unite,  entjrceien  to  set  at  variance. 

(c)  To  interjections :  jiufyljet'en  to  call  out  jud$ei  (hurrah). 

2.  elit  (O.H.G.  ilon),  a  suffix  usually  causing  mutation,  added  to 
the  stem  of  verbs,  adjectives,  and  nouns,  to  express : 

a.  A  diminutive  idea :   lacfyelu  (lacfyen  to  laugh)  to  smile,  frdnfeln 
(franf  sick)  to  be  sickly,  rtefeln  to  drizzle,  mid?  frofWt  (ftroft  frost)  I  am 
chilly.     This  idea  naturally  leads  to  the  two  following: 

b.  The  idea  of  contempt  for  the  activity  or  quality  expressed  in 
the  stem  :   liebeln  to  dally,  frommeln  to  affect  piety,  fyeudjelu  to  play 
the  hypocrite.     It  is  also  added  to  nouns  to  indicate  an  activity 
which  from  association  with  the  thing  in  question  excites  merri- 
ment or  contempt :  ndfeln  to  talk  through  the  nose,  ffyirdbeln  to  talk 
like  a  (Sdjivabe  Swabian  (inhabitant  of  Wiirttemberg). 

c.  The  idea  of  interruptions  in  the  activity,  a  short  period  of 
activity  being  followed  by  a  short  pause,  hence  the  idea  of  the 
frequent  occurrence  and  repetition  of  an  activity :  betteln  to  beg  for 
a  living,  ivinfeln  to  whine,  ftretcfyeln  to  stroke,  f)dfcln  to  crochet,  lit.  to 
keep  hooking. 

3.  cm  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  era  which  arises  from  the 
addition  of  n  to  a  comparative  suffix  or  the  pi.  of  a  noun  as  men- 
tioned in  i.  (2).  (a)  and  (3).  (a)  above),  a  suffix  usually  affixed  to  the 
stem  of  verbs  to  express : 

a.  The  frequent  repetition  or  the  continuation  of  an  action  which 
is  often  conceived  of  as  proceeding  by  jerks  or  with  unsteady 
motion  :    fcfynattern  to  cackle  (like  geese),  ftottern  to  stutter,  flarfetit 
to  flicker,  flcttern  to  climb,  lit.  to  keep  on  sticking,  pldtfd?ern  to 
splash,  dabble. 

Note.  Here  eln  and  frit  approach  each  other  very  closely,  some  stems  preferring 
the  one  suffix,  other  stems  the  other  suffix.  Where  both  suffixes  may  be  added  to  the 
same  stem  ellt  expresses  a  weaker  activity  :  ttjaubcltt  to  saunter  along  slowly,  leisurely, 
Utanbern  to  go  from  one  place  to  another,  au3tt>anbern  to  emigrate ;  fdjutteln  to 
shake  (hands,  &c.),  fcfyuttctlt  to  shake  violently  (as  the  earth  in  an  earthquake,  or  the 
human  frame  under  the  influence  of  violent  emotion). 

b.  The  irresistible  desire  of  doing  that  which  is  implied  in  the 


DERIVATIVES  245.  III.  3.  b. 

stem,  especially  in  use  among  the  common  people  in  impersonal 
constructions :  mtcfy  fcfyltifert,  trinfert,  burfiert,  taitjcrt  I  feel  like  going 
to  sleep,  &c. 

c.  In  a  few  cases  it  makes  factitive  verbs  :  folgern  to  draw  a  con- 
clusion, to  conclude,  lit.  to  make  follow  out  of,  jleigern  to  raise  (the 
price),  to  increase,  lit.  to  make  ascend. 

4.  fen/  fdjjen,  Sett  with  iterative  force,  eitjett  (or  eln)  denoting 
likeness  or  inclination :  mucffen  to  mumble,  mutter  to  one's  self  in 
complaint,  flatfcfyen  to  clap  (with  the  hands),  dd^en  to  groan,  grunjen 
to  grunt,  bitjen  to  address  by  bu  thou,  fifdjen'gen  (or  ftfcbeln)  to  smell 
of  fish,  nrilben'jen  to  smell  or  taste  of  game,  pelm'jen  to  be  fond  of  the 
Poles  and  their  ways,  griecfyen'jen  to  imitate  the  Greeks,  fau'lenjen  to 
idle  away  one's  time. 

5.  tfyeiif  (felt/  pfen,  suffixes  which  in  reality  are  the  strengthening 
of  the  final  consonants  of  the  stem  to  express  a  strengthening  or 
intensification  of  the  meaning  of  the  stem  :  fyorcfyen  (fcoren  to  hear)  to 
listen,  fcttcfen  (fneqen  to  bend)  to  bow  humbly,  rupfen  (rcwfen  to  pull)  to 
pluck  (a  chicken). 

6.  ie'ren  (from  the  Old  French  ending  ier),  a  foreign  suffix,  hence 
the  accent.     It  has  no  distinct  meaning,  but  is  only  a  formal  sign 
of  the  infinitive,  affixed  not  only  to  foreign   stems  but  also  to 
German :    regte'ren  to  rule,  marfcbie'reu  to  march ;    fcucfyftafcie'ren.  to 
spell,  ftoljte'ten  to  strut. 

a.  From  the  last  half  of  the  twelfth  century  on,  foreign,  especially  French 
verbs  with  this  suffix  began  to  appear,  and  later  fairly  swarmed  into  the 
language,  assuming  quite  a  stylish,  aristocratic  tone  under  the  existing  literary, 
political,  and  social  supremacy  of  the  French,  but  now  for  some  time  the  tide 
has  turned,  and  they  are  disappearing,  and  a  number  have  sunk  to  the  level 
of  mere  slang,  or  imply  contempt,  or  mark  something  as  being  of  a  light, 
frivolous,  "  Frenchy  "  nature,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  following  ironical  sentence 
from  Lessing's  Minna  -von  Barnhelm,  3,2:    (5$  n>ar  em  ganger  SKenfcfy !  @r 
fonnte  frifteren  unb  rafteren  unb  ^arlteren  (palaver  or  here  perhaps  '  talk  French,' 
'  parley  voo ')  —  unb  {fyarmtcren  (flirt). 

b.  Notice  that  the  German  ending  en  is  added  to  the  foreign  infinitive 
ending,  so  that  there  are  in  fact  two  endings  in  all  these  words.     In  O.H.G. 
the  German  infinitive  ending  was  added  to  the  stem  of  the  foreign  word  :  tihton 
(from  Latin  dictare)  now  btdbten.     Sometimes  we  have  the  older  and  newer 
formation  side  by  side  with  differentiated  meaning :    bidden  and  btftteren ; 
orbnen  (L.  ordinare)  and  crbtmetcn ;  cpfern  (L.  operari)  and  cperimn ;  fpenbm 
(L.  spendere)  and  fpenbieren,  &c. 

7.  tfte'ren/  a  suffix  corresponding  in  large  part  to  the  English  ize : 
inobermfleren  to  modernize,  ttyrannifteren  to  tyrannize,  £c. 

8.  pi'cn,  a  suffix  corresponding  to  the  foreign  ending  ei  in  nouns 
and  the  M.H.G.  infinitive  ending  igen,  Ten.     It  has  no  distinct 
meaning :  proptyejei'en  to  prophesy,  faftet'en  to  chastise,  &c. 

General  Note.  It  should  be  noticed  that  all  these  verbal  suffixes  frequently  appear 
in  nouns,  as  the  infin.  of  a  verb  is  often  used  as  a  neut.  abstract  noun :  2)a$  (akijen 
ttmiibtt.  <£ie  fonnte  »oc  ©djluc&jen  nidjt  fpredjen. 


245. IV.  z.  d.     FORMATION   OF  ADVERBS  465 

IV.  Derivative  or  Compound  Adverbs. 

Most  adverbs  are  particles  which  are  derived  from  adjectives, 
participles,  nouns,  pronouns,  and  a  few  from  verbs.  Only  a  very 
few,  as  ja  yes,  were  originally  independent  words.  The  commonest 
of  the  adverbs  derived  from  other  words  may  be  divided  into  the 
following  groups  : 

1.  From  adjectives  and  participles,  by  casting  off  the  inflectional 
endings  :  gut  well,  fitfyn  boldly,  treffltcfy  excellently,  geletyrt  learnedly, 
cmSge^ficfynet  splendidly,  entjitcfenb  charmingly,  &c. 

a.  Adverbs  cannot  always  be  formed  directly  from  limiting  adjec- 
tives as  they  can  from  qualifying  adjectives,  and  sometimes  when 
there  is  an  adverbial  form  corresponding  to  a  limiting  adj.  they 
differ  considerably  in  form,  as  the  adv.  is  not  formed  directly  from 
a  case  form  of  the  adj.,  but  both  have  been  formed  from  a  common 
stem,  and  in  their  development  have  drifted  apart :  ber  that,  ba  there. 
Sometimes  the  limiting  adj.  is  younger  than  the  corresponding 
adverb,  and  has  been  formed  directly  from  it  by  adding  an  adj. 
suffix :  bamalS  at  that  time,  bet  bamaltge  Jfatfer  the  emperor  at  that 
time.     See  II.  9.  2.  B,  above. 

b.  Instead  of  assuming  the  simple  uninflected  form  of  the  adj. 
or  participle  the  adverb  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  case  of  the 
adjective  or  participle,  especially  the  gen.  in  =3 :  recfytS  to  the  right, 
Itnfg  to  the  left,  anfcerg  otherwise,  ritcfrcartS  backwards,  frereitS  already, 
but  in  South  Germany  almost,  jufet)enb3  perceptibly,  &c. 

2.  From  adjectives,  nouns,  and  sometimes  other  parts  of  speech 
by  adding  the  suffixes  *e,  *Itcfy,  4ing3,  =irtirt8 :   gerne  willingly,  enblicfy 
finally,  7iteud)Hng8  treacherously,  fubrodrtS  southward,  &c. 

a.  In  a  few  instances  there  is  still,  as  in  M.H.G.,  a  slight  formal 
difference  between  the  positive  of  adjectives  and  adverbs.     The 
adverb  adds  e  to  the  stem  of  the  adjectives,  or  if  the  adjective  has 
mutation  the  adverb  is  distinguished  from  it  by  taking  no  mutation ; 
see  222.  2.  E.  Note. 

b.  Some  adverbs,  especially  those  formed  from  adjectives  in  ig, 
were  formerly  distinguished  from  the  corresponding  adjectives  by 
suffixing  -\\^:    traurig  (adj.),   trauriglicfy  (adv.).     Also  to-day  a  few 
of  these  formations  in  *Iict)  are  only  used  as  adverbs,  as  frcfanntltd)/ 
eroiglid),  fdlfcfyHd),  freilicfy,  geiraltiglicfy,  gercitjlicfy,  fyocfyltcfy,  fitrjltd),  fcfyrcerlid?, 
ffcfyerlirf),  ttjafyrlidj.     A  number  of  formations  in  4icf;  are  adjectives 
only  in  form,  and  are  in  reality  adverbs  ;  see  II.  n.  2.  A./and  B.  a, 
above. 

c.  The  adverbial  suffix  Ain^S  (related  to  the  masc.  substantive 
suffix  «Itng)  is  suffixed  to  nouns,  adjectives,  verbal  stems,  preposi- 
tions, and  adverbs  to  denote  manner  or  indicate  position  or  direction 
toward :    fetiuefyltngS  lying   flat   on   one's   belly,  riicf  lingS   backward, 
fclinblingS  blindly,  rtttlingS  astraddle,  »orling8  forward.     This  suffix 
was  common  earlier  in  the  period,  often  in  the  form  lingen  or  ling, 
but  is  now  restricted  to  a  few  words. 

d.  The  suffix  ivdrtS  denotes  direction  toward  :  ofhudrtS, 

&c. 

Hh 


466  DERIVATIVES  245.  IV.  3. 

3.  From  nouns : 

A.  a.  From  the  cases  of  nouns,  especially  the  gen. :  93ormittag3  in 
the  forenoon,  teilg  partly,  rings  round  about,  2)onnergtag3  on  Thurs- 
days, recfyter  <&anb  to  the  right  hand,  unnotigetireife  unnecessarily  ;  and 
often  with  an  &  in  the  gen.  in  case  of  fern,  nouns  after  the  analogy 
of  masculines  :  metnerfeitS  on  my  part,  unferfettg  on  our  part ;  (in  the 
ace.)  tyeim  home,  rceg  (=  M.H.G.  enwec,  i.e.  cutf  ben  5Beg)  away,  ein 
fctfjcfyen  a  little  bit,  jeben  Sag  every  day,  ein  3af)r  one  year,  &c.     The 
genitive  construction  is  treated  more  at  length  in  223.  I.  10.  a,  II. 
i,  2,  3,  4,  III.  a,  IV.  2.  A.  a,  b,  c,  B.  a,  c,  d,  C.  a,  VI,  VII,  XI ;  the 
dative  in  223.  I.  10.  c,  II.  i,  2.  b,  III.  c;  the  accusative  in  223.  I. 
ID.  d,  II.  1^3,  IV.  2.  A,  B,  C. 

b.  From    nouns    or    adjective  i  substantives   with   a   preceding 
governing  prep,  or  a  following  particle  :    itbermorgen  day  after  to- 
morrow, afctyan'ten  removed  from  its  proper  place,  auf  gut  ©li'icf  at 
random  ;  fcetgauf  uphill,  jafyrein',  jafyraue'  year  in,  year  out;  6ei  ireitem 
by  far,  ttot  nttem  above  all,  &c. 

c.  From  two  nouns  separated  by  imb  or  a  prep. :  Jtnafl  unb  tyatt 
suddenly,  Sag  fur  Sag  day  by  day,  Qlrm  in  $lrm  arm  in  arm'. 

B.  Among  the  cases  mentioned  in  A.  a  and  b  that  are  especially 
worthy  of  notice  is  a  large  group  of  adverbs  formed  from  nouns 
which  have  lost  their  original  meaning  and  force,  and  now  form 
together  with  the  verb  a  single  idea.     Such  adverbial  nouns  in  an 
oblique  case  after  a  preposition  are  now  in  force  true  compound 
adverbs,  and   can  be  distinguished  from  genuine  nouns   by  the 
dropping  of  their  article,  and  also  by  this  that  they  no    longer 
retain  their  original  restricted  literal  meaning,  but  have  taken  on  a 
much  more  general  or  a  figurative  one  :  ju  23ette  getyen  to  go  to  bed 
(not  any  especial  bed,  but  in  a  general  sense  of  to  sleep),  311  Sage 
fommen  to  come  to  light,  in  @ee  geljen  to  put  to  sea,  not  any  especial 
sea,  but  the  broad  ocean  in  contrast  to  land,  ju  ©runbe  gefyen  to  go  to 
ruin,  juleibe  tun  to  hurt,  au^er  acfyt  laffen,  or  aufjier  after  Qlcijt  laffen  to  pay 
no  attention  to,  git  <£erjen  nefymen  to  take  to  heart,  &c.   These  adverbs 
are  sometimes  written  with  capitals,  especially  when  a  preceding 
inflected  modifier  reminds  us  of  their  originally  substantive  nature, 
but  in  many  cases  they  are  written  with  a  small  letter  when  the 
originally  substantive  nature  is  not  distinctly  felt.     These  adverbs 
are  in  force  separable  prefixes,  and  should  be  written  in  one  word 
with  the  verb,  but  as  yet  this  practice  is  not  followed,  and  some 
fluctuation  in  usage  in  this  respect  occurs :  git  ©runbe  gefyen,  or  ju 
grunbe  gefyen,  or  jugritnbe  getyen  to  go  to  wreck  and  ruin  ;  in  @tanb  fefcen, 
in  ftanb  fefcen,  or  inflanbfe^en  to  put  into  working  order,  &c. 

4.  From  pronominal  stems :  no  where,  from  the  same  stem  as 
rcer ;  ba  there,  bann  then,  both  from  the  same  stem  as  the  demon,  ber. 

5.  From  other  particles  :  SDie  (Sonne  fyettt  ben  «£immel  auf.     3d?  tjafce 
auSgefcfylafen  I  have  had  my  sleep  out. 

6.  In  composition  with  other  particles:  bagegen  on  the  contrary, 
fyierin  in  this,  &c. 

7.  From  verbs  :  gelt  (=  e§  gette,  pres.  subj.)  in  the  popular  language 
of  South  Germany,  expecting  the  confirmation  of  the  speaker's 


245.  V.  2.      FORMATION  OF  PREPOSITIONS  467 

position,  isn't  that  true?  expressing  assurance,  /  say,  I'm  sure, 
indeed,  also  as  an  introduction  to  an  entreaty  or  command ;  ®ott= 
jw§  God  knows ;  fcwafyre,  or  et  fcefyute,  or  ®ott  fcenjatyre,  or  fcefpute  no, 
not  at  all. 

V.  Formation  of  Prepositions. 

1.  Prepositions  may  be  divided  into  pure  and  improper. 

A.  Pure  prepositions  differ  from  improper  in  two  points  :  i.  They 
cannot  (except  in  compounds)  be  used  as  other  parts  of  speech. 
The  most  of  them  (see  Note)  come  from  other  parts  of  speech,  but 
have  in  course  of  time  been  isolated  from  the  parent  stem  by 
changes  in  form.     None  of  them  except  gemdp  (also  an  inflected 
adjective)  are  now  ever  used  in  their  present  form  in  any  other 
function  than  that  of  prepositions,  or  the  kindred  parts  of  speech, 
adverbs  and  conjunctions,  and  hence  are  pure.     2.  They  can  in 
most  part  enter  freely  into  various  compounds  :   aufgefjen,  5Iufgang, 
afctrunnig,  fcfyrtftgemcif} ,  &c. 

Note.  The  pure  prepositions  are :  ab,  an,  auf,  aus,  aujjer,  bet,  binnen,  bis,  burdj,  efa 
(in  the  one  word  efyebeut,  otherwise  limited  to  the  language  of  the  common  people), 
entgegen,  fur,  gegen,  gegenuber  or  gen,  gemd£,  fytnter,  in,  ntit,  nacfj,  nebcn,  nebft,  cb, 
ctjne,  faint,  feit,  fonbcr,  iiber,  lint,  unter,  »on,  Dot,  nnber,  ju,  junnber,  jtwfcfjen. 

B.  Improper  prepositions  are  such  as  are  also  used  as  other 
parts  of  speech,  and  can  enter  into  no  compounds. 

Note.  The  improper  prepositions  are  those  which,  in  reality  are :  1.  Substantives  : 
ftatt,  fraft,  tro|j,  mittels,  fetten$,  jftecfs,  toegcn,  &c. ;  see  228.  i.  0,  b,  c,  2.  2.  Adjectives 
or  adverbs  derived  therefrom :  nddjfit  (superl.  of  nafje),  unweit,  Itnfern,  &c.  3. 
Adverbs  :  ablfldrtg,  fettn?drt3  to  one  side  of,  notbltc^  to  the  north  of,  re<f)tg  to  the  right 
of,  &c.  This  group  approaches  often  very  near  to  the  nature  of  pure  prepositions,  and 
can  sometimes  even  enter  into  compounds  ;  see  225.  I.  a.  4.  Of  verbal  origin : 
todljrenb  (pres.  part.),  ungeadjtet  (perf.  part.). 

2.  As  can  be  seen  above,  prepositions  are  in   part  fossilized 
particles  derived  from  various  parts  of  speech.     Another  part  of 
speech  was  pressed  into  service  at  first  temporarily  to  show  a 
relation  between  a  verb  and  some  other  word.     In  course  of  time 
the  feeling  of  its  former  function  disappears,  and  the  temporary 
office  it  has  filled  becomes  a  permanent  one,  and  thus  a  new  pre- 
position has  been  added  to  the  list.     In  other  cases  it  is  difficult  to 
tell  whether  the  word  in  question  is  a  real  prep.,  for  it  is  also  used 
at  the  same  time  in  another  function,  but  gradually  the  one  word 
with  the   two  functions  develops  into   two  forms,   one   for  each 
function,  and  then  the  words  drift  apart.     Thus  new  prepositions 
are  constantly  being  formed.     The  following  instances  may  serve 
to  illustrate  in  brief  the  varied  origin  of  prepositions.     In  an  earlier 
period  the  comparative  of  the  adj.  was  followed  by  the  dat.  (just  as 
in  the  Latin  by  the  ablative).     Later  this  dat.  construction  after  a 
comparative   died   out   except   in   case   of  the   two   comparatives 
efye  sooner  than  and  feit  farther  on.      At  present  all   feeling   that 
they   are   comparatives   is   lost,  but   since   they  still  as  formerly 
govern  the  dat.  they  are  construed  as  prepositions  with  the  dat. 

H  h  2 


468  DERIVATIVES  245.  V.  2. 

The  latter  of  these  words,  feit,  is  now  the  common  prep,  since, 
and  the  former,  efye,  is  also  felt  as  a  prep.,  though  only  found 
written  together  with  its  dependent  dat.  in  the  one  word  efyebem 
before  that  in  the  literary  language,  but  often  heard  thus  as  a  prep, 
in  the  language  of  the  common  people  in  such  expressions  as  (Slje 
(before)  2)ien Stag  fann  idj>  nid)t  fommen.  9lnflatt  or  ftatt  instead  of  are 
examples  of  recently  formed  prepositions,  the  word  <Statt  still 
existing  independently  as  a  noun.  When  the  two  elements  of 
anfhtt  are  separated  the  latter  element  is  distinctly  felt  as  a  noun, 
as  also  €>tatt  when  preceded  by  an  article  or  other  modifying  word, 
and  hence  written  with  a  capital  letter:  an  JtinbeS  @tatt  in  place 
of  a  child  (of  one's  own),  ®ute8  SSort  ftnbet  cine  gute  <Statt,  and 
3d)  bitte,  e0  an  meiner  @tatt  $u  tun.  When  an  and  jlatt  are  found 
together  the  compound  is  felt  rather  as  a  prep.,  and  is  written  with 
a  small  letter,  and  likewise  flatt  when  there  is  no  article  :  llnb  nun 
anftatt  or  ftatt  beg  SSaterS  erfcfyien  bie  SJhttter.  The  prep,  neben  is  com- 
pounded of  the  prep,  in  and  eben  level,  and  hence  its  meaning  on  a 
level  with,  alongside  of. 


246.   FORMATION  OF  WORDS  BY  MEANS  OF  PREFIXES. 

Only  two  classes  of  words — nouns  and  verbs — have  especial 
prefixes.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  have  their  prefixes  in  common 
with  verbs  and  nouns.  These  prefixes  were  once  independent 
words,  but  have  in  course  of  time  lost  their  identity  as  such,  and 
have  now  no  existence  outside  of  compounds.  In  connection  with 
the  loss  of  their  independence  is  the  loss  of  accent.  In  nouns, 
however,  all  the  prefixes  except  ge  usually  retain  their  former  stress. 
For  details  concerning  accent,  see  Art.  47. 

I.  Formation  of  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Pronouns  by  means  of 

Prefixes. 

1.  ab  has  two  meanings  : 

a.  Away,  off:  OlBfafyrt,  Qlbretfe;  Slbbttb,  Qlbbrurf. 

b.  The  idea  of  falseness,  worthlessness,  negation :    5lbgott  idol, 
9l6fatt  garbage,  and  in  an  earlier  period  abholz  (=3lbfaUfyol3),  abewitze 
(=  Unoerftanb),  &c. 

2.  aber  has  three  meanings  : 

a.  It  is  still  in  early  N.H.G.  an  independent  word,  meaning 
again  :  SSnb  ber  <§@9ft9fl  rtef  (Samuel  aber  gum  brttten  mat  (i  Sam.  iii.  8). 
To-day  aber  is  in  this  meaning  rarely  used  as  an  independent  word, 
and  is  now  found  only  as  a  prefix  in  a  few  words,  as  afcermalS  once 
more,  again,  Qlberfaat  second  sowing.  It  has  become  more  common, 
however,  in  the  derived  meanings  of  falseness,  negation,  perverse- 
ness  :  Qlberglaube  superstition,  9lbemn$  (=  Itn&erjhnb),  Qtberftnn  stub- 
bornness. The  development  of  meaning  here  may  be  again,  back, 
opposed  or  opposite,  false :  abermaB,  Qlbereltern  (Swiss  =  llra^nen), 


246.L7.rf.    NOUNS,  ETC.,  FORMATION  BY  PREFIX    469 


(=  SSiberrcifle),  5l6etpapfl  anti-pope,  Ttfterrcifc,  Qtfterglaufte.  Others 
explain  the  meanings  falseness  and  negation  by  regarding  after  as  a 
corrupted  form  of  ob  (see  i.  6,  above).  A  relation  between  these  two 
groups  has  in  fact  existed,  the  afcer  group  growing  at  the  expense  of 
the  ab  group. 

b.  It  expresses  something  different,  a  contrast,  in  the  conjunction 
after  but,  however. 

c.  In  a  few  words  after  is  a  corrupted  form  of  ofter  upper,  higher: 
Qlfteracfyt  a  ban  which  has  been  proclaimed  again  and  made  more 
severe,  lit.  a  higher  ban. 

3.  after  (identical  with  Eng.  after),  which  is  now  prefixed  to  only 
a  few  nouns,  participles,  and  adjectives,  has  the  meanings  behind, 
after  in  their  literal,  local,  or  temporal  sense,  and  also  in  their 
applied  meanings  inferior,  false  :   'ilfterfturge  one  who  stands  behind 
another  as  security,  J2lfterrefce  talk  behind  one's  back,  calumny,  Qtftcr* 
mutter  step-mother,  5tfterfritifer  would-be  critic,  5lftergrofje  false  greatness  ; 
aftergelefyrt  having  a  superficial  knowledge,  afterrceife  would-be  wise. 

4.  ant  (the  full  form  corresponding  to  the  unaccented  ent*,  emp»  ; 
see  11.2,  below),  prefixed  now  only  to  two  nouns  Qlntrcort  answer 
and  Qlntltfc  poetic  word  for  face.      Here  the  prefix  denotes  toward 
or  against. 

5.  et,  prefixed  to  a  few  pronouns  in  order  to  convey  to  them 
a  general   or  indefinite  meaning  :    etrcaS  something,  etlid?  some, 
several. 

6.  crj  (=  Eng.  arch-,  Gk.  apx&),  prefixed  to  nouns  (i)  to  denote 
the  leader  of  a  class  :    Crrjftifcfyof  archbishop,   ©rjengel  archangel, 
©rj^erjog  archduke,    (Sr^riefier  archpriest,    greater  patriarch,  &c.  ; 
(2)  to  convey  intensifying  force  :    (Srjbieb  arrant  thief,   dr^bemofrat 
radical  democrat,  (Srjbummfopf  regular  blockhead,  (frjliignet  infernal 
liar,  arch-liar,  &c.     It  is  also  added  to  adjectives  to  convey  intensi- 
fying force  :  erjbumm  extremely  stupid,  ergfaul  very  lazy,  erjfatfyolifcf) 
ultra-catholic,  &c.     For  accent  of  these  substantive  and  adjective 
derivatives  see  47.  2.  B.  a  and  Note  thereunder. 

7.  ge/  prefixed  to  the  stem  of  nouns  and  verbs  to  denote  : 

a.  A  collective  idea  :  ©eftirge  mountain-system,  ©eftttfrf)  thicket  of 
bushes,  ©eftnbe  all  the  servants  of  a  household,  ©eftritber  two  or 
more  brothers  of  a  family. 

b.  A  person  engaged  with  another  in  the  activity  mentioned  in 
the  stem  :  ©efd^rte  a  fellow-traveller,  ©efytele  play-mate. 

c.  The  idea  of  a  collection  or  association  naturally  passes  over 
into  that  of  repetition,  duration,  that  which  is  connected  in  order  of 
time  :  ©ejivitfcfyer  chirping,  ©eptattbet  conversation.      Here  the  idea 
of  duration  or  repetition  may  be  unpleasant,  and  hence  ge  often 
takes  on  the  meaning  of  disparagement,  contempt  ;  see  83.  b. 

d.  In  a  large  number  of  nouns  @e»  has  not  a  meaning  that  is 
clearly  felt  to-day  :  ©efcfyenf  present,  ©etydufe  case,  ©ercalt  power,  &c. 
In  adjectives  its  force  is  in  general  scarcely  appreciable,  as  the 
stem-word  is  in  most  cases  lost  :  genug  enough,  genetynt  acceptable, 
gefunb  healthy,  &c.     In  a  few  cases  where  the  stem-word  is  also  in 
use  a  shade  of  meaning  develops  between  the  stem-word  and  the 


470  DERIVATIVES  246. 1. 7.  d. 

derivative:  treu  true  (as  in  fin  treuer  Sreunb),  but  getreu  loyal  (to 
a  ruler),  true  (bcm  Original  getreu),  close  (eine  getreue  Uberfefcung),  faithful 
(eine  getreue  9tacfyfcitbung) ;  fireng  strict,  severe,  but  geftreng  in  use  earlier 
in  the  period  to  address  persons  of  noble  rank,  especially  such  as 
have  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  subjects,  as  in  geftrenger  «§err 
Your  Worship. 

8.  mifj  (in  M.H.G.  misse,  which  still  survives  in  Qftiffetat,  cognate 
with  Eng.  mis,  as  in  mistake),  prefixed  in  most  part  to  stems  having 
an  abstract  meaning  to  denote  : 

a.  The  opposite  of  that  contained  in  the  stern  :  SWipgunfl  disfavor, 
2#if} fatten  displeasure ;  intfjfii  ftig  displeasing,  unpleasant,  &c. 

b.  Something  wrong,   erroneous,    defective,   unsuccessful,   bad  : 
2)?t§{lanb    abuse,    2)ti^eirat    mesalliance,    9)?tper^dnbnt3    misunder- 
standing, Sfttfton  dissonance,  -iKifjernte  bad  crop,  SKiffetat  misdeed; 
mifjgejtaltet  misshapen,  tnujtonenb  ill-tuned,  discordant. 

9.  uu  (cognate  with  English  un-),  prefixed  to  the  stem  of  nouns 
to  denote : 

a.  The  opposite  of  that  mentioned  in  the  stem  or  mere  negation 
or  lack :   llnbanf  ingratitude,  Unart  naughtiness,  llnftnn  nonsense, 
Unijerftanb  want  of  judgment.     It  is  also  prefixed  to  adjectives  with 
the  same  force  :  unbanfbar,  &c.    For  accent  in  these  substantive  and 
adjective  derivatives  see  47.  2.  B.  a  and  Note  thereunder. 

b.  Something  defective,  bad,  aside  from  the  regular  and  usual, 
unnatural,  hence  sometimes  repulsive,  contemptible,  also  something 
worthless,  unpleasant :  Untat  (often  Untatcfyen)  spot,  blemish,  Uufttte 
bad  custom,  Unfojlen  transportation  charges,  that  is,  charges  aside 
from  the  regular  price  of  the  goods,  also  disagreeable  expenses, 
Unmenfdj  a  brutish  person,  llnnatur  that  which  is  contrary  to  nature, 
Unlanb  land  swampy  and  good  for  nothing,  llnfraut  weeds,  Ungejtefcr 
vermin,  Unrcetter  bad,  stormy  weather. 

c.  A  strong  intensification  of  the  idea  contained  in  the  stem, 
however,  with  indefinite  force  so  that  the  extent  of  the  idea  is  not 
accurately  defined  :  eine  Unmenge  or  Unmaffe  SMenfcfyen  a  great  crowd 
of  people,  eine  llnjaf)!  SKaifafer  a  great  number  of  may-bugs,  ein  llntter 
a  monster,  Unfummen  vast  sums  of  money,  itnttefe  a  great  depth,  a 
deep  place  in  a  river,  or  according  to  a,  above,  just  the  reverse,  a 
shoal. 

10.  ur  (full  form  corresponding  to  unaccented  n>;    see  II.  3, 
below),  a  prefix  originally  meaning  out,  which  can  still  be  seen 
in  its  present  signification,  the  extreme,  in  the  direction   of  the 
beginning,  source,  from  which  or  out  of  which  a  thing  may  come, 
or  of  the  end  of  something,  literally  the  coming  out  of  some  con- 
dition :  Uncalb  primeval  forest,  Urgrojjoater  great-grandfather,  llrfce* 
iro^ner  aborigines,  Uranfong  first  beginning,  ilrenfei  great-grandson, 
Urfyeimat  original  home,  llrfefjbe  oath  to  put  an  end  to  a  feud. 

a.  In  most  words  ur  is  long,  but  in  llrtctl  judgment,  sentence,  it  is 
short. 

b.  The  idea  of  the  extreme  has  in  adjectives  given  to  ur  intensifying 
power :    uralt  very  old,  utplii^Ucfy  very  sudden,  all  of  a  sudden,  ur* 
frdfttg  extremely  powerful. 


246.  II.  I./.  VERBAL  PREFIXES  471 

II.  Formation  of  Verbs  by  means  of  Prefixes. 

1.  be  (related  to  the  prep.  bet)  has  two  general  meanings,  around 
and  by,  on,  upon,  over.  Originally  be  was  also  a  preposition,  as 
can  still  be  seen  in  betyen'be  (=M.H.G.  behende  =  bei  ber  4?anb) 
£Mzb&,  nimble.  Originally  this  preposition  governed  also  the  ace., 
and  this  former  construction  still  occurs  in  composition  with  in- 
transitive verbs,  where  the  compound  takes  an  object  in  the  ace. 
which  is  in  fact  the  object  of  the  preposition  be  ;  see  a  below. 

The  original  local  meanings  of  be  are  no  longer  vividly  felt, 
but  out  of  them  distinct  groups  of  applied  meanings  have  been 
developed.  The  main  uses  of  this  suffix  are  : 

a.  To  bring  the  action  expressed  in  intransitive  verbs  to  bear 
upon   some  object,   and   change  thereby  intransitive  verbs    into 
transitive  :  <£te  rceint  she  weeps,  but  <Ste  berreint  ben  £ob  ifyrer  SWiitter, 
or  berceint  ifyre  SWutter  she  is  mourning  over  the  death  of  her  mother, 
or  weeping  over  her  mother.     fturdjt  unb  ©ntfe^en  befd'Ut  mid)  Fear  and 
horror  seize  me. 

b.  In  composition  with  verbs  already  trans.,  to  bring  the  action 
to  bear  upon  some  object  or  extend  the  force  of  the  action  entirely 
over  something  :  @ie  feegtef  t  bie  SSIunten  She  is  watering  the  flowers. 
Der  SJanbmann  bebcwt  (cultivates)  ba§ 


Note.  Observe  that  the  object  of  the  simple  verb  often  becomes  in  this  construction 
a  dative  after  the  prep,  rait  :  35ie  Sltbetter  laben  ©etveibe  auf  bag  ©cfyiff  The  workmen 
are  loading  grain  on  to  the  ship,  but  35  te  Sltbeiter  belabett  bad  ©djtff  ntit  ©etretbe. 

c.  To  give  intensifying  force  to  the  simple  verb,  which  force 
naturally  comes  from  the   idea  of  the  extension  of  the  action 
over  the  whole  object:   9Btr  befeljen  bie  €>tatue  We  are  examining 
the  statue. 

d.  In  composition  with  adjectives,  to  indicate  that  the  attribute 
in  question  is  bestowed  upon  or  put  in,  on,  over  something  :  feudjt 
moist,  befeud)ten  to  moisten;    rufyig  calm,  berufyigen  to  calm;   reidjer 
richer,  bereidbern  to  enrich.     Thus  befdjleumgen  to  hasten,  betriiben 
to  grieve,  bflufltgen  to  amuse,  &c. 

Note.  Some  verbs  are  formed  after  the  analogy  of  those  derived  from  adjectives 
in  ;ig,  and  thus  end  in  igett,  although  there  is  no  ig  in  the  stem  from  which  they 
are  formed  :  beeibigen  (be  +  Sib),  beerbigen  (be  +  Grbe),  befriebigcn,  befrafttgen, 
,  &c. 


e.  In  composition  with   nouns  to  indicate  that  that  which  is 
implied  by  the  noun  is  bestowed  upon  some  one  or  that  some- 
thing or  somebody  is  supplied,  furnished,  endowed  with  what  is 
contained  in  the  noun  :  Saub  foliage,  belaufcen  to  furnish  with  foliage  ; 
(Scute   string  (of  an  instrument),   befallen  to  furnish  with  strings  ; 
(Seele  soul,  life,  befeelen  to  put  life  into,  animate. 

f.  There  is  also  an  ironical  application  of  the  idea  over,  on  in 
some  verbs  formed  from  adjectives  or  nouns  :   3d)  bin  elenb  !    9ld) 
roo3,  id?  rcifl  bid;  bee'Ienben  !    I  feel  miserable  1    What,  I  will  give  you 


472  DERIVATIVES  246,  II.  I./ 

something  to  make  you  feel  miserable  about.  @ie  -fcetyau^tet,  fte  fet  bie 
Brail  Sunfern  (245. 1.  6.  b),  after  id?  untt  fie  beiunfern,  baft  fte1  an  mid;  benfen 
foil  She  pretends  to  be  Mrs.  Junker,  but  I  will  'junker'  her  so  that 
she  will  remember  me.  2Bag  Satein?  (What!  you  want  to  study 
Latin?)  id?  rcttt  bid)  JtnirpS  Matetnen  (Raabe's  Hungerpastor,  chap.  5). 

g.  Although  the  decided  tendency  has  been  toward  use  with 
transitive  verbs,  it  is  nevertheless  still  used  with  a  few  intransitives 
with  the  same  general  meanings.  Out  of  the  idea  of  nearness  has 
developed  the  idea  of  rest  by,  in  or  on  a  thing,  in  a  condition 
or  a  close  approach  to:  fc(e)lei6en  to  remain,  fcetyatren  (@r  ief)arrt  aiif 
fetncr  SKeiniing)  to  stand  firmly  by,  fcerufjen  to  rest  upon,  fceftetyen  to 
insist  upon,  fcefyagen  to  be  agreeable  to,  to  afford  comfort  or  pleasure 
to,  fcefommen  to  agree  with  (one's  health,  &c. ;  originally  used  of 
plants  in  the  sense  to  come  up,  spring  up,  flourish,  which  meaning 
still  survives  in  early  N.H.G.),  fcegegnen  to  meet,  &c. 

h.  In  a  number  of  verbs  f>e  seems  to  have  privative  force — a 
meaning  which  stands  in  strong  contrast  to  the  usual  one  :  frenchmen 
to  take  from,  befte^Ien  to  steal  from,  fcerauben  to  rob,  fcegrafen  to  eat  or 
browse  the  grass  off  of  (a  meadow,  &c.),  fcefyoljen  to  clear  the  timber 
off  of,  berafjmen  to  skim  the  cream  off  of.  This  meaning  did  not 
originally  lie  in  the  prefix  itself,  but  was  contained  in  the  meaning 
of  the  verb,  as  in  the  first  three  examples.  After  the  analogy  of 
such  verbs  other  verbs  were  formed,  especially  derivations  from 
nouns  in  which  the  stem  designated  the  thing  taken  away,  as  in 
the  last  three  examples. 

2.  ettt  (or  emp  before  a  few  verbs  in  initial  f),  which  is  found  in 
its  original  form  ant  only  in  5lnttt>ort  and  5ltttlt§,  is  identical  with 
Latin  anti  and  hence  meant  originally  toward,  against.  This 
meaning  can  now  only  be  found  in  a  few  words :  entbieten  to  send 
to,  entgelten  to  pay  for,  atone  for,  entfyalten  to  contain,  entfpted?en  to 
answer,  correspond  to,  empfangeit  to  receive,  empfefjlen  to  recommend, 
cmpftnben  to  feel,  be  sensible  of. 

The  following  derivative  meanings  are  now  more  common  : 

a.  From  the  original  meaning  of  movement  toward  comes  that 
of  a  beginning  of  an  activity,  a  change,  a  passing  into  a  new  state 
or  condition :  entbrennen  to  take  fire,  become  inflamed,  entfte^en  to 
arise,  originate,  ent^unben  to  inflame,  entfad)en,  to  enkindle,  entfdjlum- 
mern  to  fall  asleep  (in  death),  entlecren  to  empty,  entfclofjen  to  lay  bare, 
strip,  entlebigcn  to  get  rid  of,  &c.  As  can  be  seen  from  the  examples 
the  basal  part  of  such  verbs  is  either  a  verb  or  an  adjective. 
Verbs  of  this  class  of  meanings  are  called  inchoatives. 

Note  I.  The  prefix  ent  of  inchoatives  formed  from  adjectives  has  the  same  force  as 
cr  in  3.  bt  below,  but  is  much  less  widely  used,  as  it  is  largely  confined  to  adjectives  of 
a  pronounced  negative  meaning,  which  is  now  so  generally  associated  with  ent,  as 
explained  in  b.  Hence  these  inchoatives  are  not  felt  as  pure  inchoatives,  but  rather  as 
privatives,  and  in  fact  are  usually  associated  with  the  group  in  b. 

Note  2.  The  prefix  of  a  number  of  the  verbs  in  this  group  whose  basal  element 
is  a  verb  is  in  fact  the  modern  corrupted  form  of  O.H.G.  in  (identical  with  N.H.G. 
jprep.  in)  toward,  into,  which  was  closely  related  in  meaning  to  the  original  force  of 
ent,  and  in  certain  verbs  became  confounded  with  it,  as  int  (the  O.H.G.  form  of  ent) 
was  itself  often  used  in  the  corrupted  form  of  in. 


246.  II.  3. b.  VERBAL  PREFIXES  473 

b.  A  change  is  not  only  a  movement  in  the  direction  of  that 
which  is  new,  but  is  also  a  breaking  away  from  the  old,  hence 
in  general  separation,  removal,  now  the  most  common  meaning : 
entretfjen  to  snatch  away  from,  entfommen    to    escape,  eutfagen  to 
renounce,  eutgleiten  to  slip  out  of;    entbldttem  to  strip  of  leaves, 
entfyaupten  to  decapitate,  entrijroiten  to  dethrone,  entfrdfteu  to  enervate. 
As  can  be  seen  from  the  examples,  the  basal  part  of  such  verbs 
may  be  a  verb  or  noun.     Verbs  of  this  class  of  meanings  are 
called  privatives.     For  comparison  of  this  meaning  of  ent  with  its 
synonyms,  see  223.  I.  7.  H. 

c.  Intimately  related  to  the  preceding  is  the  idea  of  reversal, 
denoting  the  opposite  of  the   simple  verb  :    efyren  to  honor,   but 
entefyren  to  dishonor;  labeu  to  load,  but  entlaben  to  unload',  ftegeln  to 
seal,  but  entfifgeln  to  unseal. 

d.  With  the  idea  of  separation  there  is  often  associated   the 
idea  of  a  careful,  systematic   or  natural   unfolding   or  division : 
entunrren  to  disentangle,  cntnacfeht  to  unravel,  develop,  entfaltm  to 
unfold,  develop,  entirerfeit  to  sketch,  map  out,  lit.  to  throw  or  take 
apart,  entfallcn  to  fall  to  one's  regular  share,  £c.     This  meaning 
stands  in  marked  contrast  to  that  in  b,  which  usually  contains 
the  idea  of  violent  or  unnatural  separation.     The  idea  of  care  and 
system  did  not  originally  lie  in  ent  but  in  the  verb  itself,  as  in  the 
first  examples.      From  these  verbs  the  idea  may  have  become 
attached  to  the  prefix  and  then  spread  to  other  verbs. 

3.  er,  which  is  found  in  its  original  form  itr  only  in  nouns  and 
adjectives,  originally  meant  from  within  out,  out  of,  and  building 
upon  this  has  developed  a  rich  store  of  shades,  all  of  which  can 
easily  be  brought  into  connection  with  the  fundamental  meaning. 

a.  In   its  original  literal  sense   or  much   more  frequently  its 
figurative  application,  but  only  dimly  felt  if  felt  at  all :    erpreffm 
to  press  out  (wine  out  of  grapes),  extort,  erjiefyen  to  educate,  lit. 
to  draw  out,  erbaueu  to  edify,  erfyeben  to  elevate  the   thought  or 
feeling,  erfcfyopfeu  to  exhaust,  fein  Snnereg  erfcfyliejjeit  to  disclose  one's 
feelings,  &c. 

b.  The  original  meaning  gradually  lost  its  distinct  local  force 
and  then  developed  either  inchoative  or  perfective  force,  that  is, 
the  idea  of  motion  from  within  outward  passed,  on  the  one  hand, 
into  that  of  change  or  transition  into  a  state  or  condition,  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  into  the  idea  of  the  result  or  outcome  of  an  action  : 
(inchoatives)  crblitfycn  to  come  out  into  blossom,  erivadjen  to  wake 
up  (intrans.),   envecfen   to  wake  (trans.),  crmiiben  to  become  tired, 
ertrarmeu  to  grow  warm,  etblinben  to  grow  blind,  erroten  to  blush,  fid) 
ermcmneu  to  summon  up  courage ;  (perfectives)  crleben  to  live  to  see, 
erliegen  to  succumb  (the  action  resulting  in  somebody's  lying  down, 
i.  e.  giving  up),  erlofcfyen  to  become  extinguished,  &c.     As  can  be 
seen  from  the  examples,  the  basal  part  of  such  verbs  may  be  a 
verb,  adjective,  or,  less  commonly,  a  noun.    Also  »cr  in  composition 
with  verbs  derived  from  nouns  and  adjectives  has  inchoative  force : 
see  5.  C.  b.  Note,  below. 

The  derivatives  with  er  often  stand  in  a  more  or  less  marked 


474  DERIVATIVES  246.  II.  3.  b. 

contrast  to  their  simple  verbal  forms,  the  simple  verb  representing 
an  action  in  its  duration,  the  derivative  form  representing  only 
a  particular  point  in  the  course  of  the  action,  namely,  the  entrance 
into  the  state  or  condition,  or  the  outcome  or  result  of  the  action  : 
griinen  to  be  or  remain  green,  but  ergrunen  to  become  green ;  rcadien  to 
be  awake,  watch,  but  enracfyen  to  wake  up ;  ttdfylen  to  choose  (i.  e.  the 
entire  act,  including  the  period  of  deliberation  and  the  final  act  of 
settling  upon  a  choice),  but  erroaljleu  to  select,  elect,  choose  (refer- 
ring only  to  the  resulting  choice,  excluding  the  preceding  period 
of  deliberation).  3d;  fterfce,  fier&e,  unb  fanu  nid;t  erfterbm  (Goethe's 
Gotz,  5,  10).  The  derivative  form  often  has*  a  figurative  applica- 
tion, while  the  simple  verb  has  its  literal  meaning :  fattigen  to 
satisfy  (one's  stomach,  &c.),  but  erfdttigen  to  satisfy  (one's  longings, 
&c.);  vceid?en  to  soften  (leather,  &c.),  but  enreicfyeit  to  soften  (the 
heart,  feelings,  &c.).  In  some  cases  the  distinction  of  meaning 
between  the  simple  verb  and  the  derivative  is  very  faint. 

Note.  In  inchoatives  et  often  represents  the  change  as  coming  from  within  from 
inner  causes:  SacfmuSfcalner  in  ©dltre  $etaudjt  hurt)  rot  Litmus-paper,  dipped  into  an 
acid,  becomes  red,  but  £>a3  SKdbdjm  errotet  SCt  <Sdjam  the  girl  blushes  (lit.  turns  red) 
for  shame. 

c.  The  original  idea  and  the  more  common  one  of  result  can  be 
clearly  seen  in  such  expressions  as  etirag  erfragen  to  get  something 
out  of  one  by  questioning.     From  such  expressions  comes  the  very 
common  meaning  of  getting,  obtaining  something  in  the  manner 
described  by  the  simple  verb :  erflefyen  to  get  by  entreaty,  erflurmen 
to  get  something  by  storm,  as  a  city,  &c.,  erjlreiten  to  get  by  fighting, 
ergaunern  to  obtain  by  knavish  tricks,  crretcfyen  to  obtain  by  reaching, 
to  reach  (a  river,  a  town,  &c.).     Compare  the  force  of  the  simple 
verb  with  that  of  the  derivative  in  the  following :  S)a3  Jltnb  retcfyte 
nad;  ben  tyrucfyten,  aber  eg  fonnte  fte  nid;t  erreicfyen. 

d.  @r  refers  in  so  many  cases  where  a  result  is  expressed  to  the 
life  within,  as  in  erfctttert  embittered,  erfrtfd;en  to  refresh  the  inner 
man,  ertofen  to  save  the  soul  from  sin,  &c.,  that  it  is  associated 
in  general  with  the  vital  forces,  and  when  placed  before  certain 
verbs  it  indicates  that  the  person  died  or  was  killed  in  the  manner 
described  by  the  simple  verb  :  erboldjen  to  stab  to  death,  erbroffeln  to 
throttle,  erfdnefjen  to  kill  by  shooting,  erfcfylagen  to  kill  by  striking, 
ertrtnfen  to  drown,  erlegen  (huntsman's  expression)  to  kill,  lit.  to  lay 
out  dead,  erbriicfen  to  press  to  death,  &c. 

e.  In  accordance  with  the  original  meaning  of  from  within  out 
and  the  more  common  meaning  of  a  result,  there  is  a  distinction 
made  between  freuen  and  erfreuen.     The  former  is  used  of  some 
thing,  the  existence  of  which  merely  occasions  us  joy,  the  latter 
of  some  body  or  thing  that  working   from  within   outward,   i.  e. 
intentionally  or  by  virtue  of  inherent  qualities,  produces  joy:   @3 
freut  mid?,  ©ie  gu  fefyen,  but  Cnfreuen  <§ie  mid)  bod;  nut  einer  2lntrcort, 
(Sin  rceifer  @of)n  erfreut  ben  QSater,  and  S)er  SBetn  erfreut  bag  ^erj.     The 
reflexive  fid;  erfreuen  (an,  w.   dat.)  expresses   a  warmer,  deeper 
interest  than  fid;  freuen  (iifcer,  w.  ace.).     The  participle  gefreut  is  not 


246.  II.  4.6.  VERBAL  PREFIXES^  475 

used  adjectively,  because  it  is  here  the  question  of  a  result :  (5r  ifl 
bariifcer  erfreut,  not  gefreut. 

4.  fle  denotes  a  collection  or  union  (of  persons,  or  things,  or 
related  parts).  This  meaning,  so  common  in  nouns,  as  in  ©ebtrge 
a  chain  or  system  of  mountains,  ©eldut  a  chime  of  bells,  is  now  only 
rarely  found  in  verbs :  gerinnen  to  coagulate,  lit.  to  run  compactly 
together,  gefrieren  to  freeze.  More  common  are  the  following  de- 
rived meanings : 

a.  Like  cr  (see  3.  b,  above),  though  now  much  less  common,  ge  is 
used  to  represent  a  particular  point  in  the  course  of  an  action, 
namely,  the  entrance  into  a  state  or  condition,  or  the  outcome, 
or  result  of  the  action :  gebrecfyeu  to  lack,  originally  meaning  in  its 
impersonal  form  e3  gefcricfyt  there  arises  a  breakage,  a  loss,  hence 
a  lack;  M.H.G.  bern  (now  no  longer  used)  to  carry,  bear,  gebdren 
to  give  birth  to,  referring  to  the  result.  From  the  idea  of  a 
collection,  association,  or  a  result  comes  the  intensified  notion  of 
completeness,  permanence,  perfection,  in  a  number  of  verbs : 
benfcu  to  think  of,  gefcenfen  to  think  of  often,  hold  in  remem- 
brance, bear  in  mind,  loben  to  praise,  getofcen  to  promise, 
lit.  to  praise  thoroughly  or  approve  something  which  has  been 
proposed ;  fyorcfyen  to  hearken,  gefyorcfyen  to  hearken  to  faithfully, 
hence  to  obey.  The  idea  of  perfection,  completeness  is  most 
commonly  found  in  the  ge  of  the  perfect  participle :  @r  tyat  einen 
Srief  gefctmcfren.  A  few  verbs  which  of  themselves  convey  the  idea 
of  an  entrance  into  a  state  or  of  the  result  of  an  action,  such  as 
icerbcu  and  fommen,  did  not  formerly  take  the  ge  in  the  participle 
and  are  even  treated  so  still  in  popular  language.  In  case  of  verbs 
accented  upon  the  first  syllable,  only  the  participial  form  rcorben 
is  now  without  ge  in  the  literary  language,  and  then  only  in  its  use 
as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive.  Thus  the  force  of  the  prefix  in 
participles  has  been  lost,  as  it  is  prefixed  to  most  perfect  participles 
as  a  part  of  its  regular  participial  form,  whether  the  meaning  of  the 
verb  would  admit  of  it  or  not.  Certain  groups  of  words,  however, 
have  not  yet  assumed  the  ge  in  the  participle.  The  prefixes  ge, 
er,  6e,  tier,  ent,  jer,  have  of  themselves  in  greater  or  less  degree 
perfective  force,  and  hence  derivatives  formed  from  them  do  not 
prefix  ge  in  the  participle.  Also  all  other  verbs  unaccented  upon 
the  first  syllables  now,  contrary  to  earlier  usage,  follow  their 
example,  as  they  are  influenced  by  their  accent :  ftubiert'  (not 
gefuibiert),  pofaunt',  &c. ;  see  also  178.  2.  A.  b.  (i),  (2),  (3).  For  further 
suppression  of  ge  in  the  participle  in  S.G.  see  c.  (2),  below. 

b.  The  idea  of  coincidence,  completeness,  permanence,  naturally 
gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  succeeding  or  doing  something  satis- 
factorily :  gefatten  to  please,  lit.  to  fall  together  with,  coincide  with 
(one's  wishes),  gebcit;en  to  prosper,  gelingen  to  be  successful,  genefen  to 
recover  (from  sickness),  geratcn  to  turn  out  well,  geirinnen  to  win, 
gejiemeu  to  befit.  The  lines  of  development,  however,  are  here,  as 
also  often  elsewhere,  not  so  evident  as  this  treatise  seems  to  indi- 
cate, for  the  paths  of  the  mind  are  not  always  clearly  open  to  view. 
Thus  in  case  of  gefaflen  the  ge  may  have  perfective  force  and  the 


476  DERIVATIVES  246.  II.  4.  £. 

verb  be  used  much  as  'strike1  in  English,  so  that  SBie  gefdflt  eg 
31)nen  ?  has  the  force  of  How  does  it  strike  you  ? 

c.  In  a  number  of  words  all  feeling  of  the  meaning  of  the  prefix 
has  been  lost,  and  in  general  it  has  in  connection  with  verbs  ceased 
to  be  productive  and  is  frequently  a  mere  fossil.  This  can  be  seen  : 
(i)  from  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  the  simple  verb  has  been  lost 
and  now  the  compound  alone  exists  :  gcncfen,  gefcfyeljen,  &c.  (2)  In 
a  number  of  words,  especially  those  whose  stem  begins  with  I,  r,  or 
n,  the  vowel  of  the  prefix  is  suppressed  and  is  no  longer  felt : 
glaufcen,  gonnen,  &c.  In  S.G.  the  c  of  the  prefix  in  the  perfect 
participle  is  usually  suppressed  and  often  the  g  is  assimilated  to 
the  following  consonant,  so  that  the  prefix  is  felt  little  or  not  at  all : 
grcefen,  trdumt  for  gercefen,  gctrdumt.  On  the  other  hand,  its  force  in 
the  group  in  b  must  be  dimly  felt,  for  when  mtjj,  which  means  the 
very  opposite  of  ge,  is  added  the  gc  is  dropped  :  gefaflen,  but  mi  jjfatten ; 
geltugen, but mijjlingen j  geraten, but  mtfjraten.  Notice  also:  gefcUten,  but 
terbieten. 

5.  »ct  is  a  very  common  prefix  with  meanings  not  always  clearly 
defined  and  sometimes  even  contradictory.  This  is  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  it  represents  three  older  prefixes — Gothic  fra,  faur, 
fair — with  all  their  meanings. 

A.  Groups  of  meaning  corresponding  to  those  of  Gothic  fra  : 

a.  The  commonest  meaning  seems  to  be  that  of  away,  forth : 
berlaufen  to  pass  away  (of  time,  &c.),  berreifen  to  go  away  on   a 
journey,  fcerfcfyenfen  to  give  away,  fcerjagett  to  chase  away,  fcergefceit 
to  forgive,  lit.  give  away,  let  (a  fault)  go  by,  sjetfaufen  to  give  away  in 
exchange  for  something,  to  sell. 

b.  The  idea  of  away  may  lead  to  that  of  the  end,  exhaustion, 
entire  consumption  of,  even  waste,  and  reckless  and  lavish  use  of: 
»erfclul)en  to  come  to  an  end  of  blooming,  t>erfd)nterjen  to  get  over 
something  (as  sorrow,  &c.),  bertyaflen  to  die  away  (of  a  sound),  tters 
bluten  to  bleed  to  exhaustion  or  death,  fcerfummern  to  waste  away, 
fcerljuntjern  to  die  of  starvation,  fcerbrennen  to  burn  (something)  up, 
t>ert>raud)en  to  use  up,  tterfaufen  to  squander  away  in  drink,  &erfd)foffli 
to  sleep  (precious  time,  &c.)  away,  ttettdnfceln  to  trifle  away. 

c.  The  idea  of  away  may  lead  to  that  of  loss,  destruction,  error, 
excess,  spoiling,  perversion,  and  the  reversal  of  the  meaning  of  the 
simple  verb :  »eririrfeu  to  forfeit,  tterber&eit  to  destroy,  berbrucfen  to 
misprint,  fid)  Derredjnen  to  make  a  mistake  in  figures,  fcerfcfyreifcm  to 
write  incorrectly,  ftd)  fcerfdjreifcen  (as  in  3d)  tyafte  mid;  »erfd)rieben  It's  a 
mere  slip  of  the  pen)  to  make  a  mistake  in  writing,  ftd)  »erfyred)en  (as 
in  3d)  fyafce  mid)  Derfprod)cn  //  was  a  mere  slip  of  my  tongue)  to  make  a 
mistake  in  speaking,  fid)  ijerlaufen  to  lose  one's  way,  »erfiitteru  to 
over-feed,  berfaljen  to  spoil  by  over-salting,  tterfitljren  to   mislead, 
seduce,  tterraten  to  betray,  fceracfyten  to  despise,  opposite  of  ad)ten, 
fcerfennen  to  misjudge,    fcerlernen    unlearn,    forget    (little   by  little), 
fcerfefyren  to  turn  upside  down,  &c. 

d.  The  idea  of  loss  (see  c)  may  be  applied  figuratively  to  the  loss 
of  individuality  and  independence,  and  this  may  lead  to  the  idea  of 
close  fusion,  union :   fcermifdjen  to  mix  all  up,  confound,  blend,  ftd) 


246.  II.  5.  c.b.  VERBAL  PREFIXES  477 


to  become  engaged  (to  be  married),  lit.  to  promise  one's  self 
away,  fid;  fcerliefcen  to  fall  in  love,  oerfyetratm  to  give  away  in  marriage, 
fcertnnbeu  to  join,  ijerfcfymeljm  to  melt  together,  fcerrcacfyfen  to  grow 
together,  Jxrjafjnen  to  dovetail,  tterfetten  to  link  together,  &c. 

B.  Groups  of  meanings  corresponding  to  Gothic  faur  : 

a.  To  ward  off:  uerbieten  to  forbid,  fcerfcitten  to  insist  upon  some- 
thing not  being  done,  fcerfagen  to  deny,  refuse. 

b.  To  cover,  conceal,  protect,  care  for,  prevent,  hinder  :  fcerbecfen  to 
cover,  oernageln  to  nail  up,  »erfct)liej?en  to  lock  up,  verflopfen  to  stop  up, 
fcerfcfyutten  to  cover  up  (a  ditch,  &c.)  with  (earth,  &c.),  fcerbergen  to 
hide,  fcerfedjten  to  stand  up  for,  fight  for,  tterantirorten  to  answer  for, 
be  responsible  for,  fcertreten  to  take  the  place  of,  represent,  txrforgen 
to  provide  for,  fcerfyuten  to  prevent,  ixrgitteru  to  enclose  with  a  grating, 
Jjerfcfyletern  to  veil,  &c.     In  a  number  of  these  verbs  the  protecting, 
covering  object  is  indicated  in  the  stem  of  the  verb  as  in  the  last 
examples. 

Note.  Also  Be  has  a  similar  meaning.  It  has,  however,  only  the  general  idea  of 
over,  upon,  while  tter  implies  that  the  covering  is  to  protect  or  conceal  :  bebecfett  to 
cover  (the  earth,  &c.,  with  snow,  &c.),  tterbecfen  to  cover  (one's  face,  to  remove  it  from 
the  observation  of  others,  or  to  conceal  one's  feeling),  to  conceal  (one's  intentions,  &c.). 

C.  Groups  of  meanings  corresponding  to  Gothic  fair  : 

a.  Prefixed  to  verbs  »er  often  intensifies  the  verbal  meaning, 
indicates  that   the  activity  is   sustained   to   the  end,   meets  with 
successful  issue  or  is  directed  with  energy  to  a  certain  goal  or 
end  :  »erbleid)en  to  grow  pale  in  death,  ijcrbletteit  to  remain  until  the 
end,  toerlcfen  to  read  (a  roll  of  names,  &c.)  to  the  end,  ternetymen  to 
perceive,  lit.  to  take  a  firm  hold  of  (with  the  senses),  fcerfangen 
to  operate,  take  effect,  avail,  lit.  to  catch  a  good  hold  on,  tiertyelfen 
to  help  some  one  to  get  something,  lit.  to  help  so  effectually  that 
the  object  is  attained,  fcerfolgen  to  pursue  (a  course,  design,  &c.), 
fcerljanbeln  to  negotiate,  transact,  &c. 

b.  A  change,  transformation  into  a  state  or  thing  indicated  usually 
by  some  adjective  or  noun  which  forms  the  stem  of  the  verb  :  »er=» 
annen  to  grow  poor,  ttereinfacfyen  to  simplify,  tterbeutfcfyen  to  translate 
into  German,  »erebeln  to  ennoble,  fcerbtcfeu  to  thicken,  ttergolbcn  to 
gild,  berfuntyfen  to  become  like  a  swamp,  stagnant,  Uergottern  to 
deify,  idolize,  »erfe|ern  to  brand  as  a  heretic,  fcerfilfccnt  to  cash. 

Note.  Also  er  has  the  meaning  of  a  change  or  transformation  into  a  state  or 
thing,  some  verbs  preferring  er,  others  »cr  :  ertjcJjen,  but  serttefen  ;  ertoeitern,  but 
verengtn;  fid)  ermannen,  but  fid)  tternarrcn.  In  a  number  of  cases  »er  has  supplanted 
er  since  early  N.H.G.  :  in  early  N.H.G.  erarmen,  erfaulen,  ergrcperit,  crhungern,  &c., 
all  now  with  »er.  In  other  cases  er  has  supplanted  oer,  as  in  crfd)redfcit.  In  dialect, 
however,  the  form  may  be  preserved  that  has  been  rejected  in  the  literary  language  : 
(Sr  tfl  flanj  Uerfdjrcrft  (Uschei  in  Marriot's  Der  geistlicheTod,  chap.  vi).  Except  in 
a  few  cases  »er  is  now  used  exclusively  in  case  of  verbs  formed  from  nouns  :  tiers 
fleinertt,  ttevtodfTern,  &c.  There  is  a  slight  shade  of  difference  in  meaning  between 
verbs  with  er  and  those  with  »er  ;  not  always,  however,  can  the  difference  be  seen. 
Those  with  er  represent  the  transformation  as  a  process  of  development,  while  those 
with  ttcr  represent  it  as  a  final  result  :  ergrunen  to  grow  green  (of  the  grass),  but 
»ere»igen  to  immortalize,  »erfhiturn  to  petrify. 


,478  DERIVATIVES  246.  II.  6.  c.  c. 

c.  It  converts  a  few  intransitives  into  transitives,  as  it,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  meaning  in  a,  directs  the  activity  against  an  object : 
sjerlacfyeu  to  deride,  from  lacfyen  to  laugh ;  tterfpotten  to  scoff  at,  ridicule, 
from  [gotten  (w.  gen.)  to  scoff  at;    tterflucfyen  to  curse,  from  flucfyen 
to  swear. 

d.  Differentiations  of  various  kinds  arise  between  the  simple 
verb  and  the  derivative :  fcfyretfcen  to  write,  tierfcfyreifcen  to  order  by 
letter,  as  in  Scfy  fyafce  bag  SBud)  au8  Setpjtg  sjerfcfyriefcen ;  fucben  to  seek, 
fcerfucfyen  to  try,  attempt ;  icenben  to  turn,  tterrcenben  to  apply,  bestow, 
employ,  &c. 

6.  ipiber  against  and  very  rarely  back:  ttriberfprecfyen  (w.  dat.)  to 
contradict,  rctberlegen  to  refute,  rciberfletyen  (w.  dat.)  to  resist,  triberrufeu 
to  retract,  call  back. 

7.  jet  denotes  separation,  a  breaking  to  pieces,  dissolution,  a 
scattering :  gerbrecfyen  to  break  to  pieces,  jerfcfyneiben  to  carve,  jerfleifcfyen 
lacerate,  jerjftefjen  to  melt  away,  jerftteuen  to  scatter. 

8.  mifif.   A.  This  is  a  very  productive  prefix,  expressing  failure, 
error,  something  false  or  the  opposite  of  the  simple  verb  :  nufjUngen 
to  fail  of  success,  mijjbeuten  to  interpret  falsely,  imjjfatten  to  displease, 
mtjjbitttgen  to  disapprove  of,  mifjgonnen  to  begrudge,  the  opposite  of 
gonnen  to  be  glad  to  see  somebody  have  something. 

B.  The  meaning  of  mifl  causes  no  trouble,  but  its  accent  in  com- 
position with  verbs  has  become  double,  either  strongly  accented  or 
unaccented,  and  is  hence  treated  as  a  separable  or  inseparable 
prefix.  In  the  main,  however,  even  though  accented,  it  is  not 
separated  from  the  verb  ia  the  literary  language  except  by  gu 
and  ge  in  the  infinitive  and  participle,  where  sometimes  three 
forms  can  be  found  for  the  one  word :  311  tnijjbeu'ten,  ju  mijTbeuten, 
mi^ubcuten ;  mtjjbeu'tet,  gemifbeittet,  mijj'gebeutet.  Thus  the  infinitive 
and  participle  can  be  treated  as  separable  or  inseparable  verbs, 
and  the  participle  may  in  addition  be  treated  as  if  made  from 
a  compound  noun  (see  217),  and  indeed  this  form  may  have  had  its 
origin  in  a  compound  noun,  as  gemtfj'fcraucfyt  from  2ftip%aucfy,  and 
then  have  spread  by  analogy  to  the  others.  The  prefix  was 
originally  unaccented,  but  its  newer  use  of  placing  the  derivative 
in  contrast  to  the  simple  verb  naturally  resulted  in  shifting  in  such 
cases  the  accent  upon  the  prefix  in  accordance  with  its  logical 
importance.  Such  participial  forms  as  nnjj'gebeutet,  &c.,  are  after 
the  analogy  of  adjectives  and  adjective  participles  such  as  mffni 
gelaunt  ill-humored,  which  (see  47.  2.  B.  c.  bb)  uniformly  accent  the 
prefix.  Thus  the  prefix  after  the  analogy  of  such  participial 
adjectives  and  also  from  its  logical  importance  was  in  the  par- 
ticipial form  at  times  separated  from  the  verb  by  ge,  which  led  to 
the  idea  that  it  was  separable  and  consequently  to  the  placing  of 
311  between  prefix  and  verb  in  the  infinitive.  While  these  verbs 
which  accent  the  prefix  are  often  used  in  the  form  of  the  participle 
(used  adjectively  or  in  compound  tenses)  and  infinitive,  they  cannot 
be  thus  so  freely  used  in  simple  tenses  in  principal  propositions, 
as  the  natural  feeling  of  the  inconsistency  between  the  accent  and 
the  non-separation  of  the  prefix  usually  suggests  the  avoidance 


247.         FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  WORDS  479 

here  of  such  verbs  and  their  use  only  in  places  where  as  separable 
verbs  they  would  not  be  separated,  namely,  in  subordinate  clauses : 
not  2Wan  mijj'gretfe  nicfyt  Let  one  not  make  a  false  move,  but  93?an  cicfyte 
barauf,  baf?  man  nicfyt  mifj'greiff.  The  simple  tenses  of  a  number  of 
these  verbs,  however,  are  used  also  in  principal  propositions, 
usually  with  fluctuating  accent :  (Sr  mtjjbeu'tet  or  mtjj'peutet  e8. 

a.  The  prefix  imp  is  usually  accented  in  compounds  in  which 
it  stands  before  the  unaccented  prefix  of  an  inseparable  verb : 
inif'oerfie^en.    Such  verbs  are  freely  used  as  inseparable  verbs  even 
in  simple  tenses  in  principal  propositions,  although  the  accented 
prefix  would  suggest  the  separation  here  of  verb  and  prefix :  D  rote 
ini|Vtierftel;cn  <8ie  mid) !    In  the  infinitive  of  such  verbs,  however,  the 
jit  usually  stands  after  mijj :  mip'jitbefyagen,  mif  juoerftefyen.    The  perfect 
participle  of  course  has  no  ge :  mijj'oerfhmben. 

b.  Intransitives  are  more  liable  to  take  the  accent  upon  the  prefix 
than  transitives :  @8  ift  bocfy  bumnt,  bajj  if)m  ber  Ie£te  <Streid?  mijjglucft'  tft 
(Goethe's  Gotz,  i.  i),  but  also :  CftiraS  tft  mtjj'geglucft  (Moritz  Heyne). 
3d?  tyafce  fdHntyfltd?  mt^'gefyanbelt  (Goethe),  usually  however  in  transitive 
use  :  <£r  fyat  mid?  ntifjfian'belt.    But  also  with  accent  upon  the  prefix  in 
transitive  use  in  conformity  with  the  general  irregularity   here : 
mtjj'gefyanbftt  (Faust,  II.  5.  1.  6470).      tlnb  iceu  Ijafcen  fte  bergeflalt  gemij}'* 
fymbelt?  (Raabe's  Schiidderump,  chap.  24).     3f)r  fcofen  Qlffcn,  j  trie  fyabt 
mctnen  ©arten  it)r  mif 'gefd^af en  ?  (Wildenbruch's  Konig  Laurin,  i,  22). 

c.  Though  the  prefix  is  in  general  only  separated  in  the  above- 
mentioned  cases,  there  is  a  slight  tendency  toward  complete  sepa- 
ration,   as    can    be   occasionally   heard    in   facetious   or  sarcastic 
language :    D   me  Derftefyen   @te,  mein  QSater,  mid;  einmal  icteber  red)t 
griinblid;  mip !  (Immermann's  M.,  2.  5). 


COMPOUNDS. 

FORMATION  OF  COMPOUND  WORDS. 
Definition  and  Nature  of  a  Compound. 

247.  A  compound  is  a  word  formed  by  the  close  union  of  two  or 
more  words  whose  meanings  blend  so  thoroughly  as  to  produce 
one  single  idea.  The  natural  tendency  is  to  distinctly  mark  this 
oneness  of  meaning  by  a  oneness  in  form,  that  is,  by  writing 
together  the  different  words  of  a  compound  :  l&anfyffcfyiffatyrt  steam- 
navigation.  Languages  differ  in  the  accuracy  with  which  they 
distinctly  mark  compounds  as  such  by  writing  the  parts  in  one 
word.  German,  though  more  careful  than  English  in  this  respect, 
often,  as  is  discussed  in  249,  fails  to  recognize  the  distinct  unity  in 
a  group  of  words  :  alt  unb  Jung  old  and  young  =  jebermann  everybody, 
bte  fyfilige  <8d?rift  Holy  Writ  =  bte  2M6el  Bible,  falteS  99lut  sang-froid  = 
AaltBIutigftit.  For  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  that  the  compo- 
nents of  a  compound  form  one  single  idea,  see  249.  II, 


480  COMPOUNDS  247.  a. 

a.  In  German  the  inflection  often  forces  the  recognition  of  a  true  compound 
where  in  English  such  is  not  the  case,  as  in  em  JicntgSfoljn  a  king's  son.  In 
the  German  compound  the  form  of  the  article  shows  that  it  agrees  with 
the  second  element  of  the  component,  for  if  it  agreed  with  the  first  it  would 
be  eine3.  Hence,  as  the  second  element  determines  the  gender  of  a  compound, 
the  word  must  be  evidently  a  true  compound,  although  it  is  not  so  recognized 
in  English.  Aside  from  this  mere  formal  principle,  compounds  are  much 
more  common  in  German,  and  of  much  greater  length  than  in  English, 
sometimes  of  colossal  proportions,  as  (Sifenbafynbauunterfudjun^fommtffion  a 
body  appointed  to  investigate  the  questions  concerning  the  building  of  rail- 
roads. Such  compounds  though  often  ridiculed  are  nevertheless  common, 
and  not  without  their  decided  advantages,  for  they,  in  a  certain  sense,  tersely 
give  the  substance  of  a  whole  sentence. 

Parts  of  a  Compound. 

248.  A.  Though  a  compound  may  consist  of  two  words  or  several, 
it  can  as  a  rule  have  only  two  component  elements — the  basal 
component,  which  contains  the  more  general  idea,  and  the  modifying 
component,  which  contains  the  more  special  meaning,  usually  some 
essential  modification  of  the  meaning  of  the  basal  component,  and 
hence  accented :  3rceig'=etfenfcaf)n  a  branch  railroad,  ^a'terlanbgsliefce 
love  of  native  land.  Each  element  can  thus  be  either  simple  or 
compound.  The  exceptions  to  the  rule  that  a  compound  has  but 
two  components  are  found  in  249.  II.  2. 

a.  If  several  compound  words  have  the  same  basal  or  modifying 
component,  the  element  which  they  have  in  common  need  only  be 
expressed  once,  but  a  hyphen  must  in  the  written  word  follow  the 
modifying  element,  in  the  first-mentioned  case,  and  precede  the 
basal  element,  in  the  second  case :  SBurfel*  unb  (Scfyacbfpiet  the  games 
of  dice  and  chess ;  SBortaWettung  imb  sSufammenfefcung  formation  of 
words  by  derivation  and  composition. 

b.  One  of  the  components  is  often  shortened  by  dropping  a  word, 
as  the  natural  tendency  is  toward  simpler  forms  :  SBatyntyof  railroad 
depot,  for  (Sifenfcafynfjof. 

B.  The  basal  component  determines  the  part  of  speech  to  which 
the  compound  belongs  except  in  such  cases  as  in  249.  II.  2,  where 
there  are  more  than  two  components.     Since  every  part  of  speech 
except  th*e  article  can  become  the  basal  component,  all  parts  of 
speech  except  the  article  can  form  compounds :  2Kanne8mitt  courage 
of  a  man,  fyilfgbeburftig  requiring  help,  fuiifjefyn  fifteen,  berfel'fre  the 
same,  fcergafc"  down  hill,  &c.    In  inflected  words  the  basal  component 
stands  last  and  assumes  the  inflectional  endings  of  the  compound 
and  in  case  of  substantives  also  the  gender :  frufyjKicfen  to  breakfast, 
id)  ftitfyftucfe ;  bag  ^rtifyftucf,  be8  gtufoftucb.     This  rule,  however,  holds 
only  in  a  broad  general  sense,  the  limitations  being  discussed  in 
249.  II.  2. 

C.  The  accent  usually  rests  upon  the  modifying  element,  as  it  is 
the  special  point  to  which  the  attention  is  called.     There  are,  how- 
ever, manifold  exceptions,  and  the  whole  question  of  accent  in 
compounds  is  treated  at  length  under  the  head  of  Accent,  47.3. 


249.1.3.  COMPOSITION  PROPER  481 

Different  Kinds  of  Compounds. 
249.  Composition  is  proper  or  improper. 

Note.  The  common  terms  proper  and  improper  compounds  are  retained  upon  the 
basis  of  usage.  In  fact,  however,  the  latter  class  are  as  true  compounds  as  the  former, 
for  they  must  have  originated  in  the  same  manner,  the  naked  stem  in  the  original  lan- 
guage having  been  employed  in  the  sentence  in  much  the  same  way  as  later  the 
inflected  forms  which  gave  rise  to  improper  compounds,  as  described  in  II,  below. 

I.  Composition  Proper. 

A  compound  proper  has  two  components,  which  do  not  stand  in 
any  self-evident  syntactical  relation  to  each  other.  It  is  formed  by 
joining  the  stems  of  two  words  directly  together  without  the  aid  of 
inflectional  endings  between  them  :  SBtrnbaum  ("3?trne  +  23aitm)  pear 
tree,  -§aus^crr  (4?au8  +  4?err),  efyefcfyeu  ((Ffre  +  fdicu)  having  an  aversion 
to  marriage.  The  peculiarity  of  composition  proper  is  that  the 
ideas  which  lie  in  the  two  components  are  so  thoroughly  fused 
together  that  one  idea  results  from  their  union.  This  idea,  how- 
ever, rests  entirely  upon  the  fusion  of  the  two  components,  and 
may  often  immediately  disappear  if  the  compound  is  separated 
literally  into  two  parts.  Thus  -.Hbenbmaf)!  denotes  the  Lord's  Supper, 
not  literally  an  evening  meal;  ©robjcfymicb  a  smith  who  manufactures 
coarse  (grob)  iron  articles,  not  a  coarse  smith. 

a.  In  an  earlier  period  of  the  language  the  stem  of  a  word  was 
not  always  identical  in  form  with  its  nom.  sing,  as  to-day,  but  often 
ended  in  one  of  the  vowels  a,  t,  u.     In  compounds  the  first  element 
always  stood   in  its   simple  stem-form,   the   second  element  was 
inflected:  (O.H.G.)  N.  taga-sterro  or  taga-stern  morning  star,  G. 
taga-sterren  or  taga-sternes,  &c.     As  a  survival  of  this  older  usage 
are  still  found  a  number  of  words  with  the  final  stem  vowel  c  (which 
is  the  usual  N.H.G.  weakened  form  of  O.H.G.  ci,  t,  u):  >£>unbet)utte 
dog-house,  Sagebud?  diary,  $ferbebteb  horse-thief,  &c.     In  a  number  of 
these  cases  the  e  is  now  felt  as  a  pi.  ending.     In  most  cases,  how- 
ever, the  former  final  stem-vowel  has  disappeared  :  $agtt>ad;e;  tag* 
tdglid),  &c.     This  vowel  instead  of  disappearing  has  become  pro- 
ductive in  case  of  verbal  stems,  which  after  the  analogy  of  nouns 
now  freely  add  e,  especially  if  the  stem  ends  in  b,  b,  g,  ( :  @terbe$tmmer, 
Sabeflocf,  3«igeftnger,  £efe(mcfy,  «£>alteitcfle,  &c. ;  many,  however,  without  the 
e,  as  in  case  of  nominal  stems  :  @cfyrei6feJ>er,  Jtauf  feute,  &c.    In  general 
the  old  stem-vowel  e  has  not  only  disappeared  in  a  large  number  of 
words,  but  this  old  formation  of  stem-composition  is  often  replaced 
by  improper  composition,  as  described  in  II,  especially  in  modern 
words  :  5cu}e3preffe,  &c.     The  same  modifying  component  often  shows 
all  three  formations,  the  forms  differing  in  different  compounds  or 
even  in  the  same  compound  :  Sagebteb  or  Sagbicb,  Scigclolm  or  Saglo^n, 
Xagwerf  or  Sagrcerf,  Sagetetfe,  $age3lid;t,  SageSorbnung,  £c.     In  case  of 
adjectives  the  modifying  component  may  have  different  forms  with 
the  same  basal  element :  ivortbriicfyig,  but  ycrtragSbrudng  ;  gefjattretcb,  but 
fcerfeftrSvdd),  tnfyalt(8)retcfy  ;  gottfitrcfytig  (Luke  ii.  25),  now  gotteSfitrcfytig,  &c. 

b.  In  case  of  verbs  whose  stems  end  in  en  (now  always  contracted 
to  n),  as  recfynen  to  count,  compute,  many  people  prefix  the  whole  infin, 

i  i 


482  COMPOUNDS  249.  I.  b. 

to  the  basal  component,  as  the  simple  stem  is  never  heard  :  9fted?nen* 
lefyrer  arithmetic  teacher ;  %t\$w(&\\$  drawing-book  instead  of  Sftec&enle^rer, 
geicfyenfciicfy.  All  grammarians  and  the  new  dictionaries,  however, 
condemn  this  natural  and  popular  trend  and  favor  the  strictly 
grammatical  form. 

c.  A  number  of  words  which  have  the  distinctive  form  and 
features  of  proper  compounds,  and  are  therefore  classed  here,  were 
originally  syntactical  fragments  and  hence  have  had  a  different 
origin;  see  II.  i.  A,  below. 

II.  Composition  Improper. 

A  later  formation  than  composition  proper  is  improper  composi- 
tion. An  improper  compound  is  a  mere  syntactical  fragment,  a  piece 
of  a  sentence  the  words  of  which  stand  in  some  syntactical  relation 
to  each  other,  and  have  come  in  course  of  time  to  be  felt  as  a 
compound.  The  different  components  together  usually  form  one 
idea,  but  differ  from  the  components  of  proper  compounds  in  that 
their  syntactical  relations  to  each  other  can  be  traced  by  the  philo- 
logian.  Sometimes,  however,  the  parts  of  the  compound  are  simply 
bound  together  by  one  accent,  and  the  union  of  the  syntactical 
elements  has  not  resulted  in  a  thought-unification,  as  in  case  of 
proper  and  most  improper  compounds  :  baran'  from  Da  +  an ;  &c. 

In  improper  compounds  the  original  syntactical  relations  of  the 
different  components  are  now  sometimes  not  felt,  sometimes  the 
logical  relation  of  the  components  is  a  peculiar  one,  and  quite 
different  from  that  suggested  by  their  grammatical  relation,  some- 
times the  logical  force  of  one  of  the  elements  becomes  more 
important  than  the  idea  of  its  grammatical  function,  all  of  which 
gives  rise  to  various  classes  of  compounds  : 

1.  Compounds  with  Two  Components.  In  these  compounds  the 
logical  importance  of  the  modifying  component  requires  it  usually 
to  be  accented,  even  though  its  syntactical  function  may  not  call 
for  accent. 

The  following  groups  occur  : 

A.  In  some  compounds  the  syntactical  relations  are  no  longer 
vividly  felt,  nor  do  the  components  maintain  always  the  literal 
meaning  they  have  outside  of  the  compound  :  Sunc^qefefl  bachelor  = 
M.H.G.  June  geselle  young  fellow,  gen.  junges  gesellen.  Thus  this 
compound  was  originally  a  syntactical  fragment  consisting  of  a  noun 
in  the  nom.  and  its  modifying  adjective,  which  in  an  earlier  period 
was  allowed  to  drop  sometimes  its  nom.  ending.  Adjectives  are 
not  now  permitted  to  drop  here  a  case  ending,  and  thus  the  original 
syntactical  relation  of  the  words  became  indistinct.  This  left  the 
two  words  free  to  enter  into  a  new,  closer  relation,  and  develop  an 
idea  not  literally  contained  in  the  syntactical  relation  of  the  indivi- 
dual components.  Also  the  accent  distinguishes  the  compound 
to-day  from  the  usual  combination  of  adjective  and  substantive  as 
found  in  actual  use  in  the  sentence,  where,  according  to  50.  A.  5, 
the  accent  usually  rests  upon  the  last  member  of  the  combination, 
i.e.  upon  the  substantive.  Originally  the  accent  was  upon  the 


249.  II.  1.  B.      COMPOSITION  IMPROPER  483 

adjective.  Thus  these  compounds  preserve  the  older  order  of 
things,  while  the  usual  syntactical  group  as  found  in  actual  use  in 
the  sentence  has  followed  the  tendency  observable  elsewhere  to 
shift  the  accent  upon  the  last  member  of  the  group. 

a.  The  different  compound  elements  of  such  compounds,  and  also  those 
of  proper  compounds,  have  in  a  number  of  cases  become  so  contracted  and 
corrupted  in  the  course  of  time  that  they  are  no  longer  clearly  distinguished, 
and  the  words  which  they  form  are  not  always  felt  as  compounds :  (Slenb 
misery,  O.H.G.  eli-lenti  foreign  land',  Jpoffart  pride,  arrogance,  from  older 
hochfart,  from  fyodj  high  and  faljren  to  live,  ride ;  3itngfer  maid,  miss,  from 
Sungfrau  ;  3unfer young  nobleman,  from  M.H.G.  juncherre  =  junger  -£>crr,  &c. 

b.  Some  compounds  which  have  thus  arisen  out  of  the  juxtaposition  of 
adjective  and  noun  have  not  fused  so  thoroughly  as  the  above  examples. 
Thus  we  address  a  little  child  who  is  afraid  of  a  goose  pleasantly  by  the 
words  fleiner  (formerly  also  flein)  J&a'fcnfufj  little  coward,  or  by  the  compound 
&Uitb$a'fmfttf,  which  still  retains  the  older  inflectionless  form  of  the  adjective, 
but  has  modern  grammatical  accent  according  to  5O.  A.  5,  as  the  syntactical 
relation  of  the  components   is   vividly  felt.      Likewise   many  geographical 
names  (47.  3.  A.  g)  have  the  modern  sentence  accent,  some  with  inflection  of 
the  adjective,  others  without  such  inflection :    SUtfire'lig,  Sleuenteicfy'  (=  am 
neuen  £eid)'),  &c. 


B.  In  some  compounds  the  syntactical  relation  between  the 
components  is  clearly  that  of  a  noun  and  its  modifying  genitive : 
(str.  gen.)  ©ot'teSbienft  divine  service,  public  worship  of  God,  faitf)'* 
HngSregen  spring  rain,  2Birt3'fyau3  inn,  tavern,  <§er'jeneluft  desire  of 
one's  heart,  ©Icm'fcenSfretfKtt ;  (wk.  gen.)  £tt/tenjk&  shepherd's  staff, 
©ra'fenftanb  dignity  and  rank  of  a  count ;  (pi.  gen.)  ©ot'tettefyre  mytho- 
logy, treatise  on  the  ancient  gods  -}  also  many  geographical  names : 
•Ro'niggberg,  &c. 

Such  substantives  are  formed  by  placing  the  singular  or  the 
plural  ending  of  the  strong  or  weak  genitive  form  of  the  modifying 
component  before  the  basal  component.  In  declining  such  com- 
pounds the  genitive  form  of  the  modifying  component  remains 
constant  throughout  the  different  cases,  only  the  basal  component 
assuming  the  inflection. 

Note.  The  principal  cause  that  led  to  the  formation  of  such  compounds  was  the 
fact  that  the  genitive  which  preceded  the  governing  noun  lost  its  concrete  force  and 
took  on  abstract  general  meaning.  The  abstract  genitive  after  the  manner  of  an 
emphatic  adjective  gave  a  distinct  shade  of  meaning  to  the  following  noun,  and 
made  natural  and  easy  the  retention  of  the  original  accent  of  such  syntactical  fragments, 
while  the  same  combination  of  genitive  and  governing  noun  as  found  in  actual  use  in 
the  sentence  usually  follows  the  modern  tendency  described  in  50.  A.  1>d\.o  shift  the 
accent  upon  the  last  member  of  the  combination.  New  genitive  compounds  follow  the 
logical  principle  observed  in  the  older  compounds,  and  not  the  modern  sentence 
accent,  as  the  accent  has  become  the  distinguishing  feature  between  a  compound 
and  a  syntactical  combination.  Another  circumstance  has  been  of  assistance 
in  forcing  the  recognition  of  such  words  as  compounds.  M.H.G.  usage  often, 
placed  the  article  which  belonged  to  a  governing  noun  before  the  preceding 
dependent  genitive :  der  gotes  segen.  As  such  old  forms  often  remained  after 
this  M.H.G.  usage  gave  way  to  the  N.H.G.  rule  that  the  preceding  modifying  genitive 
retains  its  article,  while  the  governing  noun  is  without  one,  as  in  beS  lieben  ©ottfg 
©egeil,  it  became  evident  that  in  case  of  these  old  forms  the  preceding  genitive  and 
the  following  governing  noun  were  no  longer  felt  as  separate  words,  but  as  one 
word,  and  that  the  article  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  for  compounds  followed 

I  i  2 


484  COMPOUNDS  249.  II.  1.  u. 

the  gender  and  case  of  the  last  component.  Thus  this  N.H.G.  change  of  construction 
has  forced  the  recognition  of  such  compounds  in  the  common  orthography,  and  we 
must  write  bet  reidje  ©ctteSfegen.  In  German  the  form  of  the  article  reveals  to  us  at 
once  whether  the  words  are  considered  as  compounded  or  as  separate,  but  in  English 
we  have  no  such  formal  evidence,  as  the  article  is  uninflected  :  biefer  J^irtenftab  this 
(pause)  shepherd's  staff,  btefeg  Bitten  <5ta&  this  shepherd's  (pause)  staff  =  the  staff  of 
this  shepherd. 

a.  In  a  number  of  words  the  old  weak  genitive  still  stands  in  such 
compounds,  although  the  same  words  have  elsewhere  long  since 
become  strong,  or  in  case  of  feminines  in  the  singular  have  lost 
inflection:  ©reifenatter  (see  76.  1.  3.  b)  old  age,  (gcfjelmenftitcf  piece  of 
roguery,  -^erjogenSufd)  (71.  i.  c.  (2)},  ©ptonenriecfyer  (see  p.  81,  General 
Note)  one  who  is  always  on  the  look-out  for  spies,  (£vigrammenbid)ter 
(p.  81,  General  Note]  epigrammatist,  ©eletyrtenoerfammlung  (111.  4.  b)  ; 
<2onnenfcfyein  sunshine,  B'rfubentag  day  of  joy,  &c.     In  a  number  of 
words  the  old  feminine  genitive  of  the  strong  declension,  which  was 
exactly  like  the  nominative,  has  been  retained  :   9ftad?egott  god  of 
vengeance,  Sftufjefhinbe  hour  of  leisure,  &c.     In  an  earlier  period 
some  of  these  strong  feminines  added  e  in  the  genitive  singular, 
and  the  vowel  was  mutated  ;  see  71.  2.  c.    This  old  genitive  survives 
in  a  few  compounds  :    ©anfefeber,  SBrdutigam  (the  first  component 
being  the  genitive  of  23raut  with  an  i  corrupted  from  e,  the  second 
component  an  old  noun,  not  now  found  elsewhere,  the  modern 
form  of  O.H.G.  gomo  man,  related  to  Latin  homo),  &c. 

b.  The  connecting  of  the  two  components  by  an  3  has  become 
very  popular,  and  has  spread  to  a  large  number  of  words  originally 
without  it,  often  even  to  feminines,  where  Luther  rarely  has  an  8. 
Note  especially  the  following  cases  where  the  3  is  now  used  : 

aa.  When  a  fern,  modifying  component  ends  in  at,  lit,  t)ett,  fdjaft, 
t  (in  compounds  and  derivatives  only),  ion,  ung,  tat  :  8tounbfcfyaft8bien|t, 
4?odJ5eit8tag  (,  but  Seitpunft  ;  see  dd,  below),  .ftrununggtag,  &c. 

bb.  Usually  after  the  modifying  components  Qlcfyt,  ©efcf?td}te,  «§tlfe, 
Sidje,  and  often  3Wiete  :  Qlcfyteerfldrung,  ©efcfytcfytgforfdjer,  «§ilf8tritppen,  ^tc* 
fceSbienfi,  SKiet(§)Ieutc,  2Jitet(§)roagen,  &c.  Also  in  JttnbtaufSfuc^cn  (see  dd, 
below),  Jtauengperfon,  5rauen§leute,  ©eelengute  or  ©eelenSgute  (after  the 
analogy  of  ^erjenggitte).  In  the  last  three  cases  the  8  is  added  to 
the  weak  gen.  Colloquially  the  n8  often  occurs  instead  of  n  in 
StfenfcfyengfmD  fellow,  lad,  '  my  boy  '  :  Jakob  :  3ft  eg  nicfyt  fo,  Dfym 
9fteitu>tb  ?  Ulrichs  :  @o  ifi  eg,  a»enfdjen8fint>  !  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  8). 

cc.  In  a  few  feminines  in  =b  and  *naf)tue  :  ©ebulbefaben,  9lufnaj)m8* 
fcebinguiui,  &c. 

.  Often  when  the  modifying  compound  is  itself  a  compound  : 
,  but  9lad)tfalter  ;  £anbreerf  ejeug,  but  2Berf  jeiig,  &c. 


Note.  The  reason  that  the  connecting  g  is  thus  often  found  in  decomposites  and 
not  in  simple  compounds  is  that  decomposites  were  little  used  in  earlier  periods,  when 
proper  compounds  were  so  common.  They  came  into  use  late,  when  improper  com- 
position had  become  the  favorite  formation,  hence  the  g. 

ee.  The  connecting  8  now  often  stands  where  Luther  has  proper 
composition:  A&er  bet  Vnterf)eiibtmau  gleitfcet  bem  <2d)ifn)errn  &nb  bem 
©djiffman  metjr  |  bemt  bem  bag  $aulu3  faget  (Acts  xxvii.  n). 


249.  II.  1.  B.  c.     COMPOSITION  IMPROPER  485 

ff.  The  connecting  3  now  so  common  in  compounds  does  not 
always  have  the  force  of  a  genitive  singular  ending.  It  may 
indicate  :  (i)  that  the  modifying  component  is  to  be  considered  as 
an  appositive  to  the  basal  component  :  3ager3mann,  9titter3mann,  &c. 
(2)  It  may  in  fact  contain  a  plural  idea  :  SDiefceSfcanbe,  ®afhtnrt3t>erein, 
8rreimbe3fret§,  -3lmralt3tag,  SStfcfyofSuerfamnilung,  «$ering8fang,  £)fftjier3forp3 
(Beyerlein's  Jena  odcr  Sedan  ?,  xiii),  ba3  fcefte  Of^ierSmatertal  (ib.) 
the  best  material  out  of  which  officers  can  be  made,  <Sd}ipt>erfet)r, 
3roiUing8$iaar,  &c.  This  3  is  regarded  by  some  as  the  Low  German 
plural  ending;  see  Note,  below.  Perhaps  the  plural  8  in  many 
foreign  words  has  also  exerted  some  influence.  Whether  this  3  be 
a  gen.  ending  or  a  pi.  ending  due  to  Low  German  or  foreign  influ- 
ence, nouns  with  the  plural  ending  e  do  not  readily  enter  compounds 
with  their  regular  plural  ending  as  do  other  nouns,  but  they  usually 
take  an  3,  as  in  the  examples  given  above,  or  very  often  have  the 
form  of  composition  proper,  or  in  the  case  of  certain  nouns  (see  a, 
above)  which  were  once  weak  assume  the  weak  plural  ending  en  : 
DfffyterforpS  (preferred  to  the  form  in  3  by  a  number  of  grammarians), 
,ffo£fjiil;l  number  of  persons  present,  &c.  ;  (Svionenriedjer,  &c.  The  e 
in  the  formations  described  in  I,  a,  above,  may  in  part  be  felt  as  a 
plural  ending,  but  it  is  in  fact  an  old  stem-suffix.  (3)  It  may  contain 
the  idea  of  a  comparison  :  engel3gut,  fmger(3)(cmg,  lefonSgrof,  &c.  In  a 
number  of  cases  this  3  has  resulted  from  the  analogy  of  similar 
noun  formations  where  the  3  represents  a  real  genitive  ending: 
(SngetSgute,  S'ingerSlange,  &c.  (4)  Occasionally  it  is  equivalent  to  a 
prep,  phrase  :  eine  5luflad?en3tteigung  ifyrer  fiippen  (Jensen's  Schatz- 
sucher,  p.  288)  instead  of  the  more  common  eine  9^eigung  ifyrer 


Note.  The  g  in  the  cases  in  aa,  bb,  cc,  dd,  ee,ff(2)  seems  to  have  come  from  the 
Low  German,  where  it  is  a  favorite,  being  found  in  accordance  with  older  usage  in 
the  genitive  of  feminines  as  well  as  masculines  and  neuters,  both  in  compounds  and  in 
independent  words,  and  often  throughout  the  plural  as  the  regular  plural  ending. 
Owing  to  the  importance  of  North  German  writers  in  the  present  period  this  connecting 
0  has  gradually  since  Luther's  day  been  gaining  ground  in  the  literary  language.  The 
analogy  of  masculine  and  neuter  words  has  of  course  facilitated  the  spread  of  this 
(3  among  feminines.  Sometimes  the  same  word  has  the  form  of  proper  and  improper 
composition,  in  a  few  cases  with  differentiation  of  meaning  :  SanbHldlin  peasant, 
Sanbemamt  fellow  countryman  ;  SSajfcrnot  lack  of  water,  2Baffer$nct  inundation. 

c.  The  connecting  of  the  two  components  by  an  en,  the  weak 
genitive  ending,  though  not  so  popular  as  that  of  3,  has  spread  to  a 
number  of  words  originally  without  it.  Especially  those  feminines 
now  ending  in  e  which  were  originally  strong  take  this  en  in  com- 
pounds after  the  analogy  of  weak  feminines,  which  formerly  ended 
regularly  in  en  in  the  genitive  sing.  :  ©nabenaft,  ©anleufnopf,  (Snten* 
fdntabcl,  &c.  Some  words  enter  into  compounds  with  their  simple 
stem  or  the  weak  genitive  ending  with  differentiated  meaning  : 
d?rbgctud)  smell  of  fresh  earth,  but  in  figurative  sense  Grbengefcfyicf  lot  of 
this  earth  or  world,  human  fate,  &c. 

Masculines  do  not  usually  take  an  en  when  they  are  not  entitled 
to  it,  but  weak  masculines  often  take  an  en,  especially  in  derivatives, 


486  COMPOUNDS  249.  II.  1.  B.  c. 

although  corresponding  strong  nouns  enter  similar  formations,  not 
with  the  strong  genitive  ending  g,  but  with  their  simple  stem : 
fcufcenfyoft,  but  fcfyuterfyaft  •  fti'trfbntitm,  but  Jtatfertum,  &c. 

C.  In  many  compounds  the  modifying  component  stands  in  the 
relation  of  a  modifying  adverb :  Ijocfybegafct  highly  endowed,  nreitsers 
treitet,  aiifflefyen,  &c.    Adverbial  genitive  :  fyer^enSfroty  (gen.  of  specifi- 
cation; see  223.  III. a;  in  M.H.G.  the  gen.  is  also  written  separate  : 
so  wart  er  aber  do  sines  muotes  harte  vro —  Hartmann  von  Aue's 
Gregorius,  2902),  feetenfroty  or  feelengfrofy  (after  the  analogy  of 

frof)),  tyergenSgut,  feelengut  or  feeleuggut  (after  the  analogy  o 
To  this  group  of  compounds  belongs  the  large  class  of  verbs  with 
a  separable  prefix  (215.  II.  i.  B.  a)  or  prepositional  phrase  (215.  II. 
i.B.d).  These  are  not  fixed  compounds,  as  the  prefix  is  separable 
in  simple  tenses  in  principal  propositions.  Nouns  made  from  such 
verbs  are,  however,  fixed  compounds  :  Qliieigang,  Snflanb'fefcung,  &c. 
There  is  also  in  case  of  verbs  a  tendency  toward  the  form  of  a  true 
compound;  see  215.  II.  2.  c. 

D.  The  modifying  component  may  be : 

(1)  The  object  (215.  II.  i.  B.  c)  of  the  verbal  stem  contained  in  the 
basal  component,  as  in  ftattfmben  to  take  place,  freubdmngenb,  menfd)enfce« 
glitcfenb,  or  in  case  of  adjectives  it  may  be  the  objective  predicate  (104. 
2.  A.  c  and  215.  II.i.B.b),  as  in  grof^ietyett  to  bring  up,  rear.     Such 
compounds  are  in  large  part  separable  verbs,  and  hence  are  not 
fixed  compounds.     In  case  of  verbal  nouns  the  object  is  sometimes 
in   the  ace.,  sometimes  in  the  gen.  :    2)?a§'^alten  or  2JJaf?l)aItung  ; 
©e^or'famSserireigerung,  5rie't>en3 breeder,  2Befel)l3'f)a6er,  &c.     Where  the 
form  is  not  decisive,  as  in  Jtna'fcener^tdjung,  <2d)urbenmad)er,  &c.,  the 
object  may  be  regarded  as  an  ace.  or  a  gen.     Composition  proper 
is  also  common  with  verbal  nouns :  ©efeg'gefmng  (corresponding  to 
©efe^e  geben),  29ud/6inber  (corresponding  to  93ucfyer  fnnben),  &c. 

(2)  The  modifying  component  may  be  the  object  of  an  adjective 
in  the  gen.  or  dat.  according  as  it  governs  the  gen.  or  dat.  in  the 
sentence :  le'&engmiibe  tired  of  life,  t>or'tt>itrf3t>oft  reproachful ;  mild?'* 
dljnltd)  milklike,  gott'ergefceu  resigned  to  the  will  of  God,  devout. 
Although  the  gen.  form  is  always  clearly  marked  here,  the  dat. 
form  never  takes  a  clear  dat.  ending  except  in  case  of  weak  nouns, 
and  there  it  remains  uncertain  whether  the  number  is  sing,  or  pi. : 
gott'dtynlid;  (not  gottedfwlicfy),  but  men'f$tn&$nli$. 

E.  The  modifying  element  may  be  a  predicate  nom.,  although 
there  is  no  ending  here  by  which  the  form  can  be  distinguished 
from  composition  proper  :  bie  -iWenfcfyirerbung  the  incarnation,  lit.  the 
becoming  a  man,  ba§  @olbatfetn,  ba§  SluffiQWrben  fefier  Jtorper,  &c. 

2.  Loose  Compounds.  A  large  group  of  words,  mainly  new  forma- 
tions, have  not,  as  the  above-mentioned  compounds,  a  basal  com- 
ponent and  a  modifying  component,  which  stand  in  a  clearly  marked 
logical  relation  to  each  other,  but  form  a  loose  compound  in  which  the 
elements  stand  only  in  a  grammatical  relation  to  each  other.  Such 
a  compound  is  in  fact  only  the  syntactical  fragment  of  a  sentence 
or  indeed  a  whole  sentence  which  has  been  written  together  as  one 
word.  The  improper  compounds  described  in  1,  above,  are  also 


249.  II.  2.  A.  a.  LOOSE  COMPOUNDS  487 

syntactical  fragments  of  a  sentence,  but  they  differ  from  loose 
compounds  in  that  they  have  retained  their  former  logical  accent, 
as  explained  in  1.  A  and  B.  Note,  while  loose  compounds  follow  the 
modern  rules  for  sentence  accent,  which  is  now  often  controlled 
by  merely  mechanical  principles.  Thus  3ung'frau,  2J?ee're3flromung 
preserve  the  older  accent  upon  the  attributive  adjective  and  geni- 
tive, although  in  sentence  accent  the  following  noun  now  usually 
receives  the  stress :  bte  junge  ftrau',  beS  2)?eere3  <2tr6'mung.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  loose  compound  Sangetrei'le  follows  the  mechanical 
principle  of  accenting  the  second  member  of  the  syntactical  com- 
bination as  in  sentence  accent.  Nouns  formed  in  former  periods, 
when  logical  accent  prevailed,  have  preserved  their  former  accent : 
SBeify'nacfyten  (M.H.G.  ze  den  wihen  nahten  =  in  ben  tyeiligen  SRdcfyten), 
•DJit'tag  (=  older  ber  ntttte  Sag),  &c.  In  new  compounds  formed  from 
syntactical  fragments  the  modern  sentence  accent  is  natural.  Also 
in  older  formations  there  are  traces  of  the  struggle  of  the  older 
logical  principle  with  the  modern  mechanical  accent :  9la'cl)  SJlitta'ge 
fa'fen  nnr  (Goethe's  Stirbt  der  Fuchs,  so  gilt  der  Balg).  There  is, 
however,  in  general  a  tendency  toward  the  estate  of  a  true  com- 
pound ;  see  A,  below. 

The  number  of  the  elements  in  a  loose  compound  is  not  limited 
to  two. 

In  some  cases  the  different  elements  of  the  compound  are 
each  inflected,  in  other  cases  the  compound  remains  uninflected, 
as  it  is  not  felt  as  one  word :  bcr  ©ef)eimerat',  be3  ®ef)etmenrat'§/ ;  ba3 
V'ebefyocl/,  beg  Sebefyod?'.  Thus  both  accent  and  inflection  show  that 
these  compounds  are  not  yet  in  general  felt  as  true  compounds, 
there  are,  however,  a  number  of  them  which  are  treated  partly  or 
wholly  as  such  :  bcr  ©pring'ingfelb,  beg  6}mng/tn8felt>(eg),  pi.  bie  Spring'* 
inifelbe. 

The  following  groups  will  illustrate  this  kind  of  compounds : 

A.  The  compound  consists  of  a  noun  and  its  modifying  adjective, 
which  is  inflected  as  well  as  the  noun  :  ber  «§ofyeprie'fter  high-priest, 
etn  £ofyer^rie/jier,  beg  4?of)en)me'tfer8,  &c.  Also  many  geographical 
names:  9teuenteicfy'  (=  am  neucn  £etcfy'),  &c.  Many  of  these  compounds 
have  retained  the  older  sentence  accent  (249.  II.  i.  A  and  b  there- 
under), or  have  assumed  it  after  the  analogy  of  such :  QUtenfcurg, 
4?o'f)enftein,  &c.  Sometimes  instead  of  inflection  the  nom.  form  be- 
comes fixed,  and  is  used  throughout :  in  ber  Sangercet'Ie  (instead  of 
Sattgemvei'le,  which  is  also  common)  unfereS  ScigerlebenS  (Sudermann's 
TV/a,  3).  The  tendency  in  a  number  of  cases  is  toward  the  form  of  a 
true  compound :  instead  of  auS  £angenrei'(c(or  ^angetcei'Ie)  also  anS  Bang's 
weile  (Schonherr's  Sonnwendtag,  p.  38) ;  instead  of  ber  ©eljetmerat', 
also  bcr  ©efyeim'rat.  For  full  treatment  of  this  construction  see  94. 6. 

a.  A  number  of  adverbial  compounds  consist  of  a  noun  in  the 
adverbial  gen.,  modified  by  an  adj.  in  the  gen. :  je'benfattS  at  all 
events.  In  a  number  of  pi.  compounds,  where  all  feeling  for  the 
original  construction  has  been  lost,  the  substantive  element  of  the 
compound  has  dropped  its  gen.  pi.  ending,  and  after  the  analogy  of 
the  sing,  compounds  taken  on  the  ending  8,  although  the  modifying 


488  COM  POU  N  DS  249.  1  1.  2.  A.  a. 


adjective  still  remains  as  originally  in  the  gen.  pi.  :  after 
(seventeenth  century),  atterbinge'  (present  form)  to  be  sure,  certainly, 
aUerortg'  everywhere,  &c.  In  a  number  of  such  compounds  the 
substantive  element  adds  8  even  to  fern,  nouns,  following  here  the 
analogy  of  masculines  :  fei'nerfeitS  upon  his  part,  mut'terlicfyerfeitS  upon 
the  mother's  side.  For  a  similar  formation  see  unterrcegg',  223.  1.  io.a. 

B.  The  article  forms  a  compound  with  a  following  adj.  :  ber'jenige, 
be3gleid/en. 

C.  A  noun  forms  a  compound  with  its  modifying  gen.  :  Sautters 
got'teS,  jeitle'beng.     For  accent  see  47.  3.  A.  e.  (3).     Also  many  geo- 
graphical names  (47.  3.  A.  £•)  :  Sfttppolt&ait',  &c.     The  words  of  this 
group  resemble  in  form  the  proper  compounds  described  in  j.  B 
above,  but  differ  from  them  in  having  modern  sentence  accent  (see 
5O.  A.  7.  dand  255.  II.  i). 

D.  The  name  of  a  material  or  something  measurable  forms  a 
compound  with  some  word  denoting  a  measure,  quantity,  or  weight  : 
SSiertelfiun'fce  quarter  of  an  hour.     See  126.  2.  a.  Note. 

E.  A  prep,  forms  a  compound  with  its  dependent  noun  :  ci6fet'ten. 
S)ii  fyatteft  bod)  fyier  'it  ftcfyreS,  trarnteS  3uf)au'fe  (Hauptmann's  Friedens- 
fest,  i).     Also  verbal  derivatives  are  formed  from  such  prepositional 

phrases  :  it&eraad/ten,  uBenrtn'tern. 

a.  In  some  of  these  words,  all  feeling  for  the  nature  of  compounds  having 
disappeared,  inflectional  endings  are  added  to   the  oblique  case  ending  : 
(dat.  pi.)  on  hand,  bie  Dcrfyan'benen  ferrate  the  provisions  on  hand. 


F.  In  some  compounds  the  syntactical  relation  between  the 
parts  is  that  of  apposition,  co-ordination,  or  addition  :  ©ottmenfcl/ 
God  incarnate,  Sfurjibtfcfy'of  a  bishop  who  has  also  the  dignity  of  a 
prince,  $rinjregent'  a  prince  temporarily  filling  the  place  of  the 
ruler,  «§an§tt>urft'  jack-pudding,  <§anlnarr'  torn-fool  ;  Dftermd)4lngarn 
Austro-Hungary,  bte  fcfycarjro'te  ftafyne  2Burttemberg§  the  flag  of 
Wiirttemberg  consisting  of  black  and  red,  bag  fcfcrearjrotgorneiie 
Scanner  2>eutfd)lanb§  1848  the  banner  of  Germany  in  1848  consisting 
of  black,  red,  and  gold;  9'lorbofr',  ©ubreefi';  etnunbjrcan'jig  ;  fclmfranis 
turn!  Riffraff! 

a.  Not  all  words  indicating  a  co-ordination  of  parts  are  written 
together  as  one  word.  In  a  number  of  cases  a  pair  of  words 
connected  by  unb  or  ober  form  a  single  idea,  when  the  two  words  are 
synonyms,  and  thus  represent  the  same  thing  from  two  different 
standpoints,  or  are  opposites  or  complements,  and  thus  show  the 
whole  range  of  the  idea  from  the  two  extremes  (see  94.  5)  :  fein 
ganjeg  «£a&  (bte  <§ate)  unb  @ut  all  he  owns  or  all  his  property,  bcr  Q3erluft 
ifyreS  4?ab  unb  ©itteS,  fein  £un  unb  Saffm  his  actions,  in  bte  Jtreuj  unb 
Ouere  fragen  to  cross-examine,  in  bie  Jtreuj  unb  Cluere  fd?ira|en  to  talk, 
chat  upon  this  subject  and  that,  and  the  other  similar  examples  in 
94.  5  ;  auf  ein  ober  bie  anbere  SSeife  in  one  way  or  another,  fcfyirarj  unb 
ireifje  ^afynen  flags  consisting  of  black  and  white,  and  the  other  similar 
examples  in  111.  7.  b.  In  the  preceding  examples  the  inflection 
of  only  the  second  of  the  two  words,  or  the  use  of  the  article  which 


249.  II.  3.  LOOSE  COMPOUNDS  489 

belongs  to  the  second  word  as  the  article  for  the  combination,  clearly 
stamps  them  as  compounds,  though  not  written  as  such.  In  many 
other  cases  words  are  in  fact  compounds,  but  the  absence  of  an 
inflectional  ending  in  the  second  part  does  not  show  it  so  clearly  : 
jceit  nnt)  fcreit,  in  @acf  unb  9lfdje  traitern  to  repent  in  sackcloth  and 
ashes,  burd)  bid  unb  bunn,  ukr  £anb  unb  3)Jeer. 

G.  In  some  compounds  the  syntactical  relation  between  the  parts 
is  that  of  verb  and  object:  bag  immer  erneute  <2id)flud)'teu  ju  bent  «£>errn 
(Bruckner),  (Stdwberfyc'kn,  (Sicfyoetgef'fen.  In  accordance  with  older 
usage  the  reflexive  object  is  still  omitted  here  in  many  compounds, 
especially  in  connection  with  felfcfl:  fid)  fceftn'ben,  but  9Befm't>en  ;  ftd) 
f)tn'»3e&en,  but  ^in'ga&e  or  v£in'ge&en ;  fid;  felfrff  fcel)errfd)en,  but  (gel&fi'* 
6el)errfd)ung,  &c.  A  dative  object  is  sometimes  found  :  <5td)fel6fUt6er» 
laf'fenfein,  &c.  A  dative  of  reference  is  also  found  :  S)a8  2ftcnfd;etts 
tnofl'lidijc  l)a&'  id)  getan  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  109). 

There  may  be  a  double  object,  an  ace.  object  and  an  objective 
predicate  :  @o6atb  id)  am  2J2enfd)m  btefe6  unnottge  SSefen  nnb  2irf):ntau'fi0s 
innrbru  fcemerfe,  fo  laffe  id)  ifm  lanfen  (G.  Keller  an  T.  Storm,  5.  Juni 
1882). 

The  verbal  stem  may  be  modified  by  both  an  object  and  a 
prepositional  phrase :  Sein  fetiger  Sater  ivitrbe  bartn  faum  etne  llrfadie 
gum  2 tdnmflrab'wu&votmi  fincen  (Baumbach's  Der  Schwiegersohn,  v). 

H.  A  whole  sentence  may  become  a  compound,  especially  in 
imperative  sentences  :  £efcef)od)',  ©ottlofc',  Q3ergtffntetnmd)t. 

I.  Some  compounds  consist  of  two  components,  of  which  the 
first  is  a  loose  compound  and  has  the  principal  accent,  which  is 
placed  according  to  the  rules  for  sentence  accent :  ®utnad)t/grufii, 
SDwfo'nicjgfeft,  Q( 1 1 ir e i'&ci fommer,  Summerjum^enftreid),  in  biefer  3)rofd)fes 
etf}er*Jtkf'fe»®efeflfci)aft  (Raabe's  Im  alien  Eisen,  XVII),  bie  ^aifer 
SSil^elm  II'.  flftealfdjitte  (read  ilUI^elm  ber  S^fi^e)-  The  first  element 
is  sometimes  inflected,  and  sometimes  remains  uninflected ;  see 
94.  6. 

3.  A  large  number  of  words  which  by  their  form  belong  to  one 
Or  other  of  the  above-described  categories  form  with  respect  to 
accent  and  meaning  a  distinct  group,  namely  compounds  the  first 
element  of  which  does  not  contain  an  essential  modification  of  the 
basal  compound,  but  only  an  intensification  of  the  idea  or  a  con- 
crete or  specific  illustration  of  it,  and  hence  does  not  take  the 
principal  accent :  fyunbMenb  very  miserable,  dtiefenfletjj  great  dili- 
gence, ftodftnfter  very  dark,  ^ed)fd)icarj;  jet-black,  freujfibel  as  merry  as 
a  cricket,  &c.  For  particulars  as  to  accent  see  47.  3.  A.  b.  aa, 
bb  c,d 


PART  IV 

SYNTAX. 

ESSENTIAL  ELEMENTS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

250.  A  thought  expressed  in  words  is  a  sentence.  It  is  usually 
considered  that  there  are  two  essential  elements  in  every  sentence 
— the  subject  and  the  predicate  :  Jtarl  ftngt. 

a.  Some  grammarians  look  at  the  subject  as  a  modifier  of  the  verb,  and 
hence  consider  the  verb  as  the  only  essential  element  of  a  sentence,  since  it 
alone,  as  in  imperative  sentences  and  other  instances  mentioned  below,  can 
express  a  thought  completely,  containing  within  its  own  personal  endings  the 
subject:  Site!  Hurry!  In  earlier  periods  of  the  language  the  subject  was 
not  so  necessary,  but  it  must  now  be  considered  as  an  essential  element  in 
a  normal  sentence. 

The  primitive  sentence  must  have  been  of  far  less  formal  nature  than  it  is 
to-day,  and  we  still  have  in  interjections  a  form  of  expression  that  cannot  be 
resolved  into  a  subject  and  predicate  :  9ld? !  91d) !  &c.  See  241. 

251.  The  Subject. 
I.  The  Case  and  Forms  of  the  Subject. 

i.  A.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nominative :  £>et 
€>d}ulet  lernt. 

a.  The  subject  can  sometimes  in  imitation  of  a  French  construction  be  in 
the  gen.  or  in  the  dat.  after  son  ;  see  255.  II.  I.  H.c. 

b.  In  a  number  of  instances  a  noun  in  an  oblique  case  after  a  prep,  is 
considered  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  since  the  real  origin  of  the  construction 
is  no  longer  felt :  ©egett  fyunbert  SDlann  finb  gefatten  About  a  hundred  men  fell. 
Sin  bie  taitfenb  SKcnfcfyen  foaren  »evfatnmelt.     In  these  sentences  the  prep,  an  and 
gegm  are  felt  now  as  adverbs  with  the  force  of  iingefafyt  and  etwa. 

B.  The  form  of  the  subject  may  be  that  of: 

a.  A  noun  :  2)te  €>onne  leucfytet. 

b.  A  pronoun  :  3d?  fcfyreifce. 

c.  An  adjective  or  participle  used  substantively :  £>er  Srofylidje  ladjt. 
3u  grob  tfi  unanftdnbtg  unb  bie  Otecfynung  roirb  bag  auSrceifen  (Raabe's  Der 
Drdumling,  XXVI).    £)er  Srauernbe  ireint.    2>er  SBeftegte  trauert.    £ufiig 
gelefct  fyeijjt  felig  gefiotfcen  (Beyerlein's  Damon  Othello,  i,  4). 

d.  An  infin.  with  or  without  ju :  5lnbern  511  bienen  macfyt  t$r  Sreube. 

lefcen  macfyt  flarf. 

e.  Any  other  part  of  speech  used  substantively :    5tuf  ifi  etrte 
rapofition. 

/  A  whole  clause :  9Ber  mdjt  $ii>ren  nntt,  mup  futylen. 


251.  1. 3.  A.  THE  SUBJECT  491 

2.  A.  Sometimes  there  are  two  subjects  in  a  sentence— the  logical 
and  grammatical  subject :  @g  (grammatical,  or  provisional  subject) 
rear  cinntal  ein  Jtontg  (logical  subject).     The  grammatical  subject  is 
usually  the  uninflected  eg,  which  as  a  provisional  subject  serves 
only  as  a  formal  introduction  to  the  sentence,  and  points  forward 
to  the  logical  subject  in  the  nom.,  which  follows  the  verb  :  @g  ftnb 
iMele  fyter  geivefen  There  have  been  many  here.     The  logical  subject  is 
here  the  real  subject,  as  it  regulates  the  number  of  the  verb.     In 
inverted  order  the  eg  drops  out :    «£ier  ftnb  mete  getrefen.     It  is  also 
dropped  when  the  real  subject  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  : 
S3iele  ftnb  t)ier  geivefen.     For  the  use  of  the  grammatical  subject,  see 
II.  B,  below. 

It  should  be  noted  that  this  use  of  eg  as  grammatical  subject 
corresponds  in  part  to  the  use  of  there  in  English,  but  the  con- 
struction has  in  German  a  wider  field  of  usefulness :  (£3  rcetfj  ja 
niemanb,  rcann  er  jule^t  jur  SBeidjte  gegangen  ift  Indeed,  nobody  knows 
when  he  confessed  (to  the  priest)  last.  In  English,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  expletive  there  is  in  one  particular  case  more  used  than  eg 
is  in  German,  namely,  it  can  be  used  even  when  some  other  word 
introduces  the  sentence,  while  in  German  eg  is  then  uniformly 
dropped  :  A  few  years  ago  there  lived  in  this  house  a  lonely  old  man 
$or  einigen  3abren  irofynte  in  btefem  «£aufe  ein  einfamer,  alter  2)tann.  In 
both  English  and  German  it  is  not  customary  for  the  expletive  to 
introduce  the  sentence  if  the  logical  subject  is  a  personal  pronoun : 
not  (£g  fann  id),  but  3d?  fann  /  can. 

a.  In  poetical  style  a  grammatical  subject  agreeing  in  gender,  number,  and 
case  with  a  following  logical  subject  is  found :  Unb  trotfuet'  er  ab  bie  £rane, 
bet  Singling  ebeln  ®eful)le$. 

b.  Somewhat  different  from  the  above  is  the  common  case  where  the 
logical  subject  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence,  and  then  for  emphasis 
is  immediately  or  after  an  interval  of  several  words  again  referred  to  by  a 
personal  pronoun  or  demon,  which  agrees  with  it :  S)ie  jvveifyeit,  fie  ift  fein  (cover 
SBafyn.  25cr  arme  SRenfd) !  SRun  ifi  ev  ganj  serlaffen.  2Kctn  Scfyerf  ba,  bcr  ifi  vorgejiern 
serfauft  wovben. 

B.  Similar  to  the  grammatical,  or  provisional  subject  in  A  is  the 
anticipative  subject  eg,  which  points  forward  to  a  following  infin.  or 
substantive  clause  that  explains  more  fully  the  indefinite  eg :  (S3 
ntacfyt  mir  grojjeg  ^ergniigcn,  @ie  f)ter  ju  fefyen.  (Jg  iji  ntcfrt  gut,  bafj  ber 
SDZenfdj  afietn  fei.  This  eg  differs  from  the  grammatical  subject  eg  in 
having  more  independent  force,  and  hence  is  only  rarely  dropped, 
even  when  some  other  word  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sentence : 
<£>eute  nmcbt  eg  mir  grofjeg  33ergnugen,  @ie  f)ter  jit  (e^en.  It  drops  out, 
however,  when  the  real  subject  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sentence: 
<8te  liter  ju  fetyen  madn  mir  gropeg  98ergnugen. 

3.  The  indefinite  eg.      Similar  to  the  eg  in  -2.  A  and  B  is  the  inde- 
finite eg,  which  does  not  point  to  a  definite  person  or  thing,  but 
to  something  which  becomes  known  from  the  connection.      Two 
distinct  groups  may  be  distinguished  : 

A.  @g  in  expressions  of  identity.  @g  is  much  used  in  connection 
with  the  verb  fein  and  a  predicate  noun  or  pronoun  to  indicate  that 


492  SYNTAX  251.  1. 3.  A. 

the  subject  introduced  indefinitely  receives  its  definite  meaning  by 
means  of  the  predicate  noun  or  pronoun.  Different  aspects  of  this 
construction  are  treated  in  II.  B.  a.  aa,  below,  and  in  141.  9.  a  and 
151.  3.  B.  c.  Attention  is  here  called  to  the  peculiar  word-order 
employed  here  when  the  predicate  is  a  personal  pronoun.  In  this 
case  the  predicate  usually  comes  first  in  the  sentence,  and  so  in- 
fluences the  verb  that  the  verb  agrees  with  it  instead  of  agreeing 
with  the  subject :  icfy  bin  e§  it  is  I,  bu  bifl  eg  it  is  you,  er  i|l  eg  it  is  he, 
rcir  fmb  eg  it  is  we,  it)t  feib  eg  it  is  you,  fie  finb  eg  it  is  they;  or  in 
question  order :  fctfi  bu  eg  ?  is  it  you  ?,  ifl  er  eg  ?  is  it  he  ?  &c. 
Grammarians  usually  make  this  rule  general,  but  in  the  third 
person  the  normal  order  is  sometimes  used  as  in  English :  «£>ert, 
id)  fyore  ^ferbe  im  ©alopp !  3^« !  @3  ftnb  fte  geivip  (Goethe's  Gotz, 
i,  2).  Quite  commonly  so  in  Swiss  dialect  and  colloquial  language  : 
9lein,  eg  ift  u>  (252.  2.C.  a)  nicfyt  (J.  Gotthelfs  Geldund  Geist,  366). 
4?atte  gebad?t :  3ft'g  u>  woljl  ?  (ib.,  155). 

The  form  i'cfy  bin  eg  it  is  I  should  be  distinguished  from  the  id)  bi'n 
eg  (129.  2.  C.  (4))  lam,  which  is  given  in  answer  to  such  a  question  as 
biftbu  trot?  are  you  faithful ?  While  the  English  distinguishes  these 
cases  sharply  by  a  difference  in  form,  the  German  cannot  so  do, 
except  often,  as  in  these  examples,  by  the  accent,  emphasizing  in 
case  of  the  expression  of  identity  the  predicate  and  in  the  latter 
case  the  verb. 

B.  As  indefinite  subject  of  impersonal  verbs.  This  construction  is 
treated  at  considerable  length  in  219. 

II.  Omission  or  Expression  of  the  Subject. 

In  general  every  sentence  must  have  a  subject  expressed,  but 
usage  admits  of  certain  irregularities,  which  are  here  treated  briefly: 
A.  The  logical  subject  is  omitted  : 

a.  As  a  rule  in  imperative  sentences  in  the  familiar  form  (177. 1. 
A.  a) :  frltetye !   8flie$t ! 

b.  In  the  first  person  in  a  few  set  expressions  :  S)anfe  I  thank 
you.     S3ttte  I  beg  of  you,  please.     SBebaucre  fefjr,  fann  ntdrt  bienen  I 
regret  very  much  that  I  cannot  serve  you.     Besides  these  and  a 
number  of  other  set  expressions  the  subject  is  frequently  omitted 
in  business,  and  crisp  epistolary  style  in  general,  and  also  often  in 
poetry  and  familiar  language :   3$r  @d?retben  Dom   16.  b.  3K.  (fctefeg 
aflonate)  l)n&e  ertyalten.     «§abe  nun  ad?,  ^itofoptyie,  |  3urifterei  nub  2)?ebi$in,  | 
nnb  letter  aud?  S^eotogie  |  burrfjcwg  fhtbtert,  mit  l?ei§em  aBemu^n !  (Goethe). 

c.  Often  in  the  2nd  person  in  poetry  and  familiar  language,  and 
less  frequently  in  the  3rd  person  :  ^itflefl  (speaking  of  the  moon) 
tcteber  SBiifd?  unb  £al  |  ftitl  mit  ^ebelglanj,  |  lofejl  (dost  free  from  oppres- 
sive care)  enbltd;  cutd?  einmal  |  metne  <2eele  ganj  (Goethe).     9Borum  ^a(l 
benn  big  je£t  fein  5euer  angemac^t  ?  (Auerbach).     [@ic  you,  2nd  sing.] 
©efyen  ja  frt|"dj  unb  blufyenb  aug  reie  bte  ©efunb^eit  felbjt !     @g  is  especially 
dropped  in  familiar  conversation :  2Bag  fein  //  may  be.     Jlann  nid;t 
evlaubt  irerben  It  can't  be  allowed.  28irb  fd)on  fommen  It  will  surely  come. 

d.  As  in  English,  a  pronominal  subject,  predicate,  or  object  is 


251.  II. B.  THE  SUBJECT  493 

often  omitted  in  clauses  of  manner  and  degree  introduced  by  irie 
as,  aid  as,  than.  The  subject  is  omitted  especially  in  case  of 
impersonal  verbs  or  an  indefinite  reference  :  @r  Ipat  fcfyon  mefjr 
getrnnfen,  alg  iljm  befommen  biirfte.  «§m,  tjin,  id?  fyabe,  6ei  ©ott,  nwfiere 
£anten  in  nteinem  2)afein  gefcfyen,  alg  ba  eben  auf  bent  SBalfon  ftanb  (Raabe's 
Eulenpfingsten,  chap.  viii).  Omission  of  predicate :  3d?  ntodjte  bid? 
ittd?t  anterg,  alg  bu  bijt  Omission  of  object :  3d?  traute  3f?nen  einc  fold?e 
0}iebertrad)tigfeit  nid?t  $u,  nne  @ie  begangen  fyaben. 

In  German,  however,  subordinate  clauses  often  have  an  expressed 
subject,  predicate,  or  object  where  the  English  does  not  admit  of 
it :  @te  trat  an  ben  iifcfy  unb,  ifyre  33rteftafd?e  offncnb,  legte  fte  etne  3?anfnote 
unter  ben  brennenben  (illuminated  Christmas)  33aum,  groper  alg  fie  nod? 
je  in  biefer  ormen  «§ittte  gefefyen  icorben.  2)ie  ©rdfin  iefummerte  ftd)  nte^r 
unt  if)re  Jttnber,  alS  eg  in  SBten  ber  5att  «Jar.  2Btr  trinfen  eine  ftlafctye 
tefferen  28eine8,  al8  man  i^n  iin§  tin  ^urf)aufe  corfe^en  reiirte.  When  the 
reference  is  to  a  preceding  predicate  adjective,  or  predicate  noun, 
or  the  thought  contained  in  the  preceding  proposition,  the  pro- 
nominal predicate  or  object  here  is  eg  or  bteg  :  2) it  Infl  and?  befcfyeU 
bener  al8  id?  eg  6in.  3^re  Ukrrafd^ung  tear  grofj,  aber  nid?t  fo  freubig,  »cie  er 
bieg  enrartet  §atte.  After  the  word  s^cA  English  adjectival  clauses 
introduced  by  as  regularly  suppress  a  pronominal  object,  while  the 
German  regularly  insert  it :  2lit8  bent  Jtrug  flofi  lein  2)unnbter,  fonbern 
em  SBein,  tvie  ber  n?eitgerei|le  (Sdntfter  nod;  fetnen  getrunfen  ^atte  Out  of  the 
jug  came  no  small  beer,  but  a  wine  such  as  even  the  shoemaker, 
who  had  travelled  so  much,  had  never  drunk.  Instead  of  eg  or 
biejeg  the  numeral  eing  is  sometimes  used  here  ;  see  153. 3.  D.  (i). 

e.  If  several  verbs  have  the  same  subject,  it  may  usually  be 
expressed  only  once,  but  the  subject  must  be  expressed  in  each 
proposition  where  some  modifier  of  the  verb  (such  as  an  adverbial 
element  or  an  object)  or  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective  stands  before 
the  verb :  (£r  fain  jit  mtr,  gtng  aber  fogletdj  ireg,  but  aber  fogleid;  gtng  er 
iteg.  The  word-order  need  not  necessarily  be  the  same  in  the 
different  propositions  :  9Jad?  trie  »or  befud?te  er  ttcd;cntltd)  ntef)rma[g  bag 
fan$leira'tlid}e  4?aug  unb  tyieft  ben  5)amen  SSortrd'ge  itber  ^om^ejantfd^  Qtng* 
grabungen  tin  3?efcnberen  unb  itber  5lltertnm  tin  5(ngcmeinen  (Baumbach's 
Dcr  SchwicgersoJm,  v).  In  this  sentence  an  adverbial  element  is  in 
fact  understood  before  the  second  proposition,  as  the  adverbial 
modifier  of  the  preceding  proposition  belongs  also  to  the  following 
one.  This  point  is  usually  not  vividly  felt,  so  that  inversion  does 
not  follow.  Sometimes,  however,  we  find  the  inverted  order,  as 
the  presence  of  the  preceding  adverbial  element,  object,  or  predicate 
noun  or  adjective  is  felt :  Scboit  war  fte  (bte  (Stabt  Jliel)  nicmalg,  ijt  fte 
and?  ntdjt  gcivorfren  unb  u-irb  fte  titc  ivcrben  (Jensen) ;  or  also  <8d?im  ir-ar 
fte  niemalg,  ifl  eg  and;  nidit  gcirorben  tint)  ivirb  eg  nte  irercen. 

B.  Omission  or  expression  of  provisional  (see  1.2.  A)  and  antici- 
pative  (1.2.  B)  subjects.  The  general  rules  for  the  omission  of 
these  subjects  have  already  been  given  in  the  articles  1.2.  A.  and  B. 
Moreover,  the  retention  or  omission  of  the  provisional  and  antici- 
pative  subjects  are  questions  of  emphasis  or  style  which  deserve 
careful  attention. 


494  SYNTAX  251.  II.  B.  a. 

a.  The  eg  is  retained  in  the  following  cases  : 

aa.  To  make  emphatic  a  predicate  noun  or  pronoun.  In  this 
case  the  predicate  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  law  for  sentence  accent,  and  is  then  followed 
in  the  first  place  by  the  main  verb,  in  the  second  place  by  the 
anticipative  subject  eg,  and  in  the  third  place  by  the  real  subject, 
which  assumes  the  form  of  a  relative  clause  introduced  by  ber  or 
welder :  2)eutfcfye  rcaten  eg,  bte  bag  $ittt>er,  bie  93itcfybriicferei  erfunben  fyafcen. 
3d)  inn  eg,  ber  eg  getan  fyat.  @ie  rcaten  eg,  ber  anftng.  £>u  fctji'g,  bem  3Rut)tu 
unb  (Sljre  gefcufyrt.  Notice  that  in  these  sentences  the  verb  does  not 
agree  with  the  grammatical  subject  eg  or  with  the  real  subject,  but 
with  the  predicate,  being  attracted  into  its  person  and  number. 
This  emphatic  form  also  has  the  following  word-order :  @g  iji  bein 
SBruber,  ben  bit  bamit  f ranffl.  This  form  with  normal  word-order  cannot 
be  used  if  the  predicate  is  a  personal  pronoun ;  see  I.  3.  A,  above. 

bb.  It  is  also  used  when  it  is  desired  for  emphasis  or  some  other 
reason  to  bring  the  verb  forward  from  its  usual  position.  As  the 
verb  cannot  stand  first  in  the  sentence  without  giving  it  the  im- 
pression of  a  question  or  of  a  conditional  clause,  it  is  necessary  in 
simple  tenses  of  a  principal  declarative  proposition  to  introduce  the 
sentence  by  eg,  if  it  is  desired  to  bring  the  verb  forward  for  em- 
phasis :  @g  i'rrt  ber  2#enfcfy  (o  lang  er  ftrefct  Man  errs  as  long  as  his 
aspirations  last. 

This  emphatic  word-order  is  not  used  if  the  subject  is  a  personal 
pronoun.  In  this  case  the  predicate  verb  may  take  the  form  of  an 
infinitive  depending  upon  tun :  £o6en  tat  jte  nicfyt  iriel,  fte  Ijielt'g  t»om 
lifcerflitjj  She  rarely  praised  anybody,  as  she  thought  it  superfluous. 
This  construction  is  also  common  when  the  subject  is  a  noun, 
especially  in  colloquial  and  popular  language. 

There  is  no  need  of  the  construction  with  eg  in  compound  tenses 
where  the  emphasis  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  participle  or  infinitive, 
as  the  participle  and  infinitive  which  contain  the  important  part  of 
the  predicate  can  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence :  ©enommen 
tft  bie  Sretfyett,  iu'd)t  gegefcen.  Safji  nur  fte^en !  Cnngiefjen  nrirb  ftcf)  jeber 
felfcft.  Likewise  with  modal  auxiliaries :  Qlfcer  efjen  fannft  bit  boclj  ju 
ung  fommen  (Maria  Janitschek's  Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  XVIII).  If, 
however,  the  emphasis  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  auxiliary,  the 
auxiliary  itself  may  introduce  the  sentence,  and  the  participle  and 
infinitive  be  omitted ;  see  the  example  from  Fontane  and  the  first 
one  from  M.  Dreyer  in  b,  below. 

cc.  The  construction  with  eg  must  be  used  if  it  is  desired  to 
emphasize  especially  the  subject,  for  this  can  only  be  made  promi- 
nent by  taking  it  away  from  its  usual  place  before  the  verb  and 
placing  it  after  the  verb.  In  this  case  eg  becomes  a  provisional 
subject :  @g  reanfen  ganje  Sftegtmenter.  As  this  construction  is  used  to 
emphasize  either  the  verb  or  the  subject,  the  accent  and  context 
sometimes  alone  make  clear  which  in  each  particular  case  is  to  be 
made  prominent.  It  is  the  subject  that  is  to  be  emphasized  when 
it  is  found  removed  from  the  verb  standing  near  the  end  of  the 
proposition :  @g  irren  in  fatten  »on  fo  miplictyer  SHatur  felfcfi  weifere  banner. 


251.  II.  B.  b.  THE  SUBJECT  495 

@g  tyafcen  in  ftaflen  Don  fo  nu§lid?er  9Jatur  felfcfl  tretfere  banner  geirrt.  S3 
rceifj  jo  iticmant),  rcann  er  jitlefct  jitr  33eid?te  gegangen  ift.  —  S)ic  „  IJfteuen  " 
freilid?,  fa,  bte  rced?felten  ityre  ©dn'ffe,  iritt  fagen  bte  5)ampfer,  mit  berfel&en 
©leidjgultigfeir,  nrie  fie  einen  anberen  Otocf  anjogen.  S&arum  benn  and)  nid?t  ? ! 
6g  6anb  ftc  jo  nirfjtS  an  bag  etferne  Ungetitm.  (Sg  irar  itynen  bod)  nur  bie 
J2lr6eitgfhttte,  ito  fie  nad)  bent  neuen  2lugbrurf  „  5lr&eitgnef)mer "  tuaren 
(H.  Pichler-Felsing's  Auf  Abbruch  verkauft). 

b.  In  popular  language  and  in  poetry  the  eg,  following  older  usage 
still  common  in  early  N.H.G.,  is  often  omitted,  so  that  the  verb 
introduces  the  sentence  :  @afy  ein  Jtnafc  ein  9io§Iein  ftefyn  (Goethe's 
Hcidenrosleiri). 

Originally  there  was  more  freedom  in  the  word-order  than  now, 
so  that  even  a  verb  could  introduce  a  declarative  sentence,  if  it  was 
to  be  emphasized,  lay  nearer  in  thought,  or  if  it  came  to  the  front 
by  the  removal  of  the  subject  to  the  end  of  the  sentence  for  the  sake 
of  emphasis,  as  described  in  cc  above.  Later,  when  it  became  the 
rule  for  some  other  word  than  a  verb  to  stand  at  the  beginning  of 
a  declarative  sentence,  the  expletive  eg  was  often  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  sentence  and  immediately  after  it  the  verb,  so  that  the  formal 
grammatical  rule  was  observed,  and  at  the  same  time,  as  indicated 
•in  bb,  cc,  prominence  given  to  the  verb  or  the  subject.  Thus  by 
a  simple  expedient  the  old  historic  word-order  can  still  be  used. 
The  common  people  and  poets  do  not  comply  with  the  formal  rules 
of  grammar,  but  often  cling  to  older  historic  forms,  and  thus  use 
here  the  old  freedom  of  putting  a  verb  at  the  head  of  the  sentence. 
Even  in  the  literary  language  the  verb  may  for  emphasis  be  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  sentence  if  the  subject  is  a  pronoun,  for  the 
expletive  eg  cannot  be  freely  used  here,  and  with  personal  pro- 
nouns cannot  be  used  at  all  :  „  Hub  id?  ivette,  @ie  fyaben  rcier>er  einen 
(Sierfudjen  gebarfen."  „  «§ab'  id?  aucfy  "  (Fontane).  Der  Landrat :  3d) 
^ob'  end?  ndmlid?  Iie&,  <§errfd)aften !  Markuse:  SSiffen  ivtr!  (Suder- 
mann's  Der  Sturmgeselle  Sokrates,  4,  13).  Trude  :  Hub  bit  —  jeigfl 
fleje^tan?  Forster :  ^iiifjid;(M.  Dreyer's  Winterschlaf,  i).  Trude: 
fta'ngfi  bu  fd;on  irteber  bacon  an  !  Tante  :  3a,  tu'  id}  (ib.).  Eva :  2)?agft 
bu  md)t  ein  (Sturfdjen  Jtitdjen,  Jturt  ?  Kurt :  £anfe  ....  »cvad;t'  id; ! 
(delle  Grazie's  Sphinx).  Kurt  (unter  erneuten  Kilssen):  9Jun? 
Eva  :  3d)  rufe !  Kurt :  Umfo  beffer !  SStffcn'g  aUe  (ib.).  aWiiffen  bic  after 
reid?  fein !  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XLIII).  In  colloquial 
language  this  construction  is  not  restricted  to  a  pronominal  subject. 
For  examples  see  287.  B.  (7).  The  older  freedom  is  also  still  found 
in  the  literary  language  within  the  body  of  the  sentence  after  the 
conjunction  nnb  :  2Bir  njotten  fort,  unb  foil  bte  «£>afenjagb  angefycn  (Goethe's 
Gatz,  3,  9).  $lng  freten  ©titrfen  tfl  er  ntttgegangen  unb  Iduft  er  oicllcid^t 
i^m  forouS,  ber  5tbfd;eultd;e  (Raabe's  Pechlin,  chap.  xi).  Often  in 
colloquial  language  and  dialect :  S^cue  £aften!  Unb  bruden  (S.G.  for 
bvurfeit)  ling  bie  alten  fdjon  jent:tcrfd)rear  (for  jentnerfdjirer) !  (Schonherr's 
Sonnwendtag,  p.  91).  For  other  examples  see  233.  A.  d. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  construction  with  the  expletive  eg  can  be 
freely  used  with  indefinite  pronominal  subjects ;  see  a.  cc,  last  two 
examples. 


496  SYNTAX  251.  II.  B.C. 

c.  The  provisional  subject  eg  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
eg  described  in  141.  g.  a,  which  is  used  in  expressions  of  identity. 
In  the  former  construction  the  noun  following  the  verb  is  the 
real  subject,  while  in  the  latter  construction  it  is  the  predicate. 
@3  rear  ein  Mn\Q  There  was  (once  upon  a  time]  a  king,  or  if  it  is  the 
latter  construction  It  was  a  king.  The  difference  between  the  two 
constructions  becomes  apparent  in  the  inverted  order,  as  the  pro- 
visional subject  eg  there  according  to  rule  (see  I.  2.  A,  above)  drops 
out,  while  the  e§  in  the  expression  of  identity  remains  :  dinmal  itar 
ein  ^outfl  in  gtofjer  9tot  There  was  once  a  king  in  great  need,  but  (Sin 
Jt6niv3  war  eg  //  was  a  king. 

C.  The  impersonal  subject  e3  is  sometimes  omitted ;  see  219.  4. 
B.  a  (and  Note  thereunder) ;  219.  5.  A.  and  B.  a. 

The  Predicate. 
The  Forms  and  Case  of  the  Predicate. 

252.  i.  The  predicate  can  be  : 

a.  A  finite  verb  of  complete  predication  :  9ftetcl)tum  fcerge^t. 

Note  i.  The  verb  often  becomes  quite  an  unimportant  element  in  a  sentence,  and 
by  reason  of  the  overtowering  importance  of  some  other  part  of  the  predicate  loses 
a  part  or  all  of  its  original  force  and  significance,  or  may  be  entirely  or  in  part  omitted. 
This  is  especially  true  in  colloquial  language  in  the  following  cases  :  (i)  With  nouns 
or  adverbs  which  express  a  goal,  destination,  direction,  the  idea  of  the  destination 
becomes  so  prominent  that  the  idea  of  the  manner  of  reaching  it,  which  is  contained 
in  the  verb,  remains  in  the  background  and  receives  little  attention.  Thus  we  say : 
3d)  gclje  mermen  Had)  ^Berlin  I  am  going  to  Berlin  to-morrow,  although  in  fact  we 
intend  to  go  on  the  cars  and  not  on  foot,  as  would  be  naturally  suggested  by  the  real 
meaning  of  the  verb  gef)en.  We  thus  use  geljen  with  any  manner  of  locomotion,  as  we 
do  not  stop  to  think  of  its  real  meaning,  but  are  thinking  rather  of  the  destination. 
(2)  In  compound  tenses  we  may  retain  only  the  auxiliary  and  omit  entirely  the  verb  of 
motion,  where  there  is  a  goal  or  destination  mentioned  :  (£r  ifi  naif)  .£>aitg  [gegangen]. 
3dj  JroHte  nad)  S3cr(in  [gefjen].  <Sie  ftnb  fcrt  [gegangen].  The  auxiliary  here  performs 
the  verbal  function,  and  the  adverb  or  prep,  phrase  contains  the  verbal  meaning. 
Also  in  other  cases  the  auxiliary  is  alone  used  when  the  omission  can  easily  be 
supplied  from  the  context :  £)u  unrfi  ?£apa  itnterricfjten,  nidjt  Irafyv?  -ittaturlid)  U'erbe 
tdj  [ifyn  unterndjten].  (3)  The  verb  often  drops  out  even  when  there  is  no  auxiliary 
to  perform  the  verbal  function,  as  the  really  important  part  of  the  predicate  is  con- 
tained in  some  modifier  of  the  verb,  and  the  verb  itself  can  easily  be  supplied  :  3)a3 
Senfier  auf  unb  bte  gruljiafcrgluft  (^e)retn !  @d)cnen  35an!  (fage  id?) !  I  thank  you! 
©ittcn  Hag!  2Bchin  (gcfyen  @ie)  be3  2Bcgeg?  Where  are  you  going  to?  (To  the 
ticket  agent  at  the  railway  station)  Qwd  brittet  33erlttt !  Two  second  class  tickets  for 
Berlin!  (4)  The  auxiliary  often  drops  out  where  it  can  easily  be  supplied:  (Jipafl 
bit)  SlliggEfd^tafcn  ?  Have  you  had  your  sleep  out?  See  also  190.  i.  A. b  and  B.  c. 

Note  2.  A  marked  difference  from  the  English  is  the  frequency  of  the  usage  which 
prefers  to  clothe  the  chief  ideanof  the  predicate  in  the  form  of  a  noun  rather  than  in 
that  of  a  verb:  @g  unrb  in  llfcerlegung  gc^ogen  (instead  of  iibertegt)  It  is  being 
considered.  £)ag  @tiicf  unrb  balb  lur  Sliiffufirung  gebradjt,  or  getangt  balb 
Jltr  ?lllfful)rung  (instead  of  ipirb  balb  aufgefufjrt)  The  piece  will  soon  be  played. 
This  idiom  is  also  found  in  English,  as  for  instance  we  say,  "The  matter  is  under 
consideration"  (instead  of  being  considered},  but  in  German  it  is  a  much  greater 
favorite,  and  is  used  in  many  cases  which  cannot  be  imitated  in  English. 

b.  A  verb  of  incomplete  predication  in  connection  with  a  predi- 
cate complement,  which  with  the  assistance  of  the  verb  qualifies 
the  subject. 


252.  2.  A.  b.  (i).  THE  PREDICATE  497 

Note.  The  verb,  here  usually  called  copula,  is  of  so  little  importance  that  it  very 
often  in  colloquial  language  and  the  terse  crisp  style  of  proverbs  drops  out  entirely  : 
grifcfee  ftifdje  (ftnb),  gute  gifdje.  _  (gnbe  gut,  a((e3  gut. 

It  is  not  always  necessary,  as  in  the  above,  to  supply  a  verb  where  there  is  none  in 
the  sentence.  In  colloquial  language  the  predication  is  often  an  immediate  reflection 
of  personal  feeling  which  suddenly  gives  vent  to  what  is  upon  the  mind  without  the 
formalities  of  grammatical  rules  :  33anbe  bag  !  That's  a  bad  set  !  (Sin  toacferer  SDZantl, 
beitt  35ater!  Your  father's  a  brave  fellow!  The  preceding  examples  illustrate  a 
common  style  of  exclamatory  sentences,  where  the  predicate,  the  principal  thing  upon 
the  mind,  springs  forth  first,  followed  by  the  subject.  In  such  informal  sentences  the 
predicate  adj.  may  even  assume  the  form  of  an  attributive  adj.  :  <£et  gute  ©regor  ! 
These  are  the  words  uttered  by  the  pastor  in  Halbe's_/w^i?«^  as  he  looks  after  the 
receding  chaplain.  Here  the  noun  is  the  real  subject,  and  the  attributive  adj.  the  real 
predicate. 

2.  The  predicate  complement  may  be  : 

A.  A  noun  : 

a.  In  the  nominative  after  intrans.  verbs  of  incomplete  predication 
(fein  to  be,  rcerben  to  become,  Heifcen  to  remain,  fjeijjen  to  be  called, 
named,  biinfen  to  seem,  fcfyeinen  to  seem,  erfdjeinen  to  appear),  or  after 
the  passive  forms  of  the  transitives  (see  262.  III.  2.  A.  a)  which  take 
a  predicate  accusative  in  the  active  :  (Sofrateg  roar  ber  <8ofyn  etneS 
SBilb^auerS.  3cfy  rcutbe  son  i^nt  ein  8'eigltng 


Note.  After  such  verbs  as  laffen  to  let,  rjeijjett  to  bid,  command,  leljrett  to  teach, 
fefyeit,  &c.,  the  predicate  complement  of  the  dependent  intrans.  of  incomplete  predication 
is  often  in  the  ace.  attracted  into  this  case  by  the  preceding  ace.,  which  is  the  object  of 
the  principal  verb:  Sa§  ttticfy  betnen  greimb  fein  (Wildenbruch's  Kb'nig  Heinrich,  4,  5). 
@r  l)tet$  thn  eitten  Xt)tanncn  trerben  (D.  Sanders).  In  earlier  periods  of  the  language 
the  ace.  here  was  more  common  than  the  nom.  ,  and  this  is,  perhaps,  still  the  case, 
except  after  lefytett,  but  at  present  the  more  natural  nom.  seems  to  be  gaining  upon  the  ace.  : 
Stiffen  @ie  ben  ©rafen  biefer  ©efanbte  fein  (Lessing).  Sap  ben  touftm  ^ert,  belt 
©robifefcf)  ntctnetvpegen  ir)r  Jtomfrlice  fein  —  besfjalb  btcibt  fte  beef)  ttnmcv  bie  ©cfcutbtge 
(Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  3,  2).  SJJicft  tafj  ein  ttilber  3agec  burcf)  ben  9lcbel  fahren 
(Traeger).  gaffen  <£ie  micf)  in  Sfjrem  Xernpet  rreiten  al3  ein  frommer  SBeter,  at^  ein 
ergebencr  25ere()ter  (King).  8ef)re  bu  iljn  ein  3Wenfcf)  fein  (Meinhardt).  If,  however, 
the  predicate  complement  has  no  modifiers,  it  is  usually  in  the  nom.  :  Safj  ntid)  ^>etr 
fein.  When  the  object  and  the  unmodified  predicate  are  the  same  word,  the  latter 
usually  stands  in  the  ace.,  but  the  nom.  also  occurs  in  accordance  with  the  general 
rule  :  Saf?  ben  barren  barren  fein.  Sap  bir  ben  SWcnfcfyen  2JJenfc!)  fein  (Grillparzer's 
Ein  treuer  Diener,  5). 

b.  The  predicate  noun  is  in  certain  cases  introduced  by  al3  or  the 
prepositions  fiir  (w.  ace.)  and  311  (w.  dat.)  : 

(i)  The  predicate  nom.  after  erfdiemen  to  appear,  and  the  passive 
forms  of  anfefyen  to  look  at,  feijrujjen  to  greet,  fcetracfytcn  to  consider, 
M;anbetn  to  treat,  and  all  others  (for  list  see  262.  III.  2.  A.  b)  which  in 
the  active  take  a  predicate  ace.  introduced  by  nlS,  also  predicate 
appositives  after  intransitives  of  complete  predication,  are  intro- 
duced by  aid,  which  here  denotes  identity,  oneness  with  :  S)te3  erfcfyien 
«n§  alg  ber  einjtge  QluSrceg.  (Jr.  vcirb  at3  ein  £augemcl?t3  fcetrad;tct.  (Sr  reirb 
al§  tapferer  «§elb  gepriefen.  Jlommfl  bu  jit  unS  a!8  unfcr  Seinb  obcr  unfer 
better? 

In  case  of  predicate  appositives  the  ati  is  frequently  omitted  in 
poetry  :  (Sin  (yeinb  fommfi  bu  jjuritrf  bent  Drbcn  (Schiller).  This  is 
a  survival  of  early  N.H.G.,  which  did  not  yet  require  here  the  al$. 
In  certain  set  expressions  this  older  construction  is  also  still  pre- 

Kk 


498  SYNTAX  252. 2.  A.  b.  (i). 

served  in  prose,  and  has  even  become  productive,  so  that  new 
expressions  are  formed  after  the  analogy  of  the  old  ones :  SSote 
(see  also  257. 2.  A)  laitfen  to  go  on  an  errand,  ©etuitter  ftefyen 
to  stand  godfather,  fcei  etnem  Jtinbe  $ate  ftefyen  to  become  sponsor  for 
a  child  at  baptism,  SBraut  fietyen  to  stand  as  a  bride  before  the  altar, 
be  married,  SJeobett  ftfcen  or  fiefyen  to  serve  as  an  artist's  model :  9hin, 
eg  ift  tin  Jlunfrrcerf,  gu  bent  @ie  einfacfy  SWobett  gefcffen  tyafcen!  (Fulda's 
Die  wilde  Jagd,  3,  10).  In  case  of  S&acfye  ftcfyen  to  stand  guard  this 
construction  has  replaced  an  older  prepositional  one :  ih  sihe 
den  videlaere  an  der  schiltwache  stan  (Nibelungenlied,  1778,  4). 
Similarly  SBacfye  ft^en:  3e£o  ft|e  icfy  fyier  SBacfye  (Raabe's  Meister 
Autor,  chap,  xxiii).  Some  grammarians  feel  some  of  these 
articleless  nouns  as  cognate  accusatives  (see  257.  2.  A),  and  in  fact 
a  clear  ace.  form  is  sometimes  found:  „  ©ie  icaren  oerreift?"  ,,3a,  bei 
eincr  SRicfyte  in  Dberfcfyleften  $aten  geftanbcn"  (Paul  Keller's  Waldwinter, 
IX).  On  the  other  hand  the  nom.  sing,  is  sometimes  used  with 
reference  to  more  than  one,  which  shows  that  the  noun  has  lost 
its  identity  and  has  entered  into  relations  with  the  verb  to  form 
a  compound :  $ate  ftefyen  foUtcn  ©ottfrieb  Don  ©etyer  unb  SDuijor  Don 
@d)irrniacl;er  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  II).  The  same  result 
is  also  sometimes  indicated  here  by  the  use  of  the  masc.  form  with 
reference  to  a  female :  £)enn  ber  5ttte  tjatte  ein  (gnfeltocfyterdjen  6ei  ftcfy,  gu 
bent  fte  (i.  e.  QlgneS)  ^3ate  geflanben  (Storm's  In  St.  Jurgen). 

(2)  After  the  passive  forms  of  a  few  verbs  the  predicate  is  intro- 
duced by  fitr  (with  ace.)  which  does  not  positively  affirm  complete 
and  absolute  identity  as   does  dig,  but  only  equality,  and  hence 
denotes  that  something  is  considered  or  represented  as  able  or 
worthy  to  pass  for  the  thing  expressed  by  the  predicate :  (?r  icirb 
fiir  einen  reicfyen  2J?cmn  gefyalten  He  is  regarded  as  a  rich  man.     Some- 
times after  gelten  and  certain  passive  forms  fur  and  al3  are  both  used 
with  the  same  verb,  either  with  the  same  or  with  a  different  shade 
of  meaning:  @r  gilt  fitr  einen  or  olS  ein  2)trt)tcr  He  passes  for  a  poet. 
@r  icirb  al§  ein  9Iarr  or  fitr  einen  Starren  angefe(;eit  He  is  looked  upon  as 
a  fool.     Instead  of  the  ace.  here  after  fitr  we  often  find  the  gen. 
where  the  substantive  is  in  fact  a  substitute  for  a  predicate  adjective 
(see  253.  IV) :  @r  gilt  drjtlic!)  nicfyt  fitr  erjien  0iangc3  (Fontane's  Effi, 
chap,  xxiii).     Though  fitr  is  pretty  well  established  after  a  few  verbs, 
especially  fyalten  and  erfldren,  alS  is  in  general  the  favorite.     The 
passive  and  the  intransitive  active  constructions  with  fiir  and  al8  are 
not  so  common  as  the  transitive  active  one,   and  hence   the  use 
of  fiir  and  alg  is  more  fully  illustrated  in  the  active  construction 
described  in  262.  III.  2.  A.  c  and  Note. 

Note.  The  two  particles  fiir  and  alg  are  closely  united  in  meaning,  and  hence 
sometimes  it  is  forgotten  that  they  differ  in  function,  al(5  being  a  conjunction  and  fiir, 
a  prep,  which  governs  the  ace.,  and  accordingly  a  nom.  is  sometimes  loosely  allowed 
to  follow  fur  after  the  analogy  of  al3 :  .£>iet  imrb  aftgemetn  ber  ©tanbpunft  fur  ein 
fcrrefter  (instead  of  einen  forreften)  gefyalten  (National-Zeitung,  46,  15). 

(3)  The  predicate  after  rcerben  is  introduced  by  gu  with  the  dat. 
if  it  is  desired  to  show  an   actual  or  desired  transformation  or 


252. 2.  A.  c.  THE  PREDICATE  499 

development  into  the  state  indicated  by  the  predicate :  $)iefe  fd)6nen 
•Jpoffnungen  reurben  jit  9£affet  These  fine  hopes  ended  in  smoke.  <£r 
rrurbe  jtim  SSettler  He  became  a  beggar.  5)er  Jtna&e  rcirb  ^um  2)?ann. 
If  it  is  the  finished  state  or  condition  reached  or  to  be  reached 
rather  than  the  process  of  development  that  is  before  the  mind  the 
ju  drops  out :  <2ie  rcurbe  @d)aufyielerin.  (?r  rcirb  Jlaufmann  He  is  going 
to  be  a  merchant. 

c.  After  the  verb  fein  to  be,  more  rarely  after  reerben  to  become, 
fd)einen  to  seem,  a  predicate  genitive  is  used  to  express  several  ideas 
also  found  in  the  attributive  gen.,  namely,  quality,  origin,  and  in 
choice  language  possession,  or  the  first  two  of  these  ideas,  and  also 
that  of  material,  and  sometimes  the  partitive  idea  may  be  expressed 
by  a  prep,  phrase  (see  253.  IV):  3d)  bin  ganj  3fyrer  SKeinung  I  am 
quite  of  your  opinion.  2)arufcer  fann  man  tterfcfytebenet  $lnftd?t  fein. 
£8ir  ftnb  glcid)en  fitters  We  are  of  the  same  age.  ©eten  <8ie  guter 
SHnge  Be  of  good  cheer.  (£r  ifl  anbern  (SinneS  geteorben  He  has 
changed  his  mind.  511  fo  bit  In  ft  rcirflid)  beg  ©taufceng,  2#id)ael  l)a tie  feinen 
fefynlidjeren  SBunfrf)  gefjafct,  alS  feinen  <2i§  im  9fteid)3tag  lo^wcerben  ?  (Suder- 
mann's  Es  lebe  das  Leben,  p.  40).  <£o  fonnte  SKommfen  glauben,  bap  id) 
mit  llnredjt  gegen  i^n  anfa'mpfe,  ita^renb  id;  natitrltd)  ber  UBerjeugung  war 
unb  nod)  lieute  bin,  bap  id;  ^tm  SSiberfprud;  t»erpflid}tet  rear  (Otto  Seeck's 
Zur  Charakteristik  Mommsens,  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Jan.  1904). 
iftaufalcr  SJatur  ijl  and;  for,  »cie  eS  jegt  gei>raud;t  tcirb  in  to  leave  (start, 
sail)  for,  to  long  (wish)  for,  eager  for,  inbem  ein  ju  erreid^enteS  3'el,  etn 
Btverf  al3  ber  ©runb  etnet  Xiitigfeit  ober  eineS  33erDu|tfeineijuflanbeg  gebadjt 
n:irb  (Franz's  Shakespearegrammatik,  p.  212).  3urcetlen,  trenn  er  fd)Ied)ter 
ifaune  ivar,  frefyanbelte  er  i^n  atterbing§  irte  einen  Safaien  (Beyerlein's  Jena 
oder  Sedan  ?,  viii).  £>a8  3>er^altnig  irar  ntd;t  berart,  ba^  e8  3ot;anna 
gvo§e  ^erkgen^cit  »erurfad;t  tjatte.  3d)  tin  reiUenS  eS  311  tun  I  am  dis- 
posed, intend  to  do  it.  5)a§  ift  mir  ctnerlci  (126.  i.  a)  That  is  all 
the  same  to  me.  £)aS  ift  fo  3Red)teng  That  is  according  to  law.  @tc 
luaren  beutfd)cn  UrfprungS.  So  gebct  bent  Ketfer  |  icaS  beg  Jtetferg  ifi  Onb 
©otte  |  reaS  ©otteS  ijl  (Matt.  xxii.  21).  3d)  tit',  rcaS  id)  inu^,  ber  Qluggang 
ifl  ©otteS  (Hebbel's  Agnes  Bernauer,  4,  4).  2)rtngt  in  bie  >£>a'ufer,  traS 
i^r  bartn  ftnbet,  |  jyrauen  unb  Jltnter,  (8d)a£e,  <§ab'  unb  @ut,  |  ifl  ber 
©olbaten  (Wildenbruch's  Ko'nig  Laurin,  5,  14).  Unb  ireffen  ftnb  bie 
fdwim  SStumen,  bie  @ud)  gegenitbcr  bie  5enftcr  fcbmitden  ?  (Herr's  Der 
Konig  der  Bernina,  V).  QSenn  er  itnS  bamalS  uterfaflcn  batte,  fo  trdren 
rrir  aUe  beS  3!obeS  gereefen  If  he  had  fallen  upon  us  at  that  time  we 
should  all  have  been  doomed.  2>a3  ifl  nteineg  QlmtcS  (Suttner's  Im 
Berghause,  p.  54)  That  is  my  duty,  my  work.  (?r  ifl  fcon  'ilbet  He 
is  of  noble  birth,  ©ie  <Sad)e  ifl  »on  grofjer  SBidjttgfeit.  €>eien  @tc  o^ne 
5urd)t.  @r  ifl  t»on  fd)Ied)ter  ^erfunft.  2)er  £ifd)  ifl  yon  >§olj.  Gr  ifl  con 
benen  (one  of  these  men),  bie  if)r  ©eliibbe  fatten  (Freytag). 

An  objective  predicate  genitive  of  quality  is  used  after  mad)en  to 
make,  geigen  to  show,  &c. :  3ebenfaU8  rcdme  nid;t  barauf,  mid)  anberen 
<Sinne3  jit  mad)en  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  xii). 

The  gen.  is  quite  common  in  the  categories  mentioned  above  in 
such  expressions  as  those  given  in  the  illustrative  examples  and 
other  similar  ones,  but  in  general  it  cannot  be  freely  used.  In 

K  k  2 


500  SYNTAX  252.2.  A.  e. 

poetry,  however,  it  is  often  employed  where  in  plain  prose  it  would 
be  replaced  by  Don  with  the  dat. :  ©lifakt^  ifl  ntetneS  (gtammeS,  meineg 
©efcfylecfytS  unb  $angg  (Schiller's  Maria  Stuart,  i,  2).  £a3  fdjrcadje  ®e* 
fdjledjt,  fo  wit  eg  geicofjnltd)  genannt  ivirb,  |  jeigte  ftcfy  ta^fer  unb  mdd)tig 
unb  gci3emcdrtigen  ©etfleS  (Goethe's  H.  u.  D.t  vi,  102-103).  The 
possessive  gen.  is,  aside  from  certain  set  expressions,  found  only 
in  rather  choice  language,  and  is  replaced  in  colloquial  speech  by 
gefcoren  with  dat.  :  2)a3  «§au3  gebort  metnem  Breunbe. 

B.  The  predicate  complement  may  be  an  adjective  or 
participle  : 

a.  In  the  nominative  after  intransitives  of  incomplete  predication 
and  passives,  now  usually  without  grammatical  forms  except  in 
the  superlative  (see  112.  i) :  <Ste  ifl  fd}6n.  <2ie  fdjetnt  betrufct.  ®a§  tft 
ruljrenb.  Jtarl  ifi  ber  jungfle.  (?r  trurbe  tot  gefcfylageu.  Here  also  be- 
longs the  perfect  participle  in  the  compound  tenses  of  intransi- 
tives that  are  conjugated  with  fetn  :  (£r  ifl  gefommen. 

A  noun  is  often  used  in  the  predicate  with  the  force  of  an 
adjective,  indicating  a  quality  or  characteristic  of  the  person  or 
thing  which  it  represents :  Seine  (Fulda's)  te§ten  @titcfe  tyeifjen  „  3itgenb* 
frcunbe"  unb  ,,-§eroflrat";  jeneg  ifl  trofc  guter  (§rfmbung  burd?ireg  9BlumentfyaI« 
•ftabellhirg  (Bartel's  Die  deutsche  Dichtung  der  Gegenwart,  p.  256).  2)u 
Jnfl  bod?  bie  geSomte  olte  Sungfcr  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap,  i)  You  are  a 
regular  old  maid. 

Note  i.  If  it  is  desired  not  simply  to  predicate  a  certain  quality  of  the  subject, 
but  to  assign  it  to  a  definite  class  of  objects  or  ideas,  the  predicate  adj.  is  preceded  by 
ein  or  negatively  fcin,  and  is  inflected :  Stefe  Jttrfdje  ifi  f auer  (sour),  but  eine  faitere 
(a  sour  kind).  3)ag  @rentt>lar,  bag  id?  fcejogen  (procured)  {jabe,  tvar  ein  gebunbmcg. 
5)iefe  ganje  grage  ifl  eine  rein  aflljetifdje.  S)er  ®enu§  ba»on  ifl  me^r  ein  ftnnti^er,  fein 
rein  getiliger.  Usage,  however,  goes  farther,  and  employs  also  this  construction  as  a 
more  emphatic  form  of  predication  than  the  simple  uninflected  adjective :  !Die  Stufregung 
tear  bebeutenb,  or  more  emphatically  eine  bebeutenbe.  In  the  pi.  ein  of  course  drops 
out:  <t)ie  Seiftungen  roarcn  gonj  ^ervorragenbe.  This  favorite  construction  has  its  roots 
in  part  in  the 'natural  tendency  to  generalize  rather  than  make  a  specific  predication. 
Thus  also  in  English  we  often  prefer  He  is  a  kind-hearted  fellow  to  He  is  kind-hearted. 
The  predicate  noun  is  not  needed  in  the  German,  as  the  inflected  article  or  adjective 
suggests  it.  In  part  the  cause  of  the  spread  of  this  construction  lies  in  the  fact  that  its 
use  is  necessary  in  the  groups  in  (i),  (3),  (4),  (5),  and  (6)  in  Note  2,  below,  and  has 
spread  from  these  groups  to  others. 

Note  2.  Some  adjectives  are  principally  used  attributively,  and  are  not  commonly 
used  as  predicate  complements  except  in  poetry,  but  of  course  can  be  used  attributively 
in  the  predicate  :  (1)  Many  derivatives  in  tfdj  and  liify  ;  btebifcfj  thievish,  nddfytUd) 
nightly."  Not  3Me  Sitfammenfunft  itar  nddjUidj,  but  eine  nddjtltdje  (Sufammcnfunft 
understood).  (2)  Adjectives  in  en,  ern  made  from  names  of  materials  :  gotben  golden, 
fyotjern  wooden.  In  elevated  diction  and  in  figurative  language,  however,  these  adjec- 
tives are  also  used  in  the  predicate ;  see  245.  II.  3.  c.  (3)  Adjectives  in  tg  derived 
from  adverbs  of  time  and  place:  fjeittig  of  to-day,  from  Ijeute  ;  bamaltg  of  that  time, 
from  bantats ;  borttg  of  that  place,  from  bort.  Not  3)iefe  Settling  ifl  fyieftg,  but  il)ie3 
tfl  bie  I)tefige  Settling  This  is  the  newspaper  of  this  place.  (4)  All  superlatives  and 
the  comparatives  in  117.  2,  all  of  which  require  an  article  before  them,  the  noun  being 
expressed  or  understood :  Not  Jtarl  til  iiingfl,  but  ber  iungjle.  2)ie  ttorbern  Simmer 
the  front  rooms.  25ieS  ftnb  bie  ttorbern  Simmer.  (5)  Verbal  nouns,  especially  those 
in  ung,  do  not  usually  take  a  predicate  adjective,  as  the  idea  of  condition  or  state 
•which  lies  in  the  uninflected  predicate  adjective  ill  accords  with  that  of  activity  con- 
tained in  the  verbal  noun.  In  this  case  the  attributive  form  is  used  :  35te  93erbreitung 
be3  93udjg  tjl  eine  fcfynelle.  £>ie  2lit3nufcung  ber  SBagenpldfce  ifl  eine  geringe.  (6)  A 


253. 1. 1.  a.  THE  PREDICATE  501 

present  participle  can  only  be  used  in  the  predicate  when  it  has  the  force  of  an  adjec- 
tive ;  see  182.  i.  A.&.  It  cannot  now  as  formerly  be  used  here  with  pure  verbal  force. 
It  can,  however,  be  freely  used  in  the  predicate  as  elsewhere  in  attributive  form  :  2)ag 
flanje  SSerfafiren  ift  cin  turd&aug  ben  ©efefcen  nnberfpreci&enbeg.  2)te  ©pradje  beg  93iid)$ 
tfl  cine  flare,  einfacfje  itnb  a(lgentein  setftdnblicibe,  »cra  £enen  fommenbe  unb  jum 
J^er^en  gehenbe.  3m  ganjen  tit  bag  Sffier!  fretlid)  fein  ben  ©cgenftanb  erfdjcpfenbeg. 
The  constructions  (5)  and  (6)  find  little  favour  with  certain  grammarians.  The  oppo- 
nents of  these  constructions  recommend  that  the  predicate  adjective  or  participle  be 
replaced  by  a  verb  :  !Dag  93ud)  Ijat  ftdj  fd)ne((  ttetbreitet.  25ag  ganje  SSerfafiren  hnbers 
fprtdjt  burdjaug  ben  ©efejjen.  The  use  of  the  predicate  adjective  and  participle  is, 
however,  widespread  and  easily  explained  by  the  tendency  described  toward  the  close 
of  Note  I,  above. 

Note  3.  On  the  other  hand,  a  number  of  adjectives  can  only  be  used  as  a  predicate 
complement ;  see  111.  7.  c, 

b.  In  the  nom.  as  predicate  appositive ;  see  104.  2.  A.  b. 

c.  Instead  of  the  simple  nom.  construction  the  predicate  is  in 
certain  instances,  as  in  case  of  nouns,  introduced  by  aU  and  fur : 
©r  gilt  a!3  ber  befte  toon  alien.     (Jr  nwrbe  fitr  untrurbig  erflart  He  was 
pronounced  unworthy. 

C.  The  predicate  complement  may  be  a  pronoun  in  the  nom.  : 
<£ein  ©Iitcf  tfl  meineg.     (£r  bletbt  berfelbe.    2>a8  $ferb  ift  etn  ©augetier ;  ber 
ffialftjty  ifl  eS  (129. 2.  C.  (4))  aufy 

a.  In  Swiss  dialect  the  personal  pronouns  are  frequently  in  the  ace.  when 
used  as  predicate:  <scib  3f)t  ihn  chua  fetbjl?  (].  Gotthelfs  Ulider  Pachter,  76). 
@cf)t,  ba  ift  eg  ifyn  ja  felber  (Spitteler's  Conrad,  p.  52).  Compare  with  popular 
English :  //  is  me,  us. 

D.  An  Infinitive : 

a.  As  a  predicate  or  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  predicate 
after  the  verbs  enumerated  in  185.  B.  I.  i.  b  :  @r  bleifct  ftetyen. 

b.  As  a  predicate  with  311,  with  the  force  of  a  gerundive ;   see 
180.  A. 

E.  An  adverb  :  £>ie  <£d)ule  tfl  <m8.    2Me  $ur  ifl  ju. 

F.  A  clause :  2)u  fcifl  nic^t  mc^r,  bcr  tw  tt>arft    0ltc^t  jeber  fdjeint, 
ttw8  cr  ift. 

Agreement  between  Subject  and  Predicate. 

253.  The  predicate  agrees  with  the  subject  in  number,  and 
where  it  is  possible  in  person,  gender,  and  case. 


I.  Number. 

i.  If  the  subject  is  singular,  the  verb  is'also  sing.:  £>a8  fletnfle 
«£aat  irtrft  fctncn  <8cfyattcn. 

a.  Often  in  speaking  to  and  sometimes  also  of  persons  of 
relatively  higher  social  or  official  standing,  the  verb  is  in 
the  pi.,  though  the  subject  is  in  the  sing.  :  ©eneral  2)Janteuffct 
fcfyreibt  mir  efccn,  bap  (Seine  2>Jajeftat  ber  Jtontij  tie  ©nabe  gefyafct  tjafcen, 
5)ir  biefe  Stu^eid&nung  gu  tjerlei^cn  (Moltke  an  den  Neffen  Henry, 
22.  Marz  1864).  Seine  SKaie^at  ber  ^onig  ^aben  QtUergndbtgfl  geru^t, 


502  SYNTAX  253.  1.  1.  a. 


ben  (fifenba^nferretdrert  ©olbammer  in  4?afle  «•  @.  unb  Semme  in  SSeipen* 
fel§  Bet  bem  tlbertritt  in  ben  jRutyeftanb  ben  (Sfyarafter  atg  9fled)mmg3rat 
git  &erlei(jen  (Vossische  Zeitung,  No.  55,  1903).  Che.  (euer)  (Srcefleng 
n?  often  berjeifyen  Your  excellency  will  be  so  kind  as  to  pardon.  ($u 
<£bttl))  ©nabigeS  Sfrdulein  fatten  mir  bocfy  setfyroetjen,  mtr  bag  le&te  SBilb 
311  §etgen,  baS  @ie  gemalt  fjaben  (Fulda's  Das  verlorene  Paradies,  I, 
5).  SSoften  <§err  Remitter  jtenrnt  njtrflid)  btefe  SRacfyt  nocfy  jururffaljten  ? 
(Hartleben's  Rosenmontag,  2.  3,  where  a  first  lieutenant  addresses 
respectfully  a  visiting  '  Kommerzienrat  ').  5)ie  gndDige  5rau  ftnb 
auSgefafyren  (language  of  a  servant)  My  mistress  has  gone  out 
driving.  It  is  difficult  to  define  usage  here  accurately.  Sturdy 
independent  natures  resist  this  servile  style,  while  others,  as  on  the 
one  hand  servants,  and  on  the  other  hand  persons  that  move  in 
circles  dominated  by  official  or  social  formalities,  employ  it  to  show 
their  respect  and  deference  to  superiors,  or  use  it  in  general  as  a 
mere  mark  of  esteem  or  politeness.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  mock- 
respectful  tone  :  <§err  5)oftor  icurben  ba  fatecfytfiert  (Goethe's  Faust, 

I-  3523). 

b.  If  the  bieg,  bag,  jeneg,  e§,  or  rreld)e3  used   in   expressions  of 
identity  is  subject,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate.     See  128.  A. 
a  ;  129.  2.  C.  (i)  and  251.  3.  A  ;  141.  9.  a  ;  148.  a. 

c.  The  grammatical  subject  fS  has  no  influence  over  the  number, 
the  verb  agreeing  with  the  logical  subject  :  @g  jogen  bm  2Burfd?e(n) 
inofyl  itfcer  ben  9ftf)ein. 

a.  If  a  subject  in  the  sing,  is  associated,  by  means  of  the  preps. 
nut  with,  faint  together  with,  nebft  along  with,  auf  upon,  nacfy  after,  with 
other  words  which  logically  though  not  formally  constitute  a  part 
of  the  subject,  the  verb  is  in  the  sing.  :  5)a3  ©d;tff  famt  ber  Sabung 
unb  3Rannfd?aft  ging  ju  ©runbe.  2Rofeg  nebfl  fetnem  SBruber  Qtaron  ftteg  auf 
ben  9Berg  Sinai.  <2d)Iag  auf  <Sd?Iag  folgte.  din  £ag  natf)  bem  anbern 
tterjWcfy.  The  pi.  is  also  sometimes  found  after  the  first  three  of 
these  prepositions  in  accordance  with  older  usage  as  explained  in 
229.  2,  under  nebfi,  b. 

e.  If  the  predicate  noun  is  in  the  plural,  the  verb  is  usually 
attracted  into  agreement  with  it  rather  than  with  the  subject,  even 
though  the  latter  is  in  the  sing.  :  3)Jetn  afle£  ftnb  nteine  Jttnber.    9lfle3, 
ira§  bit  anbringfl  (bring  forward],  ftnb  nut:  leere  Cnttfcfyulbtgungen.    2Kein 
llmgang  iraren  bie  SBauernjungen  be§  benadj&arten  S)orfe3  unb  beffen  $farrer 
(C.  F.  Meyer).     But  we  also  find  the  verb  in  the  sing.,  where  the 
pi.  predicate  noun  is  felt  as  containing  the  idea  of  a  mass  or  fixed 
amount  :  (Sine  Jtrone  ift  (or  ftnb)  jefyn  SWarf  (Stitterlin's  Die  deutsche 
Sprache,  p.  327).      If  the  subject  is  plural  and  the  predicate  is 
singular,  the  verb  may  agree  either  with  the  subject  or  predicate, 
more  commonly  with  the  former:    ©erotete  QJugen  ftnb  ein  3^'^e" 
innerer  ©rregunq.    2)te  @inirol)ner  biefer  ©egenb  tfl  ein  eigentumltcfyer  @d?lag 
Don  9)?enfc^en  (Engelien's  Grammatik  der  neuhochdeutschen  Sprache, 
5th  ed.,  p.  373). 

f.  If  the  subject  is  sing,  in  form  but  has  several  adjective  modifiers 
which  do  not  qualify  the  one  thing  but  each  a  different  thing,  the 
verb  is  in  the  pi.  :  £>ie  norbtidje  unb  fublidje  <§dlfte  foremen  unter  gleicfyen 


253.  I.  i.£;         CONGRUENCE  OF  NUMBER  503 

SBreitegraben  ungefd'fcr  biefelte  Grbfrummimg  barjnlneten  The  northern  and 
southern  hemispheres  appear  to  have  about  the  same  curvature  on 
the  same  parallels. 

g.  A  collective  noun  or  noun  of  multitude  in  the  sing,  now 
usually  requires  the  verb  in  the  sing. :  5)aS  <£>eer  ift  tterfantmelt.  5)a3 
Heine  33olf  lief  »oran3.  The  earlier  part  of  the  period  was  not  so 
completely  under  the  domination  of  grammatical  rule  as  the 
present.  Luther  frequently  uses  the  plural  here,  or  places  the 
first  verb  in  the  sing,  and  all  following  ones  in  the  plural :  -3lfrer  ba3 
93olc!  |  (o  (153.  5)  jreit  @ott  fennen  |  vcerren  fid;  ermanneit  (Dan.  xi.  32). 
33nb  ailc3  Jttiegguotcf  bag  fcety  jm  rear  $od?  fyinauff  |  »nb  tratteu  [fy]er$n  |  »nb 
fameit  gcgeu  bie  ©tab  (Josh.  viii.  n).  The  plural  of  a  verb  still  occurs 
here  in  the  classical  period,  but  much  more  rarely :  2Bte  eine  rafenbe 
2ftenge  mit  (gtci&en,  SBeilen,  «§ammern,  ^eitern,  ©trirfen  &crfel)en,  *>on  trenig 
SBetcaffneten  fcegleitet,  erjl  Jtapeften,  Jttrcfyen  itnb  Jtlijfier  anfaflen,  bie  S3(nbcid?tigeu 
fcerjagen  (Goethe's  Egmont,  i,  2).  In  our  time  the  plural  here  is  quite 
rare  in  the  literary  language,  and  perhaps  only  found  in  a  relative 
clause  referring  back  to  a  collective  noun,  where  it  is  also  rare : 
(Snblid)  tetlte  fid;  baS  £}olf  in  eine  rautyere  ^artei,  icelcfye .  .  .  gerne  nunmetyr 
nad^ge^olt  l;citten,  tra§,  icie  fte  nteinten,  fcei  ber  (?ro6enmg  be3  !2anbe<5  fcerftiumt 
ttiorben  unb  bte  Stalter  fiir  i^ren  t)eimltrf)en  -&a§  mit  offener  ©eivalt  ^u  ftrafen 
fcege^rten  (Felix  Dahn's  Em  Kampf  um  Rom}.  The  older  freedom 
of  usage  here  is  preserved  in  English  :  The  Council  is  or  are  of  the 
opinion  that,  &c. 

If,  however,  a  noun  in  the  gen.  pi.,  or  a  dat.  pi.  after  ton,  or' 
an  appositive  in  the  pi.  follows  the  collective  noun,  the  verb  may 
be  in  the  pi.  :  Sort  fatten  ftrfj  eine  2JJaffe  d;ineftfd;er  5ntcfyt$erfaufet 
(utgefammelt.  (Sine  Qlnjafyl  son  Seamten  ftnb  jufamiuen  getreten.  (Sine 
5Ken^e  *Hpfet  lagen  untcr  bem  93aume.  Also  the  singular  can  be  used 
here,  and  in  general  the  rule  can  be  laid  down  that  the  use  of  the 
sing,  and  pi.  depends  upon  whether  the  subject  presents  itself  to 
the  mind  in  the  form  of  a  closed  mass  or  group,  or  as  individuals  : 
Gin  @d)tcarm  Sieneu  flog  auf,  but  (Sine  2Menge  £afen  icurben  gefd)offen 
(one  at  a  time).  Unb  an  etncr  ©tefle  be§  UferS  lagen  eine  2ttaffe  ^iefelfieinc 
(Wildenbruch's  Neid,  p.  90).  ©pater  erfrfjienen  nodj  eine  i)tcnge  anberer 
SBefud;er  (W.  Hegeler's  Pastor  Klinghammcr,  p.  17).  ©in  ©cfyod  Jlre6fe 
fojlete  eincn  pfennig  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  chap.  7).  Itnter  ber  bren* 
itenbcn  2)itttagSfonne  fam  ein  Srnpp  5Bauerntntrfd^en  bte  Sanbflra^e  tyerauf 
(R.  Huch's  Vita  somnium  breve,  I,  p.  127). 

Note  i.  In  the  case  of  ein  $$aar,  ein  SDufcenb  there  is  a  difference  of  meaning 
involved,  the  pi.  verb  denoting  an  indefinite  number,  the  sing,  an  exact  number — two, 
twelve :  @tn  paat  (a  few)  -ipditfct  ftnb  abgebraunt,  but  Sraupen  wartet  etit  ^Jaac  auf 
bie  draining.  ©S  famen  und  ein  SCufcenb  (a  number)  ^ufaccn  entgegen,  but  Sac 
Sufccnb  (Sigarren  foftet  i  sWavf. 

Note  3.  The  indefinite  numerals  inet,  roenig,  tlterjt,  and  gcnttg  were  in  early  N.H.G. 
used  as  sing,  neuter  substantives,  often  with  a  dependent  partitive  gen.,  and  accord- 
ingly when  used  as  subject  could  have  a  sing,  verb  even  though  the  reference  was 
to  a  number  of  persons  or  things,  while  later  usage  requires  here  quite  uniformly 
a  plural  verb :  2Betm  ber  o,erc(f)ten  »icl  t|l  |  frevoet  jidj  bad  polcf  (Proverbs  xxix.  2),  but 
Slber  bicfctrt  9Jitfe  fclgtcn  fjeitte  nur  rocntg  [see  130.  3.  i,  Arote]  (Fontane's  Quiff, 
chap.  6).  Luther  also  employed  the  plural  here :  ©internal  ftdj'g  wiel  onterttmnbm 


504  SYNTAX  253.  I.  i.g. 

fyaben  (Luke  i.  i).    £>enn  ea  finb  met  fatfdjer  *prcpfjeten  auSgegangen  in  bte  SSelt 
(i  John  iv.  i). 

9Kef)t  al3  em  +  a  sing,  subject  may  be  used  with  a  sing,  or  pi.  verb  :  2ftef)r  alg  ein 
5a(l  i|i  befannt,  or  (gg  finb  meljr  ate  ein  5afl  befannt.  The  sing,  is  more  common. 

A.  9tid)t§  al§  before  a  pi.  noun  is  always  found  with  a  pi.  verb  as 
it  simply  has  the  force  of  nur :  etne  5"fl&rtf,  in  rceldjer  ntcfytg  alg  Iftafynabeln 
gemacfyt  irerben. 

2.  If  the  subject  is  pi.,  or  if  there  are  several  subjects,  the  verb 
is  pi. :  5)ie  Winter  fcebitrfen  bet  5lufficJ)t.  @ut  unb  @|re  fcermogeu  met  it&er 
bte  Sttenfcfyen. 

a.  If  there  are  several  sing,  subjects,  the  verb  may  agree  with  the 
nearest  one,  provided  it  does  not  thus  stand  after  them  all,  in  which 
case  it  is  usually  pi. :  Sftetn  SBruber  f ommt  fjeute  unb  meine  ©cfynjefler,  but 
SKein  Sritber  unb  meine  @d)irefter  fommen  fyeute.     3Ru  after  fcletfct  ©laufce  | 
Coffining  |  £iet>e  |  biefebrei)(i  Cor.  xiii.  13).     9Wit  9fta£)el  unb3ftut^fam^err 
(Srnft  93ap£f)off  unb  fein  9lmtcr/en(Raabe).  There  is  nowastrongtendency 
here  to  use  the  plural  in  accordance  with  strict  formal  principles :  2) a 
lagen  ber  Jauffcfyetn,  ber  $a§  unb  ber  3!otenf«^etn  i^rer  Gutter  (Schubin's 
Refugium  peccatorum,  III).     The  verb  must,  however,  be  in  the 
sing.,  even  when  it  follows  the  different  subjects,  if  for  any  reason  it 
is  expressly  desired  to  associate  the  activity  implied  in  the  verb 
with  each  subject  separately,  as,  for  instance,  to  denote  consecu- 
tiveness,   to  indicate   a  contrast,   or  to  present  the  subjects  as 
individuals  :    5) a   l)ebet   flcfy'3   fcfyrcanenreeip,  |  uno   ein    2lrm    imD   ein 
glangenber  0lacfen  nnrb  Mo§  (Schiller's  Der  Taucher)  There  out  of 
the  water  something  white  as  a  swan  raises  itself  and  an  arm  is 
seen  and  then  a  glittering  neck.     5)er  £fyron,  gu  beffen  Otecfyten  ber  0taja, 
i^m  gegenuber  nteine  SBenigfeit  ^Ia|  na^m  The  throne  at  the  right  of 
which  the  rajah  seated  himself  and  opposite  to  him  my  humble  self. 
,,3Sofyfr  after  bann  bte  fceiben  Jtinber?"     ,,3dj  iceif?  nur,  bap  e§  fi»  .Snafre  unb 
ein  2)iabd;en  iji  t»on  etrea  ac^t  unb  ffin  3af)ren "  (Ertl's  Der  Handschuh). 

b.  If  the  subjects  are  in  part  sing.,  in  part  pi.,  the  verb  if  pi. 
should  be  so  placed  that  it  will  not  follow  a  sing,  subject,  or  if  the 
sing,  verb  be  preferred  it  should  precede  a  sing,  subject :  5)a3  alte 
Sfyeben  (Thebes)  unb  feme  drummer  finb  taufenbmal  fcefcfjrieben  irorbcn.    Qtn 
ber  einen  @eite  ftanben  utetyrere  ©tittle,  ein  £ifd)  unb  ein  ©effel,  or  5In  ber 
einen  @eite  fianb  ein  $ifd),  ein  (Seffel  unb  me^rere  <8tu^Ie.     3Ber  ireif ,  06  nict/t 
inorgen  fc^on  bein  innigjieg  @el)nen  ba^in  ge^t,  eg  moge  $ect/,  ©cl^rcefel  unb 
Ouaberfleine  auf  bie  ^eilneijmer,  bie  2)Jitnjtrfenben  an  beiner  grofjen  fain 
^)era6regrien  (Raabe's  DerDraumling,  XIII).     2)a  icaren  Sdrm  unb  3^"^ 
Unfriebeit  unb  bofe,  tirgerltcfye  ©eftc^ter  (id.). 

c.  In  the  case  that  several  co-ordinate  singular  subjects  are  felt 
as  forming  a  distinct  collective  idea,  a  close  union  or  oneness  of 
idea,  the  sing,  verb  may  be  used  :  £aug  unb  «§of  ifl  oerfauft.     Sob  unb 
S)anf  fei  bem  >&errn.    g-renbe  unb  Subel  fc^aflt  ung  entgegen.    Qlrnt  unb  Qftelc^  ; 
ifl  (or  ftnb)  im  ilobe  gleid?,  but  always  2)ie  Airmen  unb  bie  Oieicfyen  'ftnb  int 
Sobe  gletd).      9la,  na,  ba  ftefyt  man  n;ieber  mat,  ba§  5Uter,  ©rfa^rung  unb 
©ramttdjfeit  nid]t  sjor  Jor^eit  fdju^t  (Raabe's  Der  Lar,  p.  150);     (£3 
famen  Sage,  an  benen  bie  2lrf>eit,  bie  ©orge  311  »tel  unb  311  grofj  rear  (R.  Voss's 


253.  La./.        CONGRUENCE  OF  NUMBER  505 

Psyche,  chap.  7).  (Sir  fagte,  bay  i^m  bafiir  meinc  (Stetlung  unb  meinc  3ufunft 
siel  jii  fetyt  am  Bergen  liege  (M.  Dreyer's  Der  Probekandidat,  p.  22). 
<2ie  fcetraten  bie  Jtaferne,  au3  ber  <8ta,nal&lafen,  Sarm  unb  QJfeifcn  ertimte 
(Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  XLIII).  Two  subjects  can  express 
a  oneness  of  idea  if  they  are  opposites  or  complements  of  each 
other,  and  thus  show  one  idea  in  all  its  range  of  meanings  from  the 
two  extremes :  9Beil  id?  rceip,  rca3  ein  guter  iBanbel  ntd?t  blop  i?or  ©ott, 
fonbern  aud)  »or  ben  2Wenfd?en  bebeutet  imb  bap  ©Uuf  unb  llnglucf  baran  fydngt 
(Fontane's  Quilt,  chap.  7).  (£3  fottte  2Weer  unb  SJcmb  nid?t  (Sinem  btenen 
(Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  i,  5).  2)e3  (Stein  SBort  unb  $at  fltngt  nod? 
nad;  3aljrett  uneber.  Of  course  the  verb  is  in  the  pi.  if  such  words  are 
considered  separately:  5)enn  §ter  flnb  sJled;t  unb  Unrest  nafy  fccrrcanbt 
(Goethe's  Tasso,  2,,  4).  @ut  unb  66fe  flreiten  irunberli^  in  btr  (Frenssen's 
Das  Heimatsfest,  3,  i). 

Opposed  to  the  usage  described  above  is  a  formal  principle  which 
requires  strict  grammatical  agreement :  Unau8l5fdjltd)er  ©roll  unb  ©rant 
crfiittteit  jebcn  iLUnfel  i^rer  @eele  (Isolde  Kurz's  Das  Vermdchtnis  der 
Tante  Susanne}. 

The  sing,  is  also  used  in  case  of  a  general  or  indefinite  reference  : 
Jtcincr  unb  fcine  bleibe  batjeim  (Rosegger).  3)iefen  t)ter  mupte  iro^I  jeber 
unb  febe  (ebon  ftnben  (Spielhagen's  Freigeborcn,  p.  148). 

d.  If  a  single  pi.  subject  or  several  sing,  or  pi.  subjects  are  felt 
as  forming  the  idea  of  a  firm  mass  or  fixed  amount,  the  verb  is 
in  the  sing.  :   (S3  untrbe  nur  fiinf  ^rojent  (96.  4.  i)  ber  Sttaffe  gerettet. 
10  pfennig  (96.  4.  i)  ifl  me^r  ol3  5  pfennig.     @tn  ^tlo  unb  327  ©ramm  ifl 
(not  ftnb)  genug.     S^eimal  givet  ift  ttter.     3"-Aei  5Warf  unb  noct)  2  2)farf  ftnb 
or  ift  4  2>farf.    3^«i  %<dn  wnb  4  @rof*en  ftnb  or  ifl  genug.    Here  the  pi. 
of  the  verb  is  used  wherever  instead  of  the  conception  of  oneness 
the  idea  of  two  or  more  distinct  units  of  the  same  order  occur  to 
the  mind,  but  not  if  one  unit  of  one  order  and  a  number  of  a  lower 
order  (as  in  the  third  example)  are  used  and  the  reference  is  to 
a  firm  mass. 

e.  In  case  several  subjects   are  followed   by  a  neut.  pronoun 
which  refers  to  the  previously  mentioned  subjects  collectively  or 
distributively,  the  verb  is  in  the  sing. :  SMe  Offnungen  ber  SWauer,  bie 
folibcn  ©teflen  berfelfren,  bie  $fciler,  jebeS  t)atte  feinen  fccfonbern  S^arafter. 
(seine  fortgefe|te  Qlufmerffamfeit,  o^ne  bafj  er  gubrtnglic^  gercefen  itdve ;  few 
trcuer   3?etflanb  tei  »er(ct)iebencn  unangencfymcn  3"faften;    fctn  gcgen  i^re 
©Item  jrear  aufigefprodjeneS,  bod;  ru^igeS  unb  nur  ^offhunggijoutfl  SEerben, 
ba  fie  freilid;  nod;  fe^r  jung  trar :  bag  alleS  nal;m  fte  fiir  ibn  ein. 

f.  In  connection  with  the  conjunctions  ober  or,  ennceber  —  ober 
either — or,  rccber  —  nod)  neither — nor,  foirofyt  —  al3  both  —  and,  as 
well —  as,  ntd;t  allein  (or  Hop  or  nur)  —  fonbern  and;  not  only  —  but  also, 
utdjt  foivofyl  —  al8  tnclmefjr  not  so  much  —  as,  be3gletd?en  likewise,  icte 
and?   as  also,   and,   tetlg  —  toils  partly  —  partly,    &c.,   the   different 
subjects  are  usually  considered  singly  and  hence  the  verb  agrees 
with  one  of  them — the  next  one  to  it — and  is  understood  with  the 
others :    s-Kerten  3f)r  2?ruber  unb  3fyre  <2d?n?eiter  fommen  ?    DJcin,  kibe 
fonnen   fte  ntd;t   fommen,   afrer  jebenfatlS   ictrb   mein    93ruber   ober   meinc 
Sdjivefier  fommen.     <2on:of}l  meinc  8d;a-ejlern  irie  aud;  mein  93ruber  ivirb 


506  SYNTAX  253. 1. 2./ 

fommen  or  more  smoothly  (sorcor)!  meine  (sdjrceftern  trerben  fomnten,  irie 
and?  ntein  33ruber.  91id?t  aflein  mein  Sruber,  fonbern  aud?  meine  ©cfyrcefler 
nnrb  fommen.  0ttd)t  ntein  SBruber  fommt,  (onbern  nieine  @d?njefier.  9Rtcfyt 
meine  3?riiber,  (onbern  meine  <Sd?rcejter  fommt.  91id)t  nteine  @d?rcefler,  fonbern 
nteine  SSriiber  fommen.  9lid?t  forcofyl  bie  alien  Qlnfdfyauungen  ber  Corner  in 
(stabt  unb  £anb  aU  inelmefyr  bag  28ol)Ierge^en  ber  aufjeritalifdjen  $ro»injen 
rear  fur  bie  $otitif  ber  romifdjen  Jtaifer  mafjgefcenb.  3ur  SReife  fefjlte  mir 
teilS  3eit,  teilS  Sujl,  teilS  ®elb. 

After  all  these  conjunctions  except  such  as  ober,  entrceber  —  ober, 
ttid)t  —  fonbern,  which  positively  exclude  the  statement  in  the  one 
proposition  or  the  other,  the  verb  can  also  be  in  the  pi.,  as  that 
which  is  predicated  of  one  subject  applies  to  them  all :  (Sorcoljt 
meine  (Scfytrefier  al3  cuter;  mein  SSrttber  trerben  fomnten.  SBeter  meine  ^djirejier 
nod)  mein  93ritber  irerben  fommen.  Even  after  ober,  the  pi.  of  the  verb 
may  be  used,  if  the  strict  exclusive  force  of  the  conjunction  disap- 
pears and  it  takes  on  the  meaning  of  unb :  93olf  ober  9Bdr  fomnten 
felten  bat»on,  rcenn  cin  Sappe  i^nen  aufg  SStatt  tyalt. 

g.  If  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is  the  name  of  a  book  or  play 
consisting  of  a  pi.  noun  or  several  nouns,  the  verb  is  sometimes  in 
the  sing.,  sometimes  in  the  pi.,  the  former  especially  when  the 
subject  is  a  couple  of  proper  names  linked  by  unb  and  not 
preceded  by  a  pi.  article,  or  when  the  predicate  is  a  noun  in 
the  nom.  sing,  even  though  the  subject  is  preceded  by  a  pi. 
article,  otherwise  the  verb  is  now  more  commonly  in  the  pi. : 
Borneo  unb  3ulie  trirb  petite  gegeoen.  9Ba3  „  Hermann  unb  2>orot^ea" 
an  metrifdjer  Q3ollfommenl;eit  gerconnen  fyatte,  trare  rcofyl  an  ber  Urfarttng* 
Iid)feit  unb  9}aturlid)feit  ber  2)arfieflung  icieber  fcerloren  gegangen  (remark  on 
Goethe's  Hermann  und  Dorothea,  Weimar  ed.  vol.  50,  p.  383).  2)ic 
9ta'uber  ift  ein  ©d^aufpiel  con  <Sd?ifler.  5)af  bie  Olauber  f ei  ityrem  ©rfdjeinen 
unb  namentlid)  6ei  ben  erften  Qluffu^rungen  eitten  <Sturm  t>on  SBeiieijlerung 
erregten,  fann  un3  nid^t  rcunber  ne^men  (Bellermann's  Schillers  Dramen, 
I,  p.  53).  jfrdpteS  „  9ieben  an  bie  beittfcfye  SRation "  itoten  eine  tiefgefyenbe 
SBirfung  aug.  2)ie  ^iccolomini  njerben  l)eute  gegeoen. 

h.  If  the  subject  is  accompanied  by  explanatory  words  in  the 
appositional  construction,  the  verb  may  agree  strictly  with  the 
grammatical  subject  or  often  agrees  with  the  appositive,  when  this 
more  vividly  represents  the  idea  contained  in  the  subject  than  the 
subject  itself:  $iel  trdgt  baju  fcei,  bap  atteS,  rcaS  jum  «§aufe  gefyort,  alfo 
(J^eleute  unb  ^e^alten  (servants),  nun  fiir  einige  SJionate  jufantmen  bleioen 
fann  (v.  Hermann).  2Mne  ^inberja^re,  bie  fit  one,  unvergeplid;e  3fit, 
»etflo§  mir  aU  Berliner  <Sd?ufrerjungen — Rodenberg. 

i.  A  plural  subject  or  several  subjects  in  the  nominative  absolute 
construction  found  in  subject  clauses  do  not  influence  the  number 
of  the  verb,  which  is  invariably  in  the  sing.,  as  the  reference  is  to 
a  single  idea  ;  see  265.  B.  b.  (2),  3rd  paragraph. 

j.  A  few  originally  pi.  nouns  are  now  often  felt  as  singular,  and 
hence  the  verb  is  often  in  the  sing,  when  such  words  are  used 
as  subjects ;  see  96.  i. 

3.  The  predicate  noun  agrees  with  the  subject  in  number: 
unb  23iton  ivaren  SBritber. 


253.  II.  2.  CONGRUENCE  OF  PERSON  507 

a.  The  predicate  noun  does  not  agree  with  the  subject  in  number 
if  it  is  a  name  of  a  material  or  a  collective  or  abstract  noun :  3tyr 
fetb  bag  <SaI$  ber  (Srbe.     S)te  ftranjofen  ftnb  cin  romantfd;eg  SSolf.     ©ute 
Jtinber  ftnb  bic  $reube  ityrer  ©Item. 

In  a  number  of  cases  the  predicate  noun  may  be  in  the  sing,  or 
pi.,  according  as  it  is  desired  to  give  expression  to  the  abstract  idea 
of  quality  or  the  concrete  one  of  different  individuals  :  SBeibe  SBruber 
ftnb  ©olbat  or  @olbaten. 

b.  Also  the  interrogative  pronouns  n?er  and  rcag  do  not  agree  with 
the  subject  when  they  are  used  as  predicate,  but  remain  uniformly 
in  the  sing. :  2Ber  icaren  biefc  Seute?    3Bag  fhib  btefe  banner? 

c.  When  the  subject  is  the  polite  form  of  the  personal  pronoun, 
which  is  really  3rd  pers.  pi.  in  form,  though  it  is  used  as  2nd 
pers.  sing.,  the  predicate  stands  in  the  sing,  if  the  reference  is  to 
a  singular  subject :  <Sie,  metn  4?err,  iraren  ntetn  letter. 

d.  The  predicate  does  not  agree  in  number  with  the  subjects 
bieg,  bag,  jeneg,  eg,  tneld)eg  used  in  expressions  of  identity ;    see  128. 
A.  a ;  129.  2.  C.  (i) ;  141.  9.  a ;  148.  a. 


II.  Person. 

The  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person.  If  there  are  several 
subjects  of  different  persons  the  following  rules  are  usually  fol- 
lowed : 

1.  If  the  subjects  are  connected  by  unb  or  conjunctions  of  kindred 
force  as  foirofyl  —  alg  (or  trie)  both  —  and,  as  well  —  as,  nne  aud;  or 
fotrte  as  also,  the  first  person  has  the  preference  over  the  second 
and  third,  and  the  second  person  the  preference  over  the  third, 
and    often   a   pronoun   comprehending  the   different   subjects    is 
added  :  3d;  unb  bu  fyaben  gletcfye  <8d;irffale,  or  3d)  unb  bit,  trtr  tyaben  gleid^e 
<8cfyirffale.    5)u  unb  bein  SBruber  fetb  nteine  ftreunbe,  or  2)u  unb  bein  SBruber, 
tf)r  feib  mctne  ^reitnbe.     3d)  fcwofjl  nne  bu  ftnb  bag  gereo^nt.     (Soiro^I  idj 
al8  incin  5'rcunb,  icir  ftnb  bafur  oerantrcortltd).     Occasionally  the  third 
person  is  preferred :  3d)  treijj,  baft  bit  unb  ntetn  33ater  in  ^rteg  tterrcicfett 
ftnb  (Borne). 

a.  If  sing,  subjects  are  connected  by  foreotyl  —  al3  (or  rtie),  ttie 
aud),  foivte,  it  is  also  common  for  the  verb  to  agree  with  the  first 
subject  in  the  sing.,  even  though  it  stands  after  both,  especially  if 
the  emphasis  is  upon  the  first  subject :  3d?  foivofyl  trie  bu  bin  (or  ftnb) 
eg  geirctynt.   5)tt  foivoM  nne  id;  bift  (or  ftnb)  e3  gercofjnt,  but  usually  £>u  unb 
id;  (ivtr)  ftnb  eg  geroofynt. 

b.  Sometimes  in  case  of  subjects  connected  by  unb  the  verb  is  in 
the  sing.,  agreeing  with  the  nearest  subject :  3n  btefer  <8ad;e  irrfl  bu 
unb  id).     3d)  unb  atle  9Bdt  crfennt  bag  an. 

2.  If  different  subjects  of  different  persons  are  opposed  or  in 
contrast  to  each  other,  or  are  considered  separately,  the  verb  agrees 
in  person  and  number  with  the  nearest  subject :  lDu  bijt  eg  getuofynt, 
ntd)t  tdi,  or  Sit,  nid)t  id)  tin  eg  geirofynt.     iBeber  tut  bifl  eg  geito^nt  nod;  id), 
or  SBcber  bu  nod;  id;  bin  eg  genjotjnt,  or  SSeter  bu  nod;  id;  ftnb  eg  geroo^nt. 


508  SYNTAX  253.  II.  2. 

2>u  obcr  id?  nuifjte  (ought)  eg  gercofynt  fein.  3d?  ober  bit  mufjtefl  eg  gerco^nt 
feitt.  Sflifyt  nine  id)  fonbern  aud?  bit  6ifl  eg  geirofynt.  £eilg  itnfer  ^reunb,  teilg 
id?,  teilg  bu  fci|1  baran  fd?ulfc.  £etlg  unfer  ftreunb,  teilg  bu,  teilg  id?  tin  baran 
fd?ulb.  Sometimes  the  verb  agrees  with  the  first  subject  if  the 
statement  only  holds  good  for  it  :  @in  alt  ©efefc,  nid?t  id?,  gebietct  bit 
(Goethe's  Iphigenie,  5,  3).  It  also  agrees  with  the  first  subject  if  the 
following  subjects  are  regarded  as  only  explanatory  :  Reiner  »on  ung, 
rceber  bu  nod?  id?,  ifl  eg  geicofynt  (D.  Sanders). 

3.  If  the  subject  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  and  the  predicate  a  per- 
sonal pronoun,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  in  person  and 
number:  2)er  2Wann,  Son  bent  @te  fpred?en,  Bin  id?.     3d?  fcin  eg  It  is  I. 
For  further  examples  see  128.  A.  a  ;  129.  2.  C.  (i)  ;  141.  9.  a  and  251. 
1.  3.  A  ;  148.  a.    See  also  151.  3.  B.  c,  toward  the  close  of  the  article. 

4.  The  person  and  number  of  the  verb  in  relative  clauses  present 
several  idiomatic  peculiarities  that  are  considered  at  length  in  151. 
3.  B.  a,  b,  c. 

III.  Gender. 

i.  The  predicate  noun  does  not  in  general  agree  with  the  subject 
in  gender,  as  it  has  its  own  gender  :  @ein  $un  ifl  ber  5lugbrutf  feiner 


2.  The  predicate  noun  can  assume  a  grammatical  form  in  accord- 
ance with  the  natural  sex  of  the  person  represented  by  the  subject 
in  only  one  case  —  when  the  subject  represents  a  person  or  some- 
thing that  is  personified.  Then  the  predicate  noun  may  take  a 
masc.  form  if  the  subject  is  represented  as  a  male  and  a  fern,  form 
if  the  subject  is  represented  as  a  female,  provided,  however,  such 
forms  are  elsewhere  in  common  use  for  persons  (see  245.  1.  6.  2)  : 
©ott  ifl  metn  Beufle-  hunger  ifl  ber  fcejle  Jtod?.  35a8  Unglurf  ift  ber  fefte 
£ef)rmeifter.  £>a3  2JMbd?en  trtrb  d'rjte^erin.  2)a§  ifl  unfere  Sreunbtn.  <Ste 
ifl  eine  gemeine  £)iefcin.  2)te  0latur  rear  bte  erjle  ©rjte^ertn  beg  2Renfd?en. 
S)ie  Stattonalfcanf  ifl  Snljafcerin  beg  2Bed?feIg.  5Me  @ottegfurd?t  ifl  bte  @r* 
jie^ertn  beg  ntenfd?Itd?en  ©efd?Ied?tg,  ber  ^Infang  (without  fern,  form)  ber 
SBeigfjeit,  bte  SRtttter  atter  £ugenben.  In  the  fourth  sentence  the  natural 
sex,  not  the  grammatical  gender  of  the  subject,  has  influenced  the 
gender  of  the  predicate,  while  in  the  second  sentence  and  the  last 
three  the  grammatical  gender  of  the  subjects  has  suggested  the 
form  of  the  predicate,  as  things  have  no  sex.  In  the  third  sentence 
the  subject  is  a  neuter  noun  which  cannot  suggest  sex  at  all,  and 
thus  the  mind  is  free  here  to  select  a  gender  according  to  fancy. 

a.  The  predicate  noun  does  not  assume  a  fern,  form  to  agree  with  a  fern. 
subject  when  it  is  the  abstract  idea  pure  and  simple,  devoid  of  all  reference 
to  sex  and  its  attributes,  that  is  before  the  mind  :  (Maria  Stuart  speaking  to 
Queen  Elisabeth)  SRegterte  9?ed?t,  fo  lacjet  tf)t  »or  mir  |  tnt  ©taube  jefct,  benn  id? 
bin  @uer  Jtonig  (Schiller).  S5ie  grait  tjl  i?ter  6crr  unb  QRctfler  im  £aufe.  9)?etne 
SKuttet  fonute  tl?re$  Serbruffeg  nid?t  £err  itttb  Stiller  tccrben.  Die  2Mbc(  ifl  unfcr 
bejiev  8iit)rcr  aitf  unferm  SebenSlrcge.  But  the  force  of  the  gender  of  the  subject 
often  asserts  itself  even  here,  especially  when  the  predicate  has  inflected 
modifiers  before  it  :  <£te  toufite  tfyre  iiberraf<J?ung  $u  verbcrgen  unb  war  bte  unum* 
Jperriu  tf?vet  ©ebarben  (Raabe's  1m  alien  £isen^xin).  Some  words, 


255.  I.  ADJECTIVE  MODIFIERS  509 

however,  as  ©aft,  Jtetl,  SKenfd),  have  regularly  the  masc.  form  for  reference  to 
females  as  well  as  males,  as  the  idea  of  sex  is  not  felt :  9tlle<?  in  a((em,  fie  ifl  cut 
guter  J?ev(  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  378).  9lgncg,  raein'  $od)ter,  IjcY  mat 
ju  .  .  .  2)u  btft  etn  »ernunfttger  2Rcnfd)  (Sudermann's  Fritzchen,  2). 

If  an  adjective  or  pronoun  is  used  in  the  predicate  substantively  referring 
to  the  abstract  idea  contained  in  some  preceding  adjective  or  noun,  the  neuter 
gender  is  used  :  3)?ein  23ruber  ift  reid),  ivaS  id)  nid)t  bin.  (S3  ift  iwafyv,  23rautigam 
unb  SJeidjljattyhttann  ftnb  faft  incompatible  ;  abet  toenn  id)  le^tereg  nid)t  ivdre, 
Uwfjte  id}  bod)  gar  nid)t,  luer  e$  fctn  fodte  (Bismarck  to  his  betrothed,  Feb.  23, 
1847).  (Sv  (i.e.  Safar)  irar  ein  grower  SRebnet,  ©djrtftfhller  unb  5etbf)crr,  aber  jebe^ 
baron  tft  er  nut  geworben,  rceil  cr  ein  coUenbeter  <Staat(3mann  tear  (Mommsen's 
Romische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  xi). 

IV.  Case. 

The  predicate  word  agrees  with  the  subject  in  case,  and  thus 
both  stand  in  the  nominative :  (?rfl  ireim  id)  auf  fcie  2?erge  fommc,  ta 
n?erb'  id)  [o  ted)t  id)  felOft  (Wilbrandt's  Die  gute  Lorelei,  vi).  For  an 
exceptional  usage  in  Switzerland  see  252.  2,.  C.  a.  The  adjective 
here  in  general  loses  its  inflection  except  in  the  superlative.  In 
an  earlier  period  the  predicate  adjective  agreed  with  the  subject 
in  gender  and  case  in  all  the  degrees  of  comparison.  Fossil 
remnants  of  this  former  usage  still  exist ;  see  111.  8.  Sometimes 
(see  252.  2.  A.  c)  a  prep,  phrase  or  a  gen.  stands  in  the  relation  of 
a  predicate  adjective,  just  as  they  often  stand  in  the  relation  of  an 
attributive  adjective  :  S)er  Sfttmj  i(t  tton  @olb  (instead  of  golben).  (£r  ifl 
unfrcr  ©efwmmcj  (instead  of  geftunt  irte  nrir).  @r  gilt  arjtltd)  nidjt  fitr 
erften  iRangeS  (Fontane's  Effi,  chap,  xxiii). 


SUBORDINATE  ELEMENTS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 

254.  The  subordinate  elements  of  a  sentence  are  called  modi- 
fiers.    They  are  divided  into  the  following  general  classes  : 

1.  Adjective  modifiers,  which  modify  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

2.  Modifiers  of  the  verb,  adjective,  and  adverb,  which  fall  into 
two  classes  —  objective  and  adverbial  modifiers. 

3.  Independent  elements,  which  are  not  related  grammatically  to 
other  parts  of  the  sentence. 


Adjective  Modifiers. 
255.  Adjective  modifiers  are  treated  as  follows  : 

I.  Adjective  and  Participle. 

Adjectives  and  participles  modify  nouns  and  pronouns  and  agree 
with  them  in  gender,  number,  and  case,  except  when  used  without 
an  article  or  other  pronominal  adjective  in  the  appositive  relation, 
in  which  case  they  remain  uninflected  :  2>er  flcipige  Jlnabe  lernt.  S5cr 
fclit^enbe  Otofenftraucfy  buftet.  5)er  beleibigte  S'reunb  serjeifyt.  (Sin  guteS  99ud) 


510  SYNTAX  255.  I. 


ift  eine  nufcltdje  ®efeflfcr)aft.  Appositive  adjectives:  S)imfy  ein  ©e&irge, 
roufl  unb  leer,  rcie  bie  @rbe  fceint  SBegimt  ber  @d;6pfung,  but  ^rtebrid?  ber 
©rofje. 

a.  When  an  adjective  modifies  two  or  more  nouns  having  different 
genders  or  representing  different  persons  or  things,  the  strict 
grammatical  rule  requires  the  repetition  of  the  adjective  before 
each  noun  :  mit  folcfyem  (Stfer  unb  folcfyer  SBeftantigfett,  SSorterfcud?  ber 
beutfd^en  unb  ber  fran^oftfdjen  ©pracfye.  This  rule  would  often  require 
tiresome  repetitions,  and  hence  is  in  familiar  conversation  and  even 
in  serious  discourse  frequently  disregarded  when  no  ambiguity 
would  arise  :  grower  <Scfymer$  unb  5uigfi  instead  of  grower  <2crnuer$  unb 
grope  9lngjl  ;  mit  feiner  gercof)nlid)en  Srocfenfyeit  unb  ©rnji  (Goethe)  ; 
ein  genxifjteg  SBarett  unb  2)egen  (Becker);  ben  erften  6eften  Jtnuppel  unb 
«£>oljfcfyeit  (Raabe)  ;  mit  einem  tier^errten  Hd)eln,  in  bent  gefyeimer  ©rintm 
unb  <Sd)am  fid)  beutttcfy  genug  augprdgten  (Marriot). 

The  simple  article  and  pronominal  adjectives  are  not  in  such 
cases  so  easily  suppressed  as  qualifying  adjectives,  and  are  more 
commonly  repeated,  even  in  familiar  style  :  Ser  Jtonig  unb  bie  .ftaiferin. 
CrigeneS  >£au3  unb  [qualifying  adjective  not  repeated]  Jtinberfegen 
etfdn'en  bent  romifc^en  SBurger  al3  ba§  3'fl  »nb  ber  [article  repeated] 
^ern  be§  Se6en§  (Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte,  I,  chap.  v). 
Frequently,  however,  in  case  of  the  def.  art.  each  noun  may  drop 
its  article,  and  thus  the  awkward  repetition  may  be  avoided  :  @m* 
gang  jit  ©arten  unb  ^egelba^n  instead  of  311  beat  ©arten  unb  gu  ber  $ege(» 
fcafyn.  This  is  especially  the  case,  as  in  the  preceding  example, 
when  the  nouns  are  connected  by  unb.  The  article,  however, 
cannot  be  suppressed  here  if  its  demonstrative  force  becomes 
prominent,  as  for  instance  where  it  points  to  a  following  restrictive 
relative  clause  :  -Dfocfyte  ba§  fcfyone  33ucfy,  ba§  un§  ©rtinnt  gefcfyenft,  uberaft 
mit  ber  SCBdrme  unb  bent  ©rnfl  anfgenommen  merben,  mit  benen  e3  gefofyrteben 
tfl  (Wilhelm  Bolsche  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Dezember  1895,  p.  472). 
The  simple  indefinite  article  is  rarely  omitted  :  (£r  faufte  eine  Sau&e, 
eine  ®an§  unb  etnen  >§afen.  If  the  different  nouns  each  take  a  definite 
article  or  pronominal  adjective  of  the  same  form,  it  is  necessary 
to  use  it  but  once,  even  if  the  governing  nouns  are  in  different 
numbers  :  bie  ©nabe,  28etet)ett  unb  £tefce  ©otteS  ;  bie  ^tnorbnung  feiner 
SBtfcliottjef  unb  ©efettfcfyaftgjtmmer. 

If  the  article  modifies  two  nouns  both  representing  the  same 
person  or  thing,  it  should,  of  course,  only  be  used  once,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  the  nouns  represent  different  persons  or  things 
which  it  is  desired  to  contrast  or  to  mark  especially  as  distinct 
and  separate,  the  adjective  should  be  repeated  before  each  noun  : 
£>te  <8cfyulb  trtfft  ottetn  ben  93fcirrer  unb  DrtSfdjuIinfpeftor  91.  (one  person), 
but  £etber  mufj  ber  2)eutfcfye  33erltn  unb  SKuncfyen  etnanber  nod)  al3  bie 
polttifcfye  unb  bie  funfHertfd^e  «§attptftabt  be§  Sfieidjeg  gegenuberfteu'en  and 
Ser  ^farrer  unb  ber  (Scfyultijeifj  (two  persons)  leben  ofterS  mit  einanber  in 
Uneinigfeit. 

II.  Attributive  Genitive. 
1.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  genitive  may  modify  a  noun. 


255.  ILL       THE  ATTRIBUTIVE  GENITIVE  511 

The  following  general  rules  with  respect  to  order  are  here  given, 
other  special  ones  are  mentioned  below.  In  poetic  style  the  geni- 
tive often  stands  before,  but  in  prose  usually  after  the  noun  it 
modifies :  beg  freuerg  2ftad)t,  or  more  commonly  bie  -iKacfyt  beg  ft-euerg. 
The  genitive  of  origin,  however,  and  the  subjective  and  possessive 
genitives  in  case  of  names  of  persons,  or  less  frequently  of  nouns 
representing  persons,  may  stand  either  before  or  after  the  noun, 
often  with  a  shade  of  emphasis,  before  it  when  unemphatic,  after  it 
when  emphatic  or  conspicuous :  ©eg  S)td;terg  [i.  e.  Hebbel's]  3M0e|I& 
roar  reid)  ait  (Jntbefyrungen  unb  5>mutigungen,  unb  nid}t  fctel  feftlte,  fo  ware 
ber  JtnaOe  fcon  feinem  33ater  jum  2ftaurerl)anbroerf  gtjrcungen  roorben.  2)a$or 
rettete  tfyn  beg  SSaterg  Sob  (A.  Bartels).  Sutler  fteljt  grcnumattfd)  ber  mljb. 
(mittelfyod)beutfd;en)  $ertobe  ndfyer  alg  ber  nfyb.  (neuf)od}beutfd;en) ;  bie  €tyrad;e 
£s:|rii?cit3  ift  nt)b.  (F.  Kauffmann).  55ie  ®efdn'd)te  fennt  feineg  Q3olfeg 
Sliifange  (Ernst  Curtius'  Griechische  Geschichte,  I,  chap.  i).  In  earlier 
periods  the  position  of  the  genitive  before  the  governing  noun  was 
much  more  common  than  to-day.  This  older  usage  survives  in 
compounds  :  5'eu'ergfcvunft,  £an'r>eg»ertetbtgung,  &c.  Not  only  the 
older  word-order,  but  also  the  older  accent  survives  in  these  com- 
pounds; see  249.  II.  i.  B.  Note.  The  genitive  must  still  precede  its 
governing  noun  when  the  latter  is  also  modified  by  a  pronominal 
adjective  :  5)ie  Sote  roar  unfere  unb  beg  ganjen  S)orfeg  SBofyltdterin.  The 
genitives  beffen  and  beren,  whether  they  be  relatives  or  demonstratives, 
must  precede  the  governing  noun  :  bie  ©rd'ftn,  ifyre  SSerroaltertn  itnb 
beren  (the  latter 's)  £ocfyter. 

If  there  are  two  genitive  modifiers  of  a  noun,  one  genitive  should 
stand  on  each  side  of  the  noun,  the  genitive  of  origin  preceding  : 
<2d;roabg  Se&en  ©emitters  Schwab's  'Life  of  Schiller/ 9fomfe8  ©tfcfytcfyte  ter 
romifcfyeit  $a'pfle.  The  dependent  gen.  should  not  be  cut  off  from 
the  noun  upon  which  it  depends :  2)ie  Qlntyangltcfyfeit  fa'mtlicfyer  Qtn* 
gcjleUten  an  mid?  (not  bie  5lnt)a'nglid)feit  an  mid;  fa'mtticfyer  Q(ngeflettten) 
the  attachment  of  all  the  employees  to  me.  A  gen.  dependent 
upon  a  gen.  should  follow  it,  except  that  sometimes  a  dependent 
gen.  of  a  noun  denoting  a  person  can  precede  a  governing  fern,  or  a 
plural :  bie  ©efd;id)te  ber  ©rbauung  ber  ©tabt,  tro£  beg  £?erboteg  beg  ©oftorg, 
roafyrenb  ber  Jtranffjeit  metneg  8'reunbeg,  or  roci()renb  metneg  5reUnteg  Jlranf* 
t)eit.  (So  Iang'8  baran  tttd;t  mangelt  unb  an  fnfdjem  2)fut,  lad;'  id;  ber  5'urften 
«§errfd;fud)t  unb  Sddnfe  (Goethe's  Gotz,  i,  2).  A  gen.  of  a  noun  denoting 
a  person  may  also  precede  a  modified  governing  substantive :  trofc 
25eltcng  naferoetfen,  un»erfd;timten  (SinrebenS,  tro§  ber  5rau  Qlmalte  abtte^renben 
Jlopffd;uttelng  unb  J}dd;elng  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs,  p.  41). 

The  governing  noun  is  usually  omitted  in  such  expressions  as 
fcei  SWiUlerg  ;  see  93.  i.  a. 

The  attributive  genitive  expresses  different  classes  of  ideas  briefly 
described  in  the  following  articles.  These  categories  are  not  all 
peculiar  to  the  attributive  use,  but  several  of  them  are  found  in  the 
genitive  which  is  used  in  connection  with  verbs,  adjectives,  and 
participles.  On  the  other  hand,  the  peculiar  genitive  which  is 
employed  in  connection  with  certain  verbs  is  also  used  with  nouns 
derived  from  these  verbs,  as  explained  in  I,  below. 


512  SYNTAX  255.  II.  1.  A. 

A.  Genitive  of  Origin,  denoting  source,  cause,  authorship : 
(2of)n  beg  8urften,bie-ftinber  btefer  8rau,bte  0tact?fommen  5t6ral?amg,  bie 

beg  <£erfuleg,  bie  QSernniftungen  jtceter  .Srieggiafyre,  ©oeti)eg  8'ciufl,  <£d?tflerg 
SBerfe.  This  same  idea  is  found  in  the  genitive  used  in  the  predicate 
with  the  verbs  in  252. 2.  A.  c. 

a.  This  one  use  of  this  case  form  has  given  to  it  the  name  of  genitive 
(from  Latin  genitivus  pertaining  to  generation  or  birth),  which  has  become 
a  fixed  name  not  only  for  this  use,  but  also  for  all  the  following  relations 
expressed  by  the  same  case  form. 

B.  Possessive  Genitive,  denoting  possession,  inherence,  a  belonging 
to,  association  with,  or  relation  to  :  £)ag  >§aug  metneg  SBruberg,  bie  %Bct&< 
tyeit  beg  (sofrateg,  ber  2)?ut  beg  «§elben,  bie  SStatter  beg  SBaiimeg,  bie  ©trafjen 
ber  <£tabt,  bie  $iu)Ie  beg  Qlfcenbg,  ber  (Scfynee  ber  Qllpen,  bie  ^amerabeit  beg 
©olbaten,  bag  ^aupt  beg  (stammeS,  ber  SBitrgermeijier  ber  (Stabt,  ber  Qkter 
beg  Jtinbeg.     This  is  a  very  productive  category  from  which  have 
probably  sprung  A,  C,  F,  G.    The  same  idea  is  found  in  the  genitive 
used  in  the  predicate  with  the  group  of  verbs  in  252. 2.  A.  c. 

a.  In   English  we  here  sometimes  use  the  objective  after  the  prep.  to, 
where  in  German  the  gen.  should  be  employed:  (£ie  tjl  eine  @d>n>efter  meinet 
erften  8rau   She  is  a  sister  to  my  first  wife.     Sometimes  it  is  possible  in 
German  to  use  either  gen.  or  dat.  with  a  slight  shade  of  difference  :   em 
93atcr  bet  Slvmen,  or  more  impressively  ben  2lrmen  ein  ^ater  a  father  to  the  poor. 
Sometimes  in  both  German  and  English  there  is  a  marked  difference  of 
meaning  between  the  dat.  and  gen. :  bent  Cerfctgten  ein  ?fceuirt>  a  friend  to  the 
persecuted  man,  but  ein  Qrennb  t>e3  33erfo(gtcn  a  friend  of  the  persecuted  man. 
When  the  modifying  word  is  a  pronoun  the  gen.  must  in  all  these  cases  be  re- 
placed by  the  prepositional  construction  with  »on  or  ^u ;  see  229.  2,  ^u,  II.  l.B.£. 

b.  The  gen.  must  be  replaced  by  the  dat.  with  »on  in  case  of  names  of 
places  ending  in  a  sibilant  ;  see  86.  2.  e. 

c.  The  gen.  is  often  replaced  by  the  appositional  construction  in  case  of 
proper  nouns  ;  see  94.  3.  A.  c. 

d.  If  a  dependent  genitive  which   precedes  its  governing  noun  is  itself 
modified   by  other   attributive    elements    containing  nouns,   each  element 
maintains  its  own  syntactical  force  and  its  own  proper  inflection,  while  in 
English  the  different  elements  are  considered  as  forming  a  compound,  and 
hence  the  s  is  added  at  the  end  of  the  compound,  even  though  the  last 
component  to  which  the  s  is  added  is  in  fact  in  the  objective  case  after  the 
prep,  of:  Sicfev  eine  irar  X\l(  @ulenftnege(,  beg  <&er$oi}$  »on  Skaunfcfyttxig  ^cfnarc 
(Lienhard's   Till  Eulenspiegel,  Der   Fremde)   This  one  was   the   duke  of 
Brunswick's  court-fool. 

C.  Subjective  Genitive,  which  denotes  the  agent  from  whom  the 
action  proceeds :  bie  Otuge  beg  Sefyrerg  the  reproof  that  comes  from 
the  teacher,  bie  £te6e  einer  9)?iitter,  ber  ©efang  ber  936gel. 

D.  Objective  Genitive,  which  denotes  the  object  toward  which  the 
activity  is  directed  :   bie  @r$iet)ung  ber  Jlinber  the  education  of  the 
children,  bie  (Srbauung  beg  «§aufeg. 

a.  This  objective  gen.  is  limited  in  general  to  those  substantives  that 
contain  a  verbal  stem  which  has  a  pronounced  transitive  force  :  bie  (SrfuKung 
(from  evfutten  to  fulfil)  ber  5J?fltd)t.  Earlier  in  the  period  verbal  nouns  in 
general,  even  though  they  did  not  have  pronounced  transitive  force,  could 
take  an  objective  gen.,  while  to-day  a  prepositional  object  is  either  required 


255.II.LD.C.     THE  ATTRIBUTIVE  GENITIVE  513 

or  is  much  more  common,  except  in  poetry,  where  older  usage  still  lingers  : 
&bet  id)  fenne  eud)  |  bag  jr  ntdjt  ©ctteg  Uebe  [now  in  prose  Stebe  ju  ©ott]  in  eudj 
Ijabt  (John  v.  42).  Unb  iibetatt  ....  fanb  id)  ben  gletrfjen  £afj  bet  [in  plain  prose 
gegen  bte]  $i)tamtet  (Schiller's  Tell,  2,  2).  3d)  fttttt  aug  £ag  ber  <£tabte  unb  ntdfyt 
um  euren  !Danf  (Uhland's  Z?rV  D'ojfinger  Schlachi).  Older  usage,  however,  is 
still  the  rule  in  compounds :  2ftcnfd)enltebe,  3JJenfd)enl)ajj ,  &c. 

A  verbal  noun  formed  from  a  verb  governing  a  gen.  or  dat.  cannot  take 
an  objective  gen.,  but  where  such  verbs  are  also  used  with  an  ace.  and 
hence  are  also  felt  as  transitive  verbs  the  objective  gen.  can  of  course  be 
used :  ber  ©enufi  (from  gemejjen  with  gen.  or  ace.)  beg  SBeineg,  bet  SXtjjbtaud) 
amtltdjet  <£tellung  ;  bie  (Stinnerung  beg  gletdjen  <£d)icffalg  (Goethe's  Jphigenie,  5,  3), 
or  more  commonly  bte  (Sttnnetung  an  bag  gtcidje  ©djuffal.  The  gen.  in  the 
last  example  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  instead  of  fid)  (ace.)  etinnern 
with  gen.  the  simple  verb  is  sometimes  used  with  a  direct  object :  (St  etimtette 
erne  SSitte  (Goethe).  £>eiitttd)  ermnete  id)  fein  ®ejtd)t  (Frenssen's  Das  Heimats- 
fest,  2,  5).  The  gen.  after  (Sttnnetung  may  be  explained  in  another  way  ;  see 
I,  below. 

Throughout  the  period  attempts  have  been  repeatedly  made  to  extend 
this  usage  to  verbal  nouns  made  from  verbs  which  govern  the  dative,  which 
practice  is  quite  generally  condemned  by  grammarians :  35ajj  et  mid)  wit 
(Sntfagung  feinet  eignen  ©liirffeltgfett  gliirflid)  gemadjt  fyabe  (Lessing,  2,  40).  S3on 
jenet  etjhunengnriitbtgen  Sntfagung  bet  Jlrone  (Schiller,  4,  93).  Very  commonly 
in  case  of  £>tenfl :  bet  Sienft  ©otteg  (Goethe),  ©ottegbienfl.  (Sine  (Sntfagung  a((cg 
beffen,  ivag  man  btgfjet  geliebt  unb  fut  gut  befunben  T;at  (Goethe).  3ebet  won  ben  40 
Slfabemifetn  in  $arig  I)at  »on  bet  93ein?of)nung  cinet  @effion  etnen  ©tlbetpfennig 
(Jean  Paul's  Teufelspapiere,  I,  10).  Also  in  the  language  of  our  time:  jut 
$bfyUfe  bet  bringmbften  SSeburfntfie,  jut  (Steuerung  beg  Unfugg,  bte  93ei»o^nung  beg 
SJlanowg,  &c.  Some  of  these  expressions  are  difficult  to  avoid,  but  gram- 
marians recommend  a  change  of  word  or  recourse  to  a  prep,  phrase :  jut 
fflefriebtgung  bet  btingenbfien  aSeburfniffe.  dt  jutnt  nut,  but  fetn  3»nt  uuf  mid).  @te 
totbetflanben  ben  Qioment,  but  i^t  2Biberflanb  gegen  bte  9iomer.  (St  entfagt  bem  'X^rone, 
but  bte  (Sntfagung  auf  9lnfprud)e,  also  in  the  form  of  a  true  compound,  as  in 
Xfjronentfagung.  The  genitive  after  (Sntfagung,  as  in  the  example  given  above, 
may  be  explained  in  another  way,  namely,  according  to  I,  below,  as  the 
reflexive  construction  is  also  sometimes  used  :  (Sntfagen  @ie  fid;  im  guten  allet 
2lnfpriid)e  (Lessing's  Die gliickliche  Erbtn,  I,  2). 

Verbal  nouns  made  from  verbs  requiring  a  prep,  object  usually  retain  the 
same  prep,  construction :  (St  fpottet  uber  ben  Slrmm  and  bet  <Spott  fiber  ben 
Sltmen. 

b.  Sometimes  after  trans,  verbal  stems  the  context  alone  shows  whether 
the  subjective  or  objective  gen.  is  meant :  bte  8tcbe  ©otteg  the  love  that  comes 
from  God,  or  now  less  commonly  our  love  for  God.    The  use  of  a  possessive 
before  a  governing  noun  or  of  some  appropriate  preposition  instead  of  the 
genitive  will  usually  distinguish  the  objective  gen.  from  the  subjective  :  Seine 
ikradjtung  bet  2J?cnfdjen  his  contempt  for  men,  bte  Stebe  ju  ©ott  love  to  God, 
bet  Jpafj  gegen  ben  itytannen.     The  subjective  gen.  can  be  distinguished  by 
placing  it  before  the  noun  that  is  to  be  modified,  except  in  case  of  relative 
pronouns,  which  must  always  precede  even  when  used  as  object :    ©otteg 
Stebe  love  that  comes  from  God;  but  also  2)iefeg  iSorurtett,  befien  (objective  gen.) 
S3efamvfung  ung  fdjon  vtel  SUhTfye  gefojht  fyat  This  prejiidice,  the  combating  of 
which  has  already  cost  us  a  good  deal  of  trouble.     If  there  are  two  genitives, 
one  a  subjective,  the  other  an  objective  gen.,  the  latter  is  usually  replaced 
by  a  prep,  phrase,  or  enters  into  a  compound  with  the  governing  noun : 
!Die  3ktad)tung  bet  (Ifyrtften  gegen  ben  £ob,  or  very  frequently  bte  2cbeg»«rad)tung 
bet  (Sfyrtflen  the  contempt  of  the  Christians  for  death. 

c.  A  personal  pronoun  rarely  stands  in  the  objective  gen.      Some  other 
construction  must  usually  here  be  chosen :  bie  Siebe  ju  tljut  or  gegen  it;n  love 

Ll 


514  SYNTAX  255.  II.  1.  D.  c. 

for  him.  However,  the  objective  gen.  of  a  personal  pronoun  is  quite  common 
where  it  is  used  as  a  reflexive  pronoun  :  33ef)errf$ung  fetner  felbjl  control  of 
himself,  bag  ©efufyl  fetner  felbji.  @o  fann  bttrdj  ba«  Dpfer  unferer  felbfl  i»enia,i1eng 
2Betb  iinb  Jtinb  gerettet  toevben  (Sudermann's  Teja,  5). 

Also  nouns  rarely  stand  in  the  objective  gen.  in  those  cases  where  they  are 
without  an  article,  such  as  abstract  nouns  denoting  materials  when  used  in  a 
partitive  sense.  The  gen.  is  here  replaced  by  von  with  dat. :  2Kcnfd)enbeburfnig 
fottnte  jumeift  ofyne  inet  2Mtten  auf  ein  SsBorfefcen  uon  ©petfe  unb  £tunf  recfynen  (Jen- 
sen's Das  Bild  im  Wasser,  chap.  i). 

E.  Genitive  of  Material,  denoting  that  of  which  something  con- 
sists :  ettt  ©cfymucf  beg  feinfien  ©olbeg,  ber  (Strom  fetner  ©ebanfen,  ein  2)ad? 
fcfyattenber  33ucf)en  a  roof  of  shady  beeches,  ber  S^eige  lautrigeg  ©itter 
the  leafy  trellis-work  of  the  branches,     llngern  oermiff '  ic&  Ujjn  bod), 
ben  alien  fattunenen  <S<fyIafrocf  |  ed)t  oftinbtfc^en  ©top  (Goethe's  H.  u.  D., 
I,  33-4).    £>ie  <Sonne  fcerftnft  tytnter  etner  SOBe^r  reet§er  SSerge  im  SSefien 
(Ernst  Zahn's  Wie  dem  Kaplan  Longintus  die  Welt  aufging).     This 
category  is  closely  related  to  H. 

a.  The  gen.  here  is  not  common  in  plain  prose,  and  is  now  largely  confined 
to  figurative  or  poetic  language.  In  prose  the  gen.  is  usually  replaced  by 
»on  ;  see  in  229.  2,  the  prep."  »on,./C 

F.  Genitive  of  Quality  or  Characteristic :  SCBaren  erfler  ©itte  goods 
of  the  best  quality,  S5inge  biefer  5lrt  things  of  this  sort,  etner  feineS 

one  of  his  stamp,  stripe,  ein  2J?ann  ber  Sat,  eine  £>rofd)fe  jrcetter 
e,  ein  $ferb  atafcifcfyer  Sftaffe,  ein  SBer!  ber  93armf)erjigfett.  @8  ^anbelt 
letber  urn  5)tnge  beg  fcttterfien  (SrnjleS.  ©eruc^te  flnb  in  llmlauf  gefefct 
rtorben  beg  Sn^altS,  baf ,  &c.  Reports  have  been  set  in  circulation  to 
the  effect  that,  &c.  This  same  idea  is  found  in  the  genitive  used  in 
the  predicate  with  the  verbs  in  252. 2.  A.  c. 

•  a.  The  gen.  is  here  often  replaced  by  the  dat.  with  son :  Saren  »on  »er< 
fdjtebener  ©itte,  ein  SSetb  »ou  fdjoner  ©efialt,  &c. 

G.  Appositive  or  Specifying  Genitive :  ber  fte^Ier  beg  5trgn;o^ng  the 
fault  of  always  entertaining  mistrust,  bag  Safier  ber  Srunf  fitdjt  the  vice 
of  intemperance.     Srtebrtcfy  ber  ftntitt  er^telt  ben  SSeinamen  beg  ©rofen. 
2)te  ©leicf^ett  ber  (in,  with  respect  to)  ® eftnnung  ifl  bag  feflefle  9Banb  ber 
Sreunbfcfyaft.    2)ie  3cit  ber  j?reu$juge  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 

a.  Also  the  appositional  construction  can   here  be  used,  the 
appositive  agreeing  with  the  preceding  word  in  case  or  standing 
in  the  nom.,  cut  off  by  quotation  marks :  bie  bofen  @ttten,  SKitjjigqang 
unb  Srunfenljett.     (Sr  fyat  ben  Seamen  l(Jtletner  <Sc^alf"  er^alten.      The 
appositional  construction  is  the  rule  with  proper  names :  bie  ©tabt 
Berlin  the  city  of  Berlin,  bag  Jlonigreicfy  ^reufjen  the  kingdom   of 
Prussia,  ber  SKonat  5Kai,  or  simply  ber  2ftat  the  month  of  May,  or  simply 
May,  &c. 

b.  This  gen.  is  often  replaced  by  an  infin.  with  ju :  Die  Jtitnft  ju 
fc^reiben  rear  ben  %^tern  (Egyptians)  befannt.     The  infinitive  phrase 
is  more  natural  than  the  gen.  of  a  noun  where  the  dependent  word 
has  an  object,  predicate,  or  adverbial  modifier,  as  it  admits  of  greater 
freedom  of  movement,  and  can  be  made  to  convey  the  thought  of 
a  complete  proposition :  auf  bem  9Bege  ber  33efferung,  but  Derfdjiebene 


255.  II.  1.  H.«.     THE  ATTRIBUTIVE  GENITIVE  515 

SBege  £>eutfd)  ju  treifcen,  ber  9Seg  teid)  jit  trerben,  ber  Ieid)tefte  3Beg  311111  SRuljnt 
ju  gelangen.  Unter  alien  fldglidjen  Sftoflen  gibt  eS  feine  fldglidjere  alS  bte 
me^r  jit  gelten  af3  ju  fetn(Mommsen's/?6'w/5c/!g  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  x). 
The  ju  in  this  construction  had  originally  its  literal  meaning  of 
designating  a  goal,  end,  purpose,  result,  as  can  still  be  seen  in  the 
examples  with  9Bcg.  To-day,  however,  this  original  idea  is  little 
felt,  as  the  ju  has  become  a  mere  form  to  join  an  appositive  to 
a  noun  or  pronoun,  as  in  the  first  and  the  last  example.  For  the 
present  method  of  expressing  the  ideas  of  purpose  and  result  see 
IV.  2.  a,  below. 

H.  Partitive  Genitive,  denoting  the  whole,  of  which  only  a  part 
is  taken  :  bie  <§dlfte  meineS  '-BermogenS,  ber  erfte  $erg  beg  SiebeS,  eine  5lafd)e 
beg  beflen  3Betn3,  etner  meiner  ^ameraben.  Unter  ber  ^eljmufce  ;;etgt  fid)  ein 
fteiner  £etl  eineS  gutmiitigen,  gebrdunten  ©eftd)tg.  The  same  idea  is  found 
in  the  genitive  used  with  the  verbs  in  260.  See  also  c,  below. 

a.  In  case  of  common  nouns  after  the  indefinite  pronominal  ad- 
jectives, indefinite  pronouns,  and  nouns  denoting  weight,  measure, 
extent,  or  quantity,  also  in  case  of  certain  proper  names,  this  gen. 
has  in  the  language  of  every  day  usually  gone  over  into  the 
appositional  construction.  This  important  construction  is  treated 
at  length  in  145  (read  carefully  the  Notes  there  under  b,  c,  e,  ft  g) 
and  04.  3.  A,  and  b  thereunder.  Attention  is  called  here  to  the 
peculiar  word-order  often  found  in  this  appositional  construction 
when  the  word  indicating  the  part  is  a  noun  denoting  an  indefinite 
amount,  or  more  commonly  an  indefinite  pronoun.  The  word 
denoting  the  whole  may  precede  the  word  denoting  the  part,  and 
often  introduces  the  proposition :  (£3  ift  233ein  bie  2JJenge  ba.  (goldje 
jyefyler  fbnnen  bie  SWenge  int  $Uniu3  fein  (Lessing).  ^armontfc^eg  ®eton 
war  irenig  bafcei  (Raabe's  Horn  von  Wanza,  xvi).  £)a8  (i.  e.  Qlcfy,  bu  bifi 
ja  etn  bummer  3nnge)  fagt  er  and)  (miner,  unb  Mntnjort  ifi'8  bod?  feine  (Maria 
Janitschek's  Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  xviii).  ®dfte  n?aren  irentge  ba  (Ertl's 
Walpurgd).  ©efa^r  ifl  nid)  bte  @pur  (Paul  Keller's  Waldwinter,  xiv). 
<Sd)roein  ^a6e  id?  feineS  (Suttner's  Im  Bcrghause,  p.  10).  <Sd)merj 
cm^fanb  id)  feinen  (Isolde  Kurz's  Nachbar  Werner).  2tftt  bent  Jtletngelb 
^a^ert'g,  ba§  ifl  metn  atteS  libel,  unb  gro§e3  f)at>'  id)  feing  angurei§en  (Halbe's 
Der  Strom,  p.  19).  3lfcer  ®elb  fte^t  man  fetnS!  (Karl  SchOnherr's 
Sonnwendtag,  p.  9).  ©orgen  iraud)t  er  fid;  feine  311  mad?en  (Ertl's  Aus- 
wandcrcr).  $$nUdje  ©efdn'djten  gtbt  e8  unj(di)[tge  (H.  Seidel's  Hunde- 
geschichtcn).  The  word-order  in  a  number  of  these  sentences  in- 
dicates clearly  that  the  word  denoting  the  whole  is  no  longer  felt 
as  belonging  to  the  substantive  in  an  attributive  relation,  but  that 
it  is  felt  as  the  subject  or  object  of  the  verb.  As  the  subject  it 
regulates  the  number  of  the  verb,  as  in  the  sentence  from  Lessing. 
As  an  emphatic  object  it  may  introduce  the  proposition  causing 
inversion,  as  in  the  sentence  from  Suttner  and  the  examples 
following  it.  This  construction  which  is  flourishing  so  vigorously 
in  German  was  also  once  common  in  English  :  But  there  is  gold 
and  silver  gret  plentee  (Mandeville).  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none 
(Acts  iii.  6). 

A  pronoun  dependent  upon  these  groups  of  words,  however,  less 

Ll2 


516  SYNTAX  255.  II.  1.  H.  a. 

commonly  takes  the  appositional  construction.  It  is  either  placed  in 
the  dat.  after  fcon  (see  b,  below),  or  it  may  still  follow  the  old  usage 
and  stand  in  the  gen.,  especially  when  it  precedes  the  governing 
word :  @g  rcaren  ifyrer  mefyr  alg  tyunbert  There  were  more  than  a 
hundred  of  them.  3fyrer  finb  ntet)t  alg  unfer  There  are  more  of  them 
than  there  are  of  us.  SBie  iriel  ftnb  unferer  ?  (Schiller's  Rduber,  2.,  3). 
But  also  the  appositional  construction  occurs  here :  3e  mefjr  rctr  ftnD, 
befto  fceffer  the  more  of  us  there  are,  the  better.  3§r  fefyt  etnen  2Hamt 
icte  anbcre  nietyr  (Goethe).  (Sg  rcare  jit  rciinfrfjen,  bap  eg  mefor  ©iegfyubler 
(name)  ga&e :  eg  gi&t  afcer  mefyr  anbere  (Fontane's  Effi,  XXIX).  SSic 
fmb  ja  nur  nod?  fo  irenige  fceifammen !  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogelsangs, 
p.  119).  QBir  ftnb  jefyn.  2Gte  Stele  ftnb  rctt  benn?  (Storm's  Der  Herr 
Etatsrat,  p.  216).  3eber  meiner  Sreunbe,  jeber  Don  ung  (the  gen.  not 
now  used  in  case  of  personal  pronouns),  or  with  the  appositional 
construction  :  SSenn  nrir  jeber  ling  gekn,  roie  n?ir  ftnb,  iinb  tun,  rcag  unfer 
©erriffen  ung  oorfc^retbt,  njtrb'g  ja  irofyt  bag  3fte^te  fetn  (Telmann's  Wahrheit, 
XXIV).  The  genitive  and  appositional  constructions  are  sometimes 
combined :  <§te  noaren  i^rer  elf  ©efdjnjijier,  jrcif^en  jjieritnb^angtg  unb 
jirei  3af)ren  (Kolnische  Zeitung).  <£o  ivciren  rrtr  unfer  ge^n  (Fontane's 
Vor  dem  Sturm,  II,  chap.  15).  5l6er  icte  njentge  ftnb  unferer  benn  rcir, 
icenn  wir  bie  ungefyeure  2)Jenf^ett  bagegen  feetrac^ten?  (Telmann's  Wahr- 
heit,  v).  The  possessive  is  often  in  colloquial  language  used  in 
connection  with  the  appositional  construction :  2Sor  atteu  2)ingeu 
icaren  fte  i^re  giuan^ig  (Sudermann's  Der  Sturmgeselle  Sokrates,  i,  9). 

In  general  after  measures  the  gen.  of  nouns  is  much  more 
common  in  the  pi.  than  in  the  sing.  Goethe's  expression  ein  ©lag 
beg  ecfyten  SSeineg  (instead  of  edjter  2Bein,  or  oon  extern  9Bein)  now  sounds 
somewhat  choice,  although  we  still  quite  commonly  say  eine  2)ieno,e 
fteinerer  Stofyr^ug*.  The  gen.  sing,  of  a  noun  modified  by  an  adjective 
is  still  in  choice  language  not  altogether  infrequent  here,  but  the 
gen.  of  an  unmodified  noun  is  now  obsolete  in  prose :  @r  a§  faft 
nicfytg  unb  tranf  $rcei  ©lafer  fcfereeren  SCBeing  (Maria  Janitschek's  Liebes- 
wunder,  viii),  but  now  always  ein  ©lag  2Bein,  ein  <5cfylucf  93ter. 

In  a  choice  style  the  gen.  still  occurs  after  pronominal  adjectives, 
expressing  the  idea  of  number,  and  used  substantively,  as  described 
in  130.  3.  i.  Note,  but  very  rarely  after  indefinite  pronouns  ex- 
pressing the  idea  of  amount,  which  now  usually  require  the  apposi- 
tional construction,  although  the  gen.  was  much  used  earlier  in  the 
period,  and  survives  in  a  few  set  expressions  (see  139.  3.  i.  Note) : 
Jffio  Sriet  SBeig^eit  tjl  \  ba  iji  tttel  gremeng  (©ra'meng)— Eccles.  i.  18.  2Wit 
nic^tg  ©utem  (not  now  ©titeg  as  formerly). 

If  the  noun  dependent  upon  a  pronominal  adjective,  or  any  mea- 
sure, or  weight  is  modified  by  an  article  or  pronominal  adj.,  it  must 
usually  stand  in  the  partitive  gen.  or  in  the  dat.  after  the  prep,  con 
or  unter  :  £>ie  o&ere  «§dlfte  beg  33ergeg;  mete  btefer  33iicfyer,  or  Don  biefen 
23ticfyern,  or  unter  biefen  SBucfyetn;  ein  $funb  biefer  ^irfc^en,  or  t»on 
biefen  ^irfcften.  For  an  exception  see  94.  3.  A,  last  paragraph. 
The  partitive  gen.  is  also  still  much  used  after  comparatives, 
superlatives,  and  ordinals :  bie  beffern  meiner  <§cfyuler ;  bie  fceflen  meiner 
;  bcr  erfte,  ber  jiteite,  ber  le|te  ber  Jllaffe. 


255.II.1.H.C.     THE  ATTRIBUTIVE  GENITIVE  517 

Note.  Observe  that  in  case  of  the  relative  pronoun,  resembling  the  Latin  and 
differing  from  the  English,  the  partitive  construction  is  replaced  by  the  appositional, 
when  all  are  embraced  in  the  statement :  qui  omnes  =  bte  (or  hjelt^e)  ttUe  =  all  of 
whom.  For  further  examples  see  139.  I.  d,  Notes  I  and  2  (i). 

b.  The  gen.  is  here  often  replaced  by  the  prep,  construction  of 
Don  w.  dat,  which  emphasizes  more  sharply  the  partitive  idea;  see 
last  of  a,  above,  and  also  the  prep.  t>on,  /  in  229.  2. 

c.  A  partitive  gen.  or  much  more  frequently  a  dat.  after  the  prep, 
fcon  is  sometimes  used  independently  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  the 
apparent  subject,  predicate,  or  object  of  the  verb,  to  indicate  that 
the  thing  or  things  in  question  should  be  considered  as  a  part  of 
a  whole,  or  as  individuals  of  a  species.     The  latter  construction  is 
of  French  origin.     It  was  quite  common  in  the  eighteenth  century 
and  is  not  infrequent  in  the  colloquial  speech  of  our  own  time,  but 
it  is  now  in  general  avoided  in  choice  language. 

As  subject :  3lu3  5lriftopf)ane§  laffen  ftcb,  ifyret  nadjroeifen  (J.  Grimm) 
Some  (monologues)  can  be  found  in  Aristophanes.  £>ort  jetgte  ftd?, 
felbjt  rco  fte  Son  (Sicbenfyolj  rear,  bie  23elattung  unb  SSerfcfyalung  ganoid? 
morfcfy ;  itnb  foldjer  (Steflen  icaren  ii&erafl  (Lud wig's  Zwischen  Himmel 
und  Erde,  III),  ©eftern,  benft,  gingen  »on  fetnen  Lenten  fcotbet  (Goethe's 
Egmont,  i,  3)  Just  think,  yesterday  some  of  his  men  went  by.  (53 
rear  »on  £utfyerg  ©eift  unb  sfoannfyeit  auf  ijjn  iibergegangen  (Alexis).  2)ann 
ftetyt  ba  trotyl  aucfy  tton  (something  about)  ben  Ulricas  (family)  brtn  (i.e.  in 
bem  93uc^)?  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  13).  Notice  that  the  verb  is  in 
the  singular  or  plural  according  as  the  reference  is  to  an  indefinite 
quantity  or  an  indefinite  number. 

As  predicate :  £>a§  jtnb  etnmal  rcicber  »on  euern  <2>treid?en  (Kotzebue). 

As  object.  The  gen.  is  not  infrequent  here  in  poetic  language : 
£)cm  Granger  Jefct,  bem  gro$en,  gte^t  -jfeoptolem  beg  Sfieing  (Schiller's 
Siegesfest).  SSetl  i^  betneg  SBeing  »erfc^md^te  (Kleist's  Kdthchen,  i,  i). 
SBie ...  |  unb  jte  nun  fam,  be8  D^ferraurtjg  gu  ftreun  (Grillparzer's  Des 
Meeres  und  der  Liebe  Wellen,  2).  Also  in  prose  in  case  of  pro- 
nominal objects  :  2lber  e3  gait  i^rer,  unb  gar  nic^t  ttenige  (Raabe's  Horn 
von  Wanza,  chap.  9)  But  there  were  such  people  and,  &c.  More 
common  than  the  gen.  is  t>on  -f  dat. :  2>ie  ^rauenjiminei;  fdumten  nid^t, 
bon  i^ren  fleinen  ^aarfdmmen  ^inein^ulegen  (Goethe).  91imm  ben  JteUer* 
f^Iuffet  unb  ^ol'  Dom  fceften  2Bein  (id.,  Gotz,  i,  3).  Seiner  bafiir  (o  ban! baren 
SCitree  fc^reib'  ic^  atle  Safyre  noc^  cinmal,  fd)ide  i^r  aucfy  »on  meinen  (Sac^en 
(T.  Storm  an  G.  Keller,  3.  Jan.  1882).  -§err  Dmnia  Ijatte  fofort 
einen  ftI6ernen  9Bect)er  Bet  ber  <£anb  unb  6ot  ben  £>amen  »on  ber  flaren  Slut 
(H.  Seidel's  Herr  Omnia,  II).  S)er  ^farrer  fott  «on  unfernt  SBetn 
^robieren  (Hauptmann's  Versunkene  Glocke,  Act  3).  (£r  n?ar  in  Jtatro 
bei  ©ngtdnbern,  ben  unbeflrittenen  SWeifiern  beS  ©ports,  in  bte  ©cfyule  gegangen, 
wd^renb  fte  felbfl,  blo§  mit  minbenrertigen  @))ielern  fpielenb,  tton  i^rer  frit^eren 
^ertigfeit  eingebii§t  fyatte  (Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan  ?,  vi). 

The  partitive  gen.  occurs  frequently  throughout  the  period  as 
subject  or  as  object  in  connection  with  the  negative  mdjt,  where 
originally  nicfyt  was  a  substantive  and  was  the  real  subject  or  object 
and  the  gen.  a  partitive  gen.  depending  upon  it  (see  145.  g. 
Note  2) :  ^Benn  id)  mit  SWenfcfyen*  unb  mit  (Sngetjungen  rebete  unb  tyd tte  ber 


518  SYNTAX  255.  II.  1.  H.C. 

Siebe  nid)t  (i  Cor.  xiii.  i,  revised  ed.).  As  the  original  force  of  the 
negative  nidjt  is  not  now  felt,  the  gen.  is  now  retained  as  object  or 
subject  of  the  verb  in  the  positive  form  of  statement  in  a  few 
expressions  :  3>e£t,  ba  id)  ber  £tebe  (after  the  analogy  of  the  language 
in  i  Cor.  xiii.  i)  tyabe,  ofyne  tie  nnr  ein  tonenbeS  @rj  unb  eine  flingenbe 
€>diette  flnb  —  e3  ift  feltfam,  irie  gan$  id)  je£t  ein  anberer  getrorben  bin! 
(Otto  Ernst's  Aus  verborgenen  Tiefen,  p.  39).  2Ba3  nnr  reiffen,  ifl 
aflein,  ba§  nnfreS  5Banbel3  (after  the  analogy  of  the  negative  form  of 
statement  in  <§ier  ifl  tueineS  SBletbenS  nid)t ;  see  145.  g.  Note  2)  auf 
@rben  ifl  (Telmann's  Wahrheit,  XII).  As  explained  in  139.  3.  i. 
Note,  the  partitive  gen.  is  used  after  fein  in  certain  set  expressions 
as  subject  or  object  of  the  verb  :  Qlud?  ifl  tyier  fetn  SBeflnnenS  (Goethe) 
There  is  also  here  no  time  for  reflection,  but  also  :  Sta  gilt  aud?  fetn 
langeS  SBefinnen  (id.).  @8  mar  fetn  fattens  ntefyr  There  was  no  stop- 
ping them,  but  also  @§  rear  eben  fein  <§alten  meijr  (P.  Heyse,  8,  345). 
Also  in  questions  with  negative  force  :  9Bte  redre  ba  «£alten8  gereefen  ! 
(Immermann,  12,  53).  Also  the  partitive  gen.  ^ebertefeng,  which  was 
originally  dependent  upon  iriet,  and  is  still  frequently  so  used,  as  in 
ol)ne  sriel  5eberlefen8  (Ertl's  Walpurgd)  without  much  ceremony,  making 
short  work  of  it,  is  no  longer  vividly  felt  as  a  genitive,  and  can  be 
used  without  oiet  as  an  accusative :  ^ein  «§uffcfymteb  fcrticfyte  je  fetn  (Sifen 
runb,  |  mad)t'  er  mtt  fol^en  SBitbd?en  ^eberlefenS  (Hauptmann's  Die  ver- 
sunkene  Glocke,  4).  Except  in  the  cases  mentioned  above  and 
,  the  few  expressions  given  in  145.  £•.  Note  2  this  gen.  is  now  rare, 
aside  from  the  words  £>tngg  and  3eu98  (see  83),  which  were  originally 
in  the  gen.  depending  upon  some  word  as  otel,  ntdjt,  wag,  but  are  no 
longer  felt  as  genitives. 

Sometimes  an  w.  dat.  is  used  as  an  object :  (Sin  tanger  3SofaI  ober 
eine  flarfe  ^onfonanten^aufttng  in  ber  9^a^e  einer  betonten  (Silfce  erforbert  ^u 
t^rer  Qtu§fprad)e  eine  grofj ere  Jtraft  al8  eine  ganj  fur^e  <SiI6e ;  unb  fte  ent^te^t 
ba^er  bent  9lf$ent  ber  fcetonten  @iI6e  an  \Kraft  (Minor's  Metrik,  p.  59, 
ist  ed.).  5t£tma^Iid)  tierloren  bte  (Sterne  an  tijrem  ®Ian^  (Jensen's  Heim- 
kunft,  I). 

In  many  of  these  cases  the  gen.  or  prep,  phrase  can  still  be  freely 
used  if  we  supply  some  pronoun,  as  etrcag,  etnige,  &c.,  upon  which 
the  gen.  or  phrase  may  depend. 

I.  Nouns  formed  from  reflexive  verbs  which  take  a  genitive 
object,  as  ftd)  einer  <Sad?e  fcema'cfyttgen,  may  also  take  a  genitive  object, 
but  drop,  according  to  240.  II.  2.  G,  the  reflexive  pronoun: 
burd)  a3emtid)ttgung  eineg  @trome8  (Lohenstein's  Arminius,  i,  3),  corre- 
sponding to  @r  bemdcfytigte  ftd;  eineS  (StromeS ;  freiwtttige  ^Begebung  atter 
S'reuben  unb  23equemltd;feiten  biefeg  Sebeng(Joh.  Mart.  Miller's  Siegwart, 
i,  30),  corresponding  to  @r  begab  ftd)  atter  ^reuben  biefeS  SebenS ;  btefe 
faft  gdnjltd^e  (Sntauferung  ber  £etbenfd)aft  (Goethe),  corresponding  to  @r 
entaufjerte  fid)  ber  JJeibenfd;aft ;  btefe  (gntfyaltung  atter  getftigen  ©etranfe, 
corresponding  to  @r  ent^tett  fid)  atter  getfligen  ©etrdnfe.  2)iefe  @ntfd)dbig* 
itngen  ....  ftnb  biirftige  ©ntlebigungen  ber  3Serbinblid)feit  ber  ©efettfd^aft 
gegen  fte  (Fichte,  6,  33).  £)urd?  fein  «§trn  jurfte  bte  ©rtnnerung  ber  3eit 
(Spielhagen's  Faustulus,  p.  i).  @3  fommt  bet  feiner  Qlrbett  fe^r  aitf  eine 
gro§erer  ^itrje  an  (Georg  Edward).  There  is  a  tendency  to 


255.  III.  i,  APPOSITION  519 

use  a  prep,  construction  with  the  verbs  of  this  group  instead  of  a 
gen.,  and  this  tendency  is  still  more  pronounced  with  the  derivative 
nouns:  biefe  Chttljaltung  con  alien  geifh'gen  ©etranfen ;  bte  (Srinnerung  an  bie 
3eit ;  bie  (Sntirofynung  tton  ber  ©efeflfcfyaft,  font  3Bein,  &c.  The  gen.  after 
(Srinnerung  may  be  explained  in  another  way ;  see  D.  a,  2nd  para- 
graph, above.  The  gen.  after  @nlciu§erung  and  2?ege6ung  admits  of 
the  same  double  explanation,  as  entdujjern  is  sometimes  a  transitive 
with  ace.  object,  as  was  also  fcegeBen  in  early  N.H.G. 

Nouns  formed  from  verbs  which  take  an  ace.  of  the  person 
and  a  gen.  of  the  thing  now  require  the  gen.  of  the  person 
and  a  prep,  construction  with  the  thing :  bie  (£ntfe£ung  be3  3?eamten 
non  Qlmt  nnb  <8tefle,  bie  (Sntftetbung  be§  ©ebanfenS  con  aflem  3ietrat. 
The  gen.  here  is  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  that 
the  gen.  object  with  nouns  corresponds  to  the  ace.  object  with 
verbs.  The  employment  of  the  prep,  construction  with  the  thing 
is  in  accordance  with  the  tendency  among  derivatives  from  the 
reflexive  group  described  above.  The  gen.  of  the  thing  is  found 
here  earlier  in  the  period :  excommunicatio,  ba§  fjetjjet  (Sntfegung 
berfelfcen  ©emeinfcfyaft  (Luther).  Also  still  in  a  few  expressions  :  unter 
ber  99efdnilbigung  be§  £>tebfhfyl3,  bie  33erau6ung  ber  (S^renrec^te ;  also  in  a 
few  compounds,  as  QlmtSentlaffung,  Qtmt^entfe^ung,  (SibeSentlrinbung,  &c. 
The  old  gen.  may  survive  in  biefe  93erftd)erung  feiner  Seilnafyme,  but 
it  may  also  be  construed  as  the  attributive  gen.  corresponding  to 
the  ace.  object  after  the  verb,  for  we  can  say  (Sr  fcerftcfyerte  mir  feme 
$eilnaf)ine,  or  (Jr  oerftcfyerte  tntcfy  feiner  £eilnal)me. 

2.  Instead  of  the  genitive  in  all  the  above  relations  t>on  with 
a  dative  is  now  often  used,  as  discussed  in  229.  2,  under  the  prep, 
$on,f,  g,j,  kt  except  in  certain  cases  mentioned  in  H.  c  and  I. 

III.  Apposition. 

i.  A  noun,  which  explains  or  characterizes  another  noun,  is 
placed  alongside  of  it  in  the  same  case  and  if  possible  also  number 
and  gender,  and  from  its  position  is  accordingly  called  an  appositive 
(placed  alongside  of) :  mein  93ruber,  ber  Jtaufmann ;  bie  Sercfye,  bie  muntere 
©angertn ;  nieine  3Settern  9ftamfcerg3  (Hartleben)  my  cousins  the  Ram- 
bergs  ;  bie  SKaffat,  etn  friegertfc^eS  33olf  (not  able  here  to  agree  in 
gender  or  number  with  the  noun  it  explains)  DfiafrifaS  ;  biefe  SBitdjer, 
ntetn  @tolj  unb  metne  j^reube  (agreeing  neither  in  gender  nor  number); 
biefe  5rait,  etn  2)hifler  ton  @anftmut ;  ^rieKic^  ber  3'veite.  The  relations 
of  the  gen.  to  its  governing  noun  are,  as  unfolded  above,  varied, 
but  the  relation  of  an  appositive  to  its  noun  is  very  simple,  as  it  is 
equivalent  to  an  explanatory  clause  or  sentence,  of  which  it  is  the 
predicate,  as  in  Jtairo,  [irelctye]  bie  jetjige  4?an£t|tabt  3tgi)ptenS  [tfl],  tfl 
juc)Ieicfy  audj  bie  ttornefymfle  aratnfdje  @tatt  ttnfrer  %tit.  Grammarians 
now  demand  that  the  appositive  agree  strictly  according  to  the 
Latin  rule  with  its  governing  noun,  but  in  accordance  with  its  real 
nature  as  a  predicate  noun  we  sometimes  find,  as  noted  in  the 
following  articles,  the  nominative,  irrespective  of  the  case  of  the 
governing  noun.  This  tendency  to  disregard  conventional  rules 


520  SYNTAX  255.  III.  I. 

and  place  the  appositive  in  the  nom.  in  accordance  with  its  real 
nature  is  especially  marked  in  dialect :  ©eftern  fya&  id;  be  (t»en)  «§cmne3 
gefefeen,  en  (em)  Itercer  (liefcer)  Jterl  (=  6g  ifl  ein  lieber  .Rerl). 

Appositives  form  two  groups : 

A.  The  appositive  follows  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  explains 
in  the  form  of  a  noun  or  an  adj.  used  as  a  noun  :  53tbo,  bie  ©runbertn 
•Rartfja'gog,  fofl  urn  bag  3a^r  814  ».  (Sfy.  gelebt  fya&en.  2)te  Qltfcener 
(Athenians)  tierurteilten  ben  (SofrateS,  etnen  ber  fcerufymteften  SBeifen  ©riecfyen* 
lanb§  (Greece).  Srtebrtd)  ben  ®ro|?en  Ijat  tetlS  fetn  ©enie,  teitg  bie  (Stfer* 
fiidjteleien  feiner  ©egner  gerettet.  D,  id)  Ungludf  ltd)er ! 

If  the  appositive  is  not  modified  by  an  article  or  adjective,  it  is 
often  uninflected :  2)a8  5Berf  be§  fcerubtnten  unb  fyodjgefteUten  93erfaffer8, 
SKttgtteb  (or,  perhaps,  more  commonly  aftttgliebS)  ber  meiften  gtleforten  ®e= 
feflfcfcaften.  If  the  appositive  is  in  the  wk.  declension  it  inclines  here 
more  readily  to  inflection  :  2)te  @r^ebttion  beS  ©oittterneurS  *>on  £)eutfd?* 
Dftafrtfa,  Dberften  ».  @d?ele.  If,  however,  the  noun  is  an  adjective- 
substantive  or  is  modified  by  an  adjective,  it  must  be  declined  :  son 
29aron  t>on  SB.,  ©efanbtem  be3  beut(d;en  Otetdjg,  or  beutfdjem  ©efanbten. 

a.  A  noun  which  is  in  apposition  with  a  whole  sentence  stands  in  the 
nom. :  @t  txriK  cmfbtecfyen,  ein  @ntf(^(u|,  ber  tf)m  fe^v  fd)»er  geroorben  tfl. 

b.  When  the  appositive  stands  in  direct  address  it  is  in  the  nom. :  !Dtr 
tnocfyte  tdj  biefe  fiteber  h3ei{)en,  geltebteg  beutfd^eg  Salettanb  ! 

c.  Under  the  influence  of  lively  or  excited  feeling  an  appositive  in  the 
nom.  may  often  precede  the  pronoun  which  it   explains  or  characterizes, 
although  the  pronoun  may  be  in  some  other  case :  35er  armfeltge  Gfyefruppft 
(feeble  old  married  man),  ben  fo((  ein  frtfd)e$  2Rabd)en  Ijeiraten ! 

d.  Remarks  and  explanations  that  are  made  in  passing  or  parenthetically, 
and  do  not  have  as  vital  a  connection  with  the  word  explained  as  a  regular 
appositive,  are  usually  placed  in  the  nom. :  !Da<3  ©rab  toar  gut  unterfyatten,  mit 
SRefeba  unb  3Konat6tofen,  bie  8tebltng£blumen  ber  Serfiorbenen.    3n  bent  twitlaufigen 
Jpcfe,  $u  be8  $pttnjen  Beit  ein  grower  ©arten,  jinb  me^rere  gabrifen. 

e.  An  appositive  which  refers  collectively  or  distributively  to  two  or  more 
nouns,  or  to  a  noun  in  the  plural,  usually  stands  in  the  nom. :  3d)  tt?at  mit 
n>ci£ en,  itettfattigen  93einfleibern  unb  langem  £luaftan,  beibee  au3  bent  leidjteften  Seuge, 
befleibet  (Junker).    @te  fallen  yon  junge  £erren  mit  ijo^en  §uten  bal)erfommen,  jeber 
mit  einer  (jubfdjen,  jungen  Same  am  9lrme  (G.  Keller).    £>a  irat  and)  ber  !I^ronerbe 
mit  bret  feiner  QSettern,  famtltd)  atterliebjh  Surfd)(etn  »on  7-9  3a^ren. 

f.  Especially  frequent  is  the  use  of  ttne  and  ate  (see  233.  C)  withappositives, 
and  it  requires  care  to  distinguish  here  the  true  appositive  relation  from  other 
constructions  which  are  associated  with  hue  and  a($ :  33ei  mancfyen  Xteren,  »te 
tent  93iber,  ber  ©ptnne,  getgt  ftdj  ein  ^eworragenber  ^unfiftnn,  but  in  ftnem  5lugen; 
BUcfe  trie  ber  gegentoarttge  [ifi].     In  the  first  example  nne  connects  an  appositive 
with  the  noun  it  explains,  and  hence  both  words  are  in  the  same  case.     In 
the  second  example  tt)ie  is  a  subordinate  conjunction  and  introduces  a  clause, 
and  hence  the  following  word  is  in  the  nom.,  as  it  is  the  subject  of  the  clause. 

Thus  also  care  must  be  exercised  to  distinguish  between  the  case  where 
ate  joins  to  a  noun  another  noun  which  explains  it,  and  the  case  where  ate 
introduces  a  noun  as  the  predicate  complement  of  a  verb  which  lies  concealed 
in  the  form  of  some  preceding  noun :  3d)  serrate  eg  nur  bir  ate  metnent  fceften 
greunbe,  but  35er  €Wtor  fprad)  iibcr  bag  SSirfen  ©tybels  al$  afabemifd)er 
Sefjrer  (=  Stybel  imtfte  ate  afabemifdjer  Sefyrer).  In  the  first  sentence  ate  con- 
nects two  words  in  the  same  case,  of  which  the  second  is  a  true  appositive 
to  the  first.  In  the  second  sentence  the  noun  following  ate  is  a  predicate 
appositive  after  the  verb,  which  lies  .concealed  in  the  form  of  the  noun 


255.  III.  i.  A./.  APPOSITION  521 

SBtrfen.  The  verb  that  is  concealed  in  the  preceding  noun  is  not  always 
literally  contained  in  the  stem  of  the  noun,  but  it  is  always  naturally  sug- 
gested by  the  idea  that  it  is  implied  in  the  stem  :  2Ran  fyatte  tl)m  bie  ©telle 
als  Segation^rat  (  =  et  fodte  ScgationSrat  toerben)  angeboten. 

This  distinction  is  not  by  any  means  always  followed.  At  this  point  con- 
siderable confusion  prevails,  some  mechanically  conforming  the  noun  after 
al$  in  case  to  the  preceding  noun,  some  distinguishing  between  the  con- 
structions as  above  described. 

g.  If  the  appositive  is  a  title  of  a  work,  the  name  of  something,  or  a 
technical  phrase,  it  usually  remains  in  the  nom.,  whatever  be  the  case  of 
the  noun  it  explains  :  9Bir  lefen  einen  Sluftritt  au$  „  9latl)an  bet  2Betfe  "  We  are 
reading  a  scene  out  of  (Lessing's)  "  Nathan  the  Wise."  SSir  lefen  einen  £ett 
beS  ©ebidjteS  „  3Me  ©torfe."  ttnb  gerabe  tytcr  tourbe  immer  bie  5al)rt  fdjon  tterlangj 
famt  wegen  bcr  9tdl)e  beg  93afjnl)of3  „  Soolcgifcfyer  ©arten."  2Btr  planten  ntit  ntetnem, 
gegentoarttg  int  93anffjaufe  @d}mttt  &  ©cfyne  Ucgenben  Skrmogen  ein  ®ut  ju  faufen. 
23on  feiner  SSertoenbung  im  £elbengebtd)t  fyat  er  (bet  £erameter)  ben  Ulamen  „  J)eroifd)er 


h.  A  noun  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  possessive  adjective  is  usually 
in  the  gen.  in  accordance  with  the  natural  conception  that  the  idea  of 
possession  lies  in  the  gen.  :  £>u  toirfl  bod)  toentgjJenS  metne,  beineS  ^reunbeS  £tlfe 
annefymen  !  In  prose,  as  in  the  preceding  sentence,  the  appositive  stands 
between  the  possessive  and  the  noun  that  it  modifies,  but  in  poetry  the 
appositive  may  follow  the  noun,  as  in  the  following  sentence  from  Schiller's 
Piccolomini,  where  Thekla  speaks  of  herself  and  her  father,  the  great 
Wallenstein  :  3d)  fyatte  feine  2Bunfd)e,  fannte  mid)  |  ate  feine  Hotter  nut,  beg 
SWddjttgen. 

The  appositive  usually  follows  the  noun  when  introduced  by  al3  :  @ie 
(i.e.  bie  @ried)en)  flnb  unfere  geiftigen  Uveltent.  3()re  2Biirbe  ala  foldjer  tjl  aner; 
fannt  (Hermann  Grimm  in  Deutsche  Rundschau,  Mai  1896,  p.  244).  After 
al3  the  appositive  is  more  commonly  in  the  nom.  construed  as  predicate  as 
in/,  above  :  <Sein  ®eruf  at3  9lid)ter(=  ber  93eruf,  ben  er  aid  OHdjtet  fyat)  cervfltd^s 
tete  i()n  jut  ftrengften  UnparteUtd)feit.  SWeine  $pid}tcn  atg  Jlomg  »on  ^reu^cn  unb  ale 
beutfd;)er  5urfl  ge^atten  mir  nidjt,  ben  ©ntitwrf  ati  bie  ©runblage  einer  neuen  93uubefc 
»erfaffung  anjune^men  (Wilhelm  I.  in  Frankfurt). 

i.  An  exact  date,  which  follows  a  more  general  one,  usually  stands  in  the 
ace.  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  for  exact  time  (see  223.  II.  i), 
although  the  noun  it  explains  may  be  in  some  other  case  :  S)ie  2Bal)l  fanb 
©amStag  or  am  @am$tag  ben  28.  Slpril  (ktt.  Here  ben  28.  9tyrU  is  not  a 
real  appositive  to  am  <Eam3tag,  but  both  expressions  are  adverbial  modifiers 
of  the  same  verb,  and  take  the  case  required  by  their  respective  relations 
to  the  governing  verb,  @am3tag  dat.  after  the  prep,  an,  ben  28.  Styrtt  ace.  of 
time. 

j.  Learned  men  often  allow  the  appositive  to  stand  in  the  nom.  in  titles  of 
their  books,  and  hence  cannot  justly  complain  that  people  generally  follow 
this  practice  in  the  titles  they  use  in  addressing  letters  to  them  :  @efd)id)te  ber 
i)ollanbtfd)en  93aufnnft,  ».  Dr.  0.  ©adanb,  iprivatbcccnt  (instead  of  the  more 
correct  ^Jktvatbocenten)  ;  9ln  Jperrn  St.,  crbentUdjer  5)>rofeffor  (address  on  a  letter). 

k.  To  complete  the  confusion  that  is  so  prevalent  with  respect  to  the 
proper  case  of  the  appositive  noun  the  dat.  is  used  by  various  authors  uni- 
formly without  regard  to  the  case  of  the  preceding  noun.  33oll  (Srinnernngen 
an  ba<5  i?oettfd)e  @eml(a,  meiner  Uebjkn  <2tabt  tn  (Bpanien  (Emperor  Maximilian  of 
Mexico,  A  us  meinem  Leben,  187). 

/.  The  weak  noun  is  in  a  number  of  relations  uninflected  when  it  has  no 
article  before  it,  as  in  Q4L.l.a,b,c,d,et  but  it  must  as  an  appositive  be 
inflected  if  the  thought  depends  upon  a  clear  designation  of  the  case  relation  : 
@r  befang  ben  Jlaifcr  al<5  J^elben  (not  £elb,  as  the  form  would  be  construed  as  a 
nom.  agreeing  with  the  subject). 


522  SYNTAX  255.  1  1  1.  I.E. 

B.  The  appositive  may  stand  before  the  noun  it  explains, 
especially  when  it  is  a  title  or  some  other  explanation  of  a  proper 
noun,  and  then  enters  into  such  close  relations  to  the  modified 
noun  that  they  both  are  felt  as  one  word,  and  hence  one  case 
ending  for  both  words  is  often  sufficient  (for  full  rules  for 
inflection  see  92  and  94.  i.  d)  :  ber  Jtontg  Jtarl,  bie  9Berfe  beg  $rofefjor(e) 
3Bagner,  Jtatfer  SBiltyelmg  lange  Otegterung,  bag  (Sr^ergogtum  Dfierreicfj,  beS 
©r^er^ogtumS  Dfterreicfy,  ber  ®efd)id?t8fd?ret6er  SofyanneS  Gutter,  bie  <£enfe 
beS  crbarmungglofen  ©cfynttterg  Sob,  ber  ©enuefe  (Genoese)  (SolumfcuS. 
Other'examples  are  given  in  94.  i.d. 

a.  The  gender  of  the  appositive  usually  determines  the  gender  of  the 
article  or  other  pronominal  adjective  that  must  sometimes  stand  before  such 
closely  united  words,  but  if  the  appositive  be  grdittein  the  article  is  often  fern., 
following  the  natural  gender  of  the  word  that  is  explained  rather  than  the 
grammatical  gender  of  grdulein  :  bie  .§auptjkbt  93erltn,  3fyre  (or  perhaps  more 
commonly  Sfyr)  9r«ulem  <Scfytt>efler  your  unmarried  sister,  bie  (or  more  com- 
monly bag)  gvautein  (Sfytfjarb. 

b.  If  the  appositive  has  several  modifiers  it  follows  the  noun  it  explains  : 
93erlin,  bie  £auptjlabt  beg  betitfdjen  OJeidjeg  Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  German 
Empire. 

2.  Quite  different  from  the  above  is  the  employment  of  the 
appositional  construction,  instead  of  the  gen.  of  earlier  periods. 
This  important  construction  is  explained  in  II.  i.  H.  a,  above,  and 
94.  3.  A. 

IV.  A  Prepositional  Phrase  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  modified  by  a  prepositional  phrase, 
which  usually  follows  it.  The  following  groups  occur  : 

i.  Nouns  denoting  an  action,  and  sometimes  those  denoting  an 
actor,  can  by  virtue  of  their  verbal  nature  be  modified  by  a  prep. 
phrase,  which  is  always  identical  in  construction  with  the  phrase 
that  modifies  the  verb  of  the  same  origin  :  5>ie  trailer  um  ben  SSater, 
btc  tfreube  ufcer  ben  @teg  (for  we  say  2J?cm  trauert  um  ben  33ater  and  SKan 
freut  fid?  lifter  ben  €>ieg).  Sin  ©tretter  fur  2Bcu)rtyett  unb 


a.  Compound  nouns  denoting  an  action  the  first  element  of  which  has 
the  relation  of  an  object  to  the  second  element  cannot  thus  be  modified 
by  a  prep,  phrase,  as  in  the  following  incorrect  expressions  :  Ser  Jpantmerttmrf 
in  ben  0lfjetn,  bie  SMbeluberfefcunci  ing  33eiitfd)e.  In  such  cases  the  objection  may 
be  removed  by  breaking  up  the  compound  into  two  words,  the  first  element 
of  the  compound  becoming  an  objective  genitive  :  2>r  SBiirf  beg  J&ammerg  in 
ben  OJfyein,  bie  Uberfe^ung  bee  2Mbet  ing  Seutfdje. 

2.  All  nouns,  including  the  above,  can  be  freely  modified  by 
prep,  phrases  in  all  those  cases  where,  in  the  exact  sense,  the 
prep,  phrase  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of  some  word  of  verbal 
nature  understood  :  ber  €>d?retber  fceim  9fled)t3aniralt  [angeftettt  em- 
ployed] the  copyist  at  the  lawyer's,  ©in  (Sperling  in  ber 
[feftgefyalten]  iji  befter  al§  etne  $aufce  auf  bem  £>ad)e  [ftfcenb]. 


255.  VII.  MODIFIERS  OF  NOUNS  52S 

a.  Here  belongs  the  common  prepositional  construction  with  gu  which 
expresses  the  adverbial  ideas  of  a  goal,  end,  result,  purpose,  and  thus  differs 
from  the  appositive  construction  with  gu  given  in  II.  I.  G.  b,  above,  in  meaning, 
and,  moreover,  distinguishes  itself  by  its  form,  as  it  usually  requires  the 
definite  article  before  the  dependent  word  :  ber  2Beg  gur  Jlircfye,  gut  Sltmut,  tin 
Dfen  gum  SBrotbacfen,  ein  Bimmer  gum  2J?ujtgiereit,  cut  9?aiim  gum  Jpolgfpatteit.  There 
is  a  strong  tendency  here  to  place  urn  before  the  gu  of  the  infinitive  to 
emphasize  the  idea  of  purpose  or  result,  a  usage  quite  common  in  adverbial 
constructions  :  em  OJaum  um  Jpolg  gu  fpalten.  3d>  fyatte  mit  fetneu  3Jlefjta3  fo  gu 
etgen  gemacfyt,  bafj  tcfy  ifym  bei  mcinen  cfteren  Sefucfyen,  um  ©tegetabbriicfe  fur  meine 
SBawenfammluiig  gu  fyolen,  grope  @te((e_n  bason  cortrageu  fonnte  (Goethe).  @3  barf 
ntcfyt  fein,  folange  bicfe  .£>eudjlev  |  nod)  Dfen  tyaben,  um  fid)  53vot  gu  bacfen  (Hebbel's 
Nibelungen,  II,  iv,  2).  Often  in  colloquial  language  with  a  prepositional 
construction  as  in  the  English  expression  a  stove  to  cook  with :  £>a  ifi  batf 
{jeilige  ©ranatfyotg,  um  bag  8amm  baran  git  braten,  ba  ftnb  bte  ©ewurjteiu,  um  ben 
fyetligcn  ©upbrct  bamit  gu  beretten  (Sudermann'sy^/zfl«w^,  I,  4).  The  Germanic 
scholar  Matthias  Lexer  uses  this  prepositional  construction  in  his  Mittel- 
hochdentsches  Taschenivorterbuch  in  explaining  the  M.H.G.  word  kulter : 
gefutterte  ©teypbecfe  iiber  bag  93ett,  um  barauf  obcr  baruntev  gu  liegen.  This  con- 
struction is  usually  opposed  by  grammarians.  It  has,  however,  a  great 
advantage  over  the  older  construction  in  that  it  can  drop  the  article  and 
expand  itself  into  an  infinitive  clause  with  various  objective  and  adverbial 
modifiers,  as  in  the  last  three  examples,  and  thus  give  terse  expression  to  the 
idea  of  purpose.  To  secure  this  freedom  of  movement  some  grammarians 
recommend  the  use  of  an  infinitive  clause  here  with  simple  gu,  and  then 
construe  it  as  an  appositive  to  the  substantive,  as  described  in  II.  I.  G.  l>, 
above.  Thus  a  prominent  German  grammarian  would  remove  the  um  from 
the  following  sentence :  !Da3  iibrige  toat  bet  S3erebfamfeit  beg  33otfd)after3  »orbe; 
fatten,  bem  bte  ©tattfyalterin  einen  58inf  gab,  etite  fc  fcf)6ne  ©clegenfyeit  ntcfyt  tion  bfv 
-ijjanb  gu  fdjlagen,  um  fid)  in  bet  Ghtnft  feineS  ^crrn  fejtytfefcen  (Schiller).  The 
removal  of  um  destroys  the  distinct  idea  of  purpose  which  the  author  sought 
to  convey.  The  idea  of  purpose  lay  originally  also  in  gu,  and  this  idea  is 
still  quite  common  in  connection  with  substantives,  as  described  in  229.  2 
under  gu  II.  I./,  but  this  idea  is  no  longer  -vividly  felt  in  connection  with  the 
infinitive,  as  the  infinitive  with  gu  is  now  also  used  as  a  subject,  a  direct 
object,  and  an  appositive,  and  it  therefore  no  longer  conveys  the  distinct  idea 
of  a  prepositional  object  indicating  the  direction  of  the  activity  or  the  idea 
of  purpose,  end,  result.  Hence  the  natural  feeling  of  the  people  and  even 
authors  of  good  repute  has  suggested  here  the  use  of  um,  which  vividly 
expresses  the  idea  of  purpose. 

V.  An  Infinitive  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun. 

A  noun  may  be  modified  by  an  infin.  with  ju :  2>a3  93eftre6m  fid) 
au^utnlbeu  tfl  Io6en6it>ert.  3d)  ijafce  f)eute  rcd;te  Sufi  311  ftufcieren  I  feel  like 
studying  to-day. 

VI.  An  Adverb  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun. 

An  adverb  may  modify  a  noun  in  the  same  way  as  a  phrase  (see 
IV.  2,  above)  may  do :  £er  2)tenfd;  ba,  baS  93ud;  ba,  t>er  ftelfen  bort. 

VII.  A  Clause  as  Modifier  of  a  Noun. 

A  clause  may  modify  a  noun :  bie  >§offnung,  bafj  rctr  U)m  Ijelfen 
icerben,  serleifet  itym  2)iut.  2)ie  Sat,  ivelfye  ber  SBeqetfyung  bebarf,  ifi 
nicfyt  gut. 


524  SYNTAX  256. 

A  Noun  and  its  Modifier  replaced  by  a  Compound  Noun. 

256.  All  the  above  kinds   of  adj.  modifiers,  except   the   last 
two,  can  sometimes  be  replaced  by  terser  forms  of  expression  by 
converting  them  into  the  modifying  component  of  a  compound 
noun :    (i)  ein  letcfyter  <Stnn  =  Setcfytflnn,  (2)  etn  £ro£fen  2Baffer8  =  em 
SSaffertropfen,  (3)  biefer  2Jhnn,  etu  fitter  =  btefer  CRittcrSmann,  (4)  ein 
9lufentljalt  fiir  ben  (Sommer  =  ein  ©ommeraitfenttyalt,  (5)  bie  33egterbe  gu 
tyerrfdjen  =  bie  4>enfcfy6egterbe. 

Objective  Modifiers. 
Accusative  Object. 

257.  i.  All  transitive  verbs  require,  to  complete  their  meaning, 
an  object  which,  to  be  distinguished  from  other  words,  stands  in 
the  ace.     This  ace.  represents  a  thing  either  as  affected   by  an 
action  or  as  the  result  of  it :    £>er  Jtnafa  fcfyldgt  beit  <§unb  (thing 
affected).     <£r  f)at  einen  23rief  (result  of  the  action)  gefcfyriefren. 

In  changing  such  a  sentence  from  the  active  to  the  passive,  the 
ace.  becomes  nom.  and  the  nom.  is  put  into  the  dat.  after  the  prep. 
»on :  £>er  $unb  nnrb  fcon  bem  Jtnafcen  gefcfylagen  The  dog  is  being 
beaten  by  the  boy.  The  nom.  subject  of  a  passive  verb  denotes 
the  same  thing  as  the  ace.  object  of  a  trans,  verb,  but  from 
a  different  point  of  view.  The  ace.  denotes  the  person  or  thing 
toward  which  another  person  or  thing  is  directing  an  activity,  and 
thus  emphasizes  the  idea  of  an  active  agent  at  work.  The  nom. 
subject  of  a  passive  verb  represents  an  object  as  receiving  an 
activity  and  thus  emphasizes  the  idea  of  a  passive  recipient. 

a.  Many  transitives  which  usually  require  an  object  are  used 
without  one  when  the  activity  they  express  is  represented  only  in 
a  general  way  without  reference  to  an  effect  upon  a  particular 
object :  3)er  SWenfcfy  benft,  ®ott  lenft  Man  proposes,  God  disposes. 
(£r  gtbt  gerne  He  likes  to  give. 

b.  A  number  of  verbs  are  trans,  or  intrans.  according  to  the  idea 
to  be  conveyed — trans,  when  the  subject  is  represented  as  acting 
on  an  object,  intrans.  when  the  subject  is  represented  as  moving 
toward  a  certain  goal  or  as  passing  over,  of  its  own   initiative, 
into  the  state  caused  by  the  action  of  the  verb:    3)ag  $ferb  jtetjt 
(trans.)  ben  SBagen,  but  we  also  say  intransitively  (£r  ift  nacfy  SBerltn 
gqogen  He  has  moved  to  Berlin.     3cfy  t)o6e  bag  fet  gebrocfyen,  but  we 
also  say  of  the  egg  when  it  seems  to  break  of  itself  without  our 
intending  or  wishing  it  3)a§  @i  ifi  gebrocfyen  The  egg  broke.     Thus 
also  2)ie  <Saite  ift  geriffen  The  violin  string  broke.     Here  the  German 
by  means  of  the  intrans.  auxiliary  fein  shows  more  distinctly  than 
the  English  that  these  verbs  are  considered  intrans. 

c.  In  transposing  a  sentence  into  the  passive  voice  only  the 
object  of  the  principal  verb  of  the  active  construction  should  in 
the  passive  be  put  into  the  nom.,   never  properly  the  object  of 
a  dependent  infinitive.     However,  in  actual  usage  the  object  of  an 


257.  2.  A.  THE  ACCUSATIVE  OBJECT  525 

infinitive  depending  upon  anfangen,  fceginnen,  fudjen,  fcerfudjen,  bergonnen, 
nrimfcfyen,  often  appears  in  the  nom.  in  the  passive :  2ftan  fucfyt  einen 
.gufynerljunb  $u  faufen  becomes  (£in  <£>it{:merlpunb  nrirb  *u  faufen  gefudjt. 
£>ie  tterriegelte  Sitr  nntrbe  fraftig  ju  offnen  tterfucfyt  (H.  Bfihlau's  Adam 
und  Eva,  chap.  i).  Dsfat  (gcfjabeS  QtltbeutfdjeS  SBortetfwdj  rcttb 
gu  faufen  gefucfyt  (Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche  Philologie,  1903,  Heft  3, 
p.  2  of  the  wrapper).  £>a  erfdjten  nun  fcor  filler  3"*  cine  umfdng* 
licfye  Arbeit  eineS  'Mnglijicn,  beg  $rofeffor3  SKorifc  Srautmanu  in  23onn, 
in  ber  feine  geringere  93efyau£tung  aufgeftelit  unb  ju  fcerceifen  gefud)t 
roirb,  aU  bap  ...  baS  <§tlbe6ranb8lieb  ufcettyauvt  gar  nic^t  ber  beutfc^en 
Stteratur  ange|)6rc,  fonbern  altengtifc^en  Urf))rung3  fei  (H.  Jantzen  in 
Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung,  Jahrgang  1903,  No.  209).  A 
more  correct  passive  form  would  be :  @3  rcirb  gefud)t,  einen  |>u^ner* 
tyitnb  jit  faufen. 

d.  The  object  is  often  expressed  in  German  when  it  is  omitted  in 
English ;  see  251.  II.  A.  d. 

e.  In  English  the  accusative  is  used  in  some  groups  of  ideas 
where  prepositional  constructions  are  more  commonly  employed  in 
German.     It  is  usual  to  explain  such  differences  by  saying  that  the 
idiomatic  structure  of  the  two  languages  is  different.     While  matters 
of  idiom  are  often  very  subtle,  some  of  these  things  can  be  explained. 
For  instance,  the  German  has  in  a  number  of  cases  preserved  the 
old  idea  of  instrument  better  than  English.     Originally  there  was 
a  special  case  form  for  this  idea.     Later  the  dative  assumed  besides 
its  own  functions  also  those  of  the  instrumental.     Still  later  pre- 
positional constructions  replaced  the  simple  dat.     Thus  to-day  we 
say  in  English  :  The  dog  is  wagging  his  tail,  He  shook  his  head,  He 
is  winking  his  eyes,  He  threw  stones  at  him,  while  the  German  says  : 
3)er  4>unb  icebett  mit  bem  (Sdjmaitje,  @r  fcfyiittelte  mit  bent  Jtopfe,  (5r  trtnft 
mtt  ben  'iMugen,  @r  njarf  il)n  (or  nacfy  U)m)  mit  (Steinen.     While  the  accusa- 
tive is  also  in  German  sometimes  used  here,  the  native  German  in 
speaking  English  often  provokes  a  smile  from  English-speaking 
people  by  a  too  liberal  use  of  the  prepositional  construction  here. 

2.    Intransitives  used  transitively  with  objects.      The  following 
classes  of  intransitives  often  take  an  object  in  the  ace. 

A.  A  cognate  accusative,  that  is,  an  object  of  a  meaning  cognate 
or  similar  to  that  of  the  verb,  may  repeat  and  also  explain  more  fully 
the  idea  expressed  by  the  verb  :  @r  fctylief  ben  <Scf?Iaf  beS  ©erecfyten.  (Sr 
ftarfc  ben  Sob  fiirS  33aterlanb.  @r  le&t  ein  elenbeS  Sefcen.  5)ie  (Sacfye  ge^t 
tfyren  tufyigen  ®ang.  @tc  flngt  ein  Sicb.  (Sr  ftnett  Garten.  This  con- 
struction has  become  very  productive,  so  that  now  an  ace.  can  be 
quite  freely  added  to  an  intransitive  to  complete  its  meaning :  3m 
Jteflergefcfyofj  fam  fyinten  auS  ber  ©efinbeftufce  bie  Jtocfyin  im  tmntgeftreiften 
$Boflenrocf  unb  bericfytete  »on  unten  fjerauf,  baft  bie  STOomfett  ,,mtr  ein 
©ercerfce  auggegangen"  (Storm's  Von  heut  und  ehedem,  III,  p.  173)  had 
only  gone  out  on  an  errand.  C?r  lauft  <§$Uttf$u$,  @pi§ruten  He  is 
skating,  is  running  the  gauntlet.  @r  fatyrt  Sifenta^n, 
Omnibus,  ^at;n,  Oiab,  Dlidjtrauc^er  (in  the  car  for  ladies).  3d?  ti 
je^t,  irarunt  ivir  britte  (also  gen.;  see  223.  III.  a)  ^lajfe  fasten 
ten  (Spielhagen's  Frei  geboren,  p.  43),  3c^  faf;re  nil*  2lr6eiterjiig 


526  SYNTAX  257.  2.  A. 


(Hauptmann's  Einsame  Menschen,  2).  (Sr  rcttet  ©atoty),  ©drntt, 
^arriere  (post  haste),  $ofl  (post  haste),  ^atroutfle,  geftrecften  ®alo£p  (at 
full  speed).  (Sin  augcje^eidweter  better,  ber  gum  £eib  mciner  Gutter  9Ren= 
nen  ritt  (Ompteda's  Frieden,  I).  @r  raud?t  $feife.  @r  fcfyldft  SKittagS* 
ftunbe.  5)ann  rebeten  rcir  SMSmarrf,  Jtulturfam^f,  fc^iale  Srrage  unb  rca3 
fonft  bagu  gefyort,  um  einen  Ql6fd)teb3a6enb  unter  guten  ^reunben  fyin$uf>rtngen, 
ofyne  ju  fetyr  $u  merfen,  Trie  bie  3«it  Iduft  (Raabe's  Pfitzer's  Muhle,  xx). 
SBenn  id?  nur  ben  33erbad)t  lo§  rottrbe,  baf  @ie  feier  $ofe  ftefyen  (Sudermann's 
Die  Heimat,  2,  9).  Set)  fofl  nun  fur  bret  SSa^en  SSoten  gei)en  (go  on  an 
errand)  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  3),  or  3d?  witt  end)  [alS] 
SBote  laufen  (Freytag).  @ie  [often  mtr  0tebe  [earlier  in  the  period  jur 
0tebeJ  fle^en  (id.,  Sol/.,  i.  118).  93ei  £ifcfye  jlanb  Xante  Qtmalie  gan^  ricfytig 
0iebe  unb  5tntttort,  trenn  man  eine  ftrage  an  fte  ricfytete  (Beyerlein's  Jena 
oder  Sedan  ?,  vi).  llfeer  baS,  roa8  bie  Sungmannfdjaft  con  (£t.  2)?ort^  in 
©emeintieangelegenfjeiten  getan,  fie^en  irir  gerne  Otedjenfdjaft  (Heer's  Der 
Konig  der  Bernina,  xv).  ©efa^r  laufen  to  run  the  risk,  but  earlier  in 
the  period  with  or  without  in  :  2)er  2Bi§  Iduft  fd}on  6et  fetnem  Urfprunge 
in  ©efa^r  jit  n?i|etn  (Goethe).  2ftan  mu^te  al[o  biefe  ®efai)r  laufen 
(Schiller).  Sauf  (Sturm  iciber  bie  JHingmauer  (id.,  Rduber,  5,  i).  Qtuf 
^ofien  fle^en,  now  also  biefe6  ©eice^r  ^ter  biefe  9tad?t  tei  biefer  <§unbefdlte 
gu  tragen  unb  ^ojlten  gu  ftetyen  Oor  bem  alien  ©d^Ioffe  (Adalbert  Meinhardt's 
Allerleirauh,  Jung  sein,  p.  31).  33on  elf  fciS  eing  ftanb  33ogt  jum  le^ten 
2Me  an  biefem  9Bad}ttage  ^ofien  (Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan  ?,  iv).  As 
can  be  seen  from  a  number  of  these  examples,  this  favorite  con- 
struction is  replacing  various  older  ones.  In  case  of  an  unmodi- 
fied weak  noun  the  ace.  ending  is  not  always  expressed  as  in  the 
sentence  from  Hauptmann,  but  in  accordance  with  usage  elsewhere 
the  noun  may  remain  uninflected  :  llnb  rcenn  ber  ©raf  6ei  ifynen  fjier 
4?err  fpielen  rootle  —  fte  rcoflten  eg  if)nt  fd)on  tterletben  (Spielhagen's 
Sturmflut,  vi,  15),  but  @r  nnfl  ben  gro^en  «§errn  fpielen. 

a.  Here  also  belongs  the  ace.  after  verbs  of  motion  which  denotes  the 
ground  over  which  the   motion   passes  :    (§r  gd)t  ritfytg  feinen  2Bcg  He  goes 
quietly  on  his  way.     S)er  2Bein  Iduft  bie  -fiefyle  Ijtnuntev.     (Sr  fommt  bie  Xreppe 
j)erauf.     See  also  260.  -2.  A.  a. 

b.  Instead  of  a  cognate  ace.  of  a  noun,  the  ace.  neut.  of  a  pronominal 
adjective  or  pronoun,  such  as  etn3,  e3,  et»a<$,  is  much  used  :  @r  fyat  tciebcr  eing 
gelogen  He  has  lied  again.     @tng  ein3,  bap  bie  3fit  »ergef)t  !     8afj  itn^  ein^  ^laubern 
Let  us  have  a  little  chat.    3dj  looflte,  bu  la^tcft  ein$  mit  I  wish  you  would  join 
us  in  laughing.    Set  junge  93iirfd?e  fc^ob  ben  £>ut  auS  ber  ©tirn,  ^ftff  fid?  eing  unb 
fi^ritt  toettcr  (Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan  ?,  I).    !£>te  Gnfetfucfot  iiber  <Sfanten 
getrann  eg  (won  the  victory)  uber  biefe  volittfc^e  ©tjm^at^ie.     (Sr  tyat  ntir  oft  etwag 
vorgefungen.    The  same  construction  is  often  found  in  English,  as  in  to  "walk 
it,"  "  foot  it." 

c.  The  cognate  ace.  construction   cannot   usually  be  transferred  to  the 
passive,  but  like  other  intrans.  constructions  can  form  the  impersonal  passive 
(219.  5.  B),  where  the  cognate  ace.  remains  ace.  as  in  the  active  :  (5<3  ttntrbe 
.flatten  (ace.  pi.)  gefpiett  There  was  playing  at  cards  going  on.     The  use  of 
the  ace.  instead  of  the  nom.  here  indicates  that  the  cognate  ace.  is  not  to 
be  considered  an  object  in  the  strict  sense,  but  rather  as  an  adverbial  element. 
In  some  cases,  however,  the  cognate  ace.  approaches  the  usual  force  of  the 
ace.,  and  hence  becomes  nom.  in  the  passive  :  @r  |ingt  ein  2iet>  becomes  in 
the  passive  Sin  £teb  fcirb  son  tfym  gefungen. 


258.  1.  THE  DATIVE  OBJECT  527 

B.  Intransitives  sometimes  take  on  the  trans,  idea  of  causing, 
producing,  showing  that  which  results  from  or  accompanies  their 
action  :  ircinen  tcctnen,  30™  fclirfen,  Stefce  Idcfyeln,  SBttt  fcfynaufcen  to 
breathe  rage,  that  is,  to  show  rage  in  breathing.  (£r  gefyt  ftd;  (dat.) 
SBIafeu  unter  bie  Sufie  He  walks  until  blisters  form  on  the  soles  of  his 
feet.  @r  fyat  ftcfy  ein  Sod?  in  ben  ^opf  gefaflen. 

3.  Some  adjectives  take  an  accusative  object  to  complete  their 
meaning ;  see  260.  3. 

Dative  Object. 

258.  The  connection  of  the  dative  with  a  verb  or  adjective  is 
of  every  degree  of  closeness,  from  constituting  their  necessary 
complement  to  forming  an  almost  or  entirely  independent  ele- 
ment which  expresses  an  emotional  interest  in  the  statement  of 
fact  as  a  whole:  2)a3  ^inb  tifynelt  ber  Gutter  The  child  resembles 
the  mother.  3cfy  lo&e  nur  rnetn  2)6rfcfyen  fyier  I  for  my  part  have 
always  a  word  of  praise  for  our  village.  In  the  first  sentence 
the  dat.  is  necessary  to  complete  the  thought  contained  in  the 
verb,  while  in  the  second  it  is  a  lively  rhetorical  means  to  show 
the  interest  of  the  speaker  in  the  statement,  but  it  qualifies  the 
thought  as  a  whole  rather  than  the  verb  alone. 

1.  Some  intransitives  take  a  dat.  object  to  complete  their  mean- 
ing: @r  bcmfte  mtr  nicfyt  He  did  not  thank  me.  This  dat.  object 
expresses  a  less  direct  relation  to  the  verb  than  the  ace.  object,  as 
it  only  points  out  the  person  in  some  way  interested  or  involved  in 
the  action,  especially  the  person  with  reference  to  whose  inner  or 
material  interests  something  is  done,  and  does  not  represent  him 
as  the  direct  recipient  of  the  action  of  the  verb  in  a  literal  exterior 
sense  as  with  the  ace.  after  such  verbs  as  fcfylcigen  to  strike.  Thus 
the  dative  places  in  the  foreground  the  idea  of  a  person  or  a  thing 
with  personal  attributes  which  is  interested  or  involved  in  the 
action,  while  the  accusative  emphasizes  the  idea  of  the  immediate, 
direct  object  of  the  activity,  whether  it  be  a  person  or  a  thing,  and 
implies  that  the  object  is  thoroughly  affected,  or  that  the  action 
ends  in  the  attainment  of  a  definite  goal  or  end.  This  difference 
in  meaning  between  the  two  constructions  appears  again  in  the 
passive,  for  in  changing  such  active  constructions  into  the  passive 
the  ace.  becomes  nom.,  but  the  dat.  remains  a  dative,  instead  of 
becoming  nom.,  and  the  sentence  is  thus  without  a  subject,  or 
in  order  to  conform  to  the  now  prevailing  grammatical  pattern 
is  introduced  by  the  vague,  indefinite  e8,  which  serves  as  a  formal 
subject  (219.  5.  B.  a) :  3cfy  rvmrbe  gefcfylagen,  but  2Rir  rcurbe,  or  @S  rcurbe 
mir  tton  ifym  nitf)t  gebanft  I  was  not  thanked  by  him.  However,  not 
all  intransitives  which  take  a  dat.  object  can  form  this  passive. 
This  construction  is  limited  to  such  verbs  as  represent  an  activity 
as  proceeding  from  a  person.  Thus  Sr  gefattt  mtr  He  pleases  me 
cannot  be  transferred  to  the  passive,  as  the  verb  gefdttt  indicates 
a  quality  of  the  person  denoted  by  the  subject  and  not  an  activity 
which  proceeds  from  him.  The  main  characteristic  of  this  imper- 
sonal passive  is  that  it  emphasizes  an  activity,  and  hence  the 


528  SYNTAX  258. 1. 

commonest  form  of  the  construction  has  no  subject  at  all,  or  at 
least  no  definite  subject,  nor  any  reference  to  an  agent,  placing 
the  sole  stress  upon  the  activity:  5Kir  nwrbe  fyart  fceijegnet,  or  @3 
rcurbe  mtr  fyart  fcegegnet  They  treated  me  harshly.  It  is  often 
desirable,  however,  to  represent  some  person  or  thing  as  acted 
upon,  even  with  these  verbs  which  govern  the  dat.,  and  hence 
under  French  and  English  influence  this  impersonal  passive  is 
often,  even  in  good  authors,  though  severely  condemned  by  gram- 
marians, replaced  by  the  personal  passive:  <&ti  (DU  understood) 
bafitr  Ijer^Iicfy  gebanft,  instead  of  2Mr  fei  bafiir  tyerjlicfy  gebanft.  This 
contested  construction  is  especially  common  in  the  form  of  an 
appositional  participle,  where  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  limited 
by  the  participle  is  the  real  subject  of  the  verbal  idea  in  the 
participle :  @r  gtng  binafc,  gefolgt  Don  $eter3  (Spielhagen's  Herrin, 
p.  194).  The  passive  is  universal  in  the  expression  3d?  fiityte  mid? 
gefcfymetc^ett,  which  can  be  more  easily  defended,  as  fcfymetcfyeln  earlier 
in  the  period  sometimes  took  an  ace.  in  the  active. 

There  is  another  dative  of  quite  a  different  origin  and  force 
which  is  used  with  both  transitives  and  intransitives.  It  gives 
expression  to  the  ideas  of  a  goal,  place,  separation,  point  of  depar- 
ture, source.  For  examples  see  B,  below. 

The  dative  object  is  found  after  the  following  groups  of  intran- 
sitives, some  of  which  pass  for  transitives  in  English : 

A.  Those  which  signify  : 

a.  Inclination  or  aversion,  a  pleasing  or  displeasing,  a  serving  <yc  resisting  \ 
befyagen  to  please,  suit,  afford  comfort  to,  tttifjbefyagen  (opposite  of  befyagen), 
belieben  (used  in  a  number  of  set  expressions ;  see  also  259.  8)  and  gclteben 
(earlier  in  the  period  ;  see  2  Peter  ii.  15)  to  please,  banfen  to  thank,  bienen  to 
serve,  bomimeren  (dat.,  with  more  force  uber  with  ace. ;  with  the  ace.  in  the 
second  meaning)  to  domineer  over,  command  (i.e.  overlook,  as  from  a 
superior  position),  broken  to  threaten,  efien  (early  N.H.G.  and  biblical;  see 
Rom.  xiv.  6)  to  eat  unto,  fludjen  (but  tterflucfyen  with  ace.)  to  curse,  frenett  (or 
fronen)  to  be  a  slave  to  (passion,  &c.),  be  addicted  to,  truckle  to,  indulge 
(passions,  &c.),  gefaflen  to  please,  nujjfallen  to  displease,  gnabm  to  have  mercy 
upon,  gratutieven  to  congratulate,  groflcn  to  bear  ill-will  against,  fyojteren  to  pay  court 
to,  fyulbigen  to  pay  homage  to,  swear  allegiance  to,  jaudjjen  to  hail  with  shouts 
of  joy,  fonboUeren  to  condole  with,  fonoenieren  to  suit,  ladjcln  to  smile  upon  (lit. 
as  in  Saddle  betnen  ©often  —  Wildenbruch's  Konig  Laurin,  4,2  —  or  fig.  2>a3 
©turf  ladjelt  mir),  ladjen  to  smile  upon  (lit.  and  especially  fig.,  as  in  3)a3  ©lurf 
lacfjt  ifym),  favor  (as  in  2)ie  ©etegenfyeit  latfyt  tfym),  latifcfym  to  listen  to,  lebett 
to  live  entirely  given  up  to  or  devoted  to,  live  up  to,  teudjten  to  light  the  way 
for  (some  one),  munbett  to  taste  well  to,  podjen  (rare)  to  defy,  fcfymecfeit  to  taste 
(well,  &c.)  to,  fd)metd)e(n  and  flattteren  (both  occasionally  with  ace.  earlier  in 
the  period)  to  flatter,  fdjtooren  to  swear  (the  oath  of  allegiance)  to,  trojjen  to 
defy,  tun  to  do  unto,  treat,  hnbern  to  be  repugnant  to,  hnrifaljrm  to  gratify, 
indulge,  grant,  jurnen  to  be  angry  at  (somebody),  &c. :  9lefymen  <Sie,  h?a3  Sfynen 
beltebt  Take  your  choice.  2BaS  beliebt  Sfynen  ?  What's  your  pleasure  ?  What 
can  I  do  for  you  ?  2Bie  e$  Sfynen  bcltefct  as  you  like.  9hir  bte  SBorjWhmg  ber 
•JKoglicfyfeit,  (S  fonnte  ifyr  jemanb  iibec  ben  ^o^f  toacfyfen,  tfyr  bominieren  .  .  .  bringt 
fte  aufet  jtcfy  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  238),  but  auf  etner  ben  -§afen  bominierenben 
Jjofye  (Nat.-Z.  18,  413).  Unb  toer  bie  Stufye  tlort,  ©ott  mog'  ifym  gnaben  (P.  Heyse, 
3, 149).  SSodte  bie  3fleiefyeit  bem  §errgott  gefaUen,  |  bann  gnab'  er  bit,  ^errtn,  unb 
gnab'  un«  aUen  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  3,  4).  S3i«  bafyin  lebte  ec 


258.1.  A.  b.  THE  DATIVE  OBJECT  529 

fetnen  einfanten  ©tnbien,  feintn  @d)rtftcn  itnb  ber  ©efettfdjaft.  Dicfem  aHern  (up 
to  all  this)  ftatte  9Hefdjen  feitbem  gelebt  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  chap.  xii).  93itte, 
leud)ten  @te  bent  -Sperm  (id.,  Ce'cile,  chap.  xxi).  Saitn,  une  mit  Sanberinnen  man 
»erfaftrt,  fo  wollten  fie  Ujr  tun  (Wildenbruch's  Konig  Laurin,  2,  3).  D,  mu$  meine 
@ee(e  immcr  |  von  bicfer  Spetfe  effen,  bie  ibr  hnbevt  !  (H.  von  Hofmannsthal's 
Elektra,  p.  20).  2ftan  !)at  ifym  in  btefent  5)}unfte  geunu'fatjrt.  @ie  faf)  (cine  bittenben 
Slugen  auf  ftcfy  geridjtet  iinb  ttjillfabrte  feinem  2Bunfd)e  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von 
Geyer,  XV). 

Note.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  dat.  object  is  found  only  when  it  is  desired 
to  indicate  the  person  interested  or  involved  in  the  action,  or  sometimes  to  indicate 
a  thing-  which  by  way  of  personification  is  conceived  as  having  interests  like  any 
person.  When  an  interested  person  is  not  involved  in  the  action,  an  ace.  or  prep. 
phrase  may  sometimes  be  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  even  after 
verbs  which  usually  govern  the  dat.  :  <£>er  Seinb  brof)t  bet  @tabt  wit  einet  93ela; 
gernng,  but  £>te  SSerftanblnngen  mit  granfreid)  gogen  ftd)  tange  fiin,  brcfiten 


fogar  ben  gdnjlidien  Slbbvud).  @r  anhtortete  (see  e)  mir  He  answered  me,  but 
antroertete  feine  @ilbe  He  answered  not  a  syllable  and  @r  cmttocrtete  auf  meine  Srage 
He  answered  my  question.  This  is  in  general  true  of  all  verbs  which  govern  the 
dat.,  and  hence  applies  to  the  verbs  in  b,  c,  d,  e,  B,  C,  D,  below. 

In  order  to  denote  that  the  activity  of  the  verb  is  directed  toward  some  thing 
be  is  placed  before  several  of  these  verbs,  which  then  govern  the  ace.:  (5t  ontttJOVtetc 
(see  e)  mtr  and  Unfern  9htfett  (personified)  cmtWcrtete  niemanb  (Raabe's  Finkenrode, 
xii),  but  @r  beantiBortete  ben  S3rief.  ©t  fotgte  (see  d)  mir,  fetnen  fiiijlen  (personified), 
but  @r  bcfofgte  ntcinen  9Jat  He  followed  (heeded)  my  advice.  The  prefix  be  is  also 
used  before  a  few  of  these  verbs  to  denote  that  an  activity  is  directed  against  a 
person.  In  this  case  the  derivative  verb  with  be;  governs  the  ace.,  and  usually  has 
a  different  shade  of  meaning  from  the  simple  verb,  which  governs  the  dat.  :  ciitcm 
bicncn  to  serve,  be  of  use  to  one,  eitteit  bebteneit  to  wait  upon  (at  the  table,  &c.).  In  the 
same  way  a  shade  of  meaning  arises  between  these  simple  verbs,  which  govern  the 
dat.,  and  their  derivatives  with  other  prefixes  which  govern  the  ace.  :  etnent  fotgen 
to  follow  one,  cinett  ttetfolgen  to  pursue,  persecute  one;  eittem  fd}tneid?cln  to  flatter  one, 
einen  nmfd)mei/d)e(n  to  caress;  nad)ttidjem  ©cfange  laufdjen  to  listen  to  nightly  music, 
etftad  (ace.)  evfailfd)en  to  get  or  learn  by  listening.  In  all  these  cases,  as  also  else- 
where, the  dat.  brings  to  the  front  the  idea  of  a  person  or  a  thing  with  personal 
attributes  that  is  in  one  way  or  another  interested  or  involved  in  the  action,  while 
the  ace.  emphasizes  the  idea  of  the  immediate  object  of  the  activity,  and  implies  that 
the  object  is  thoroughly  affected,  or  (as  in  the  last  example)  that  the  action  results 
in  the  attainment  of  a  definite  goal  or  end. 

The  action  may  be  directed  not  only  toward  an  object,  but  also  for  or  against 
the  interests  of  some  one.  In  this  case  the  ace.  of  the  thing  expresses  the  first  idea, 
and  the  dat.  (see  3,  below)  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  the  second  :  (Sr  befd)dbtgt  mir  ben 


b.  Benefit  or  injury,  fullness  or  lack  :  befommen  to  agree  with,  bef^eren  to 
give  a  present  to,  fcf)(en  to  be  lacking  to,  frommen  to  avail,  benefit,  profit, 
frnd)ten  to  avail,  o,ebved)en  to  be  "lacking  to,  gcbeifyen  to  succeed,  geltcn  to  be  of 
value  to,  be  intended  for,  gcnugen  to  suffice,  satisfy,  gcfcfyeben  or  pafjtcrrn  to 
happen  to,  serve  (see  ex.),  gtiicfen,  gcraten,  gclingen  to  succeed,  mtpglucfcn,  mifj- 
ratcn,  miplingen,  Tjelfcn  (259!  17)  to  help,  manojcln  to  be  lacking  to,  nujjen  or 
niifccn  (earlier  in  the  period  also  with  ace.  ;  in  the  meaning  io  make  use  of, 
both  are  trans,  with  ace.,  either  in  the  simple  form  or  more  commonly  in  the 
form  bemtfcen  or  bcnntyen)  to  be  useful  to,  be  of  service  to,  aid,  rcntebicreu  to 
remedy,  fdjabcn  to  injure,  fehmbieren  (also  trans,  with  ace.)  to  second,  fein 
to  ail,  cincm  jUmmcn  (Swiss  for  fitr  ctnen  jUmmen)  to  vote  for,  jheucn  to  make 
a  bed  for  (cattle),  tangcn  to  be  good  for,  be  useful  to,  be  adapted  to, 
ticrgcbcn  (see  259.  34),  uerjeUjen  (259.  34),  jtnfcn  to  pay  tribute  to  :  $)ie  <£petfe 
befommt  mtv  nid)t.  Unten  an  bent  (Sfyrtftbaum  befd)crte  tdj  meinen  fieuten  :  ben  beibeu 
,  bcm  Jlutfd)cv,  bem  gorf^dufer,  bcm  3dgetbnrfd)en  (Sptelhagen's  Selbstge- 

M  m 


530  SYNTAX  258.  1.  A.  b. 


recht,  p.  158).  2Ba<3  fef>lt  3fmen  ?  What  is  the  matter  with  you  ?  9U(e 
frud)tet  3fc,nen  nid)Jg.  @g  gebrid)t  bem  Slrmen  am  ©elbe.  SUleg  gebeifyt  tfjm. 
gilt  mtt  gleidj  It  is  all  the  same  to  me.  55et  @pott  gait  mir  .the  ridicule  was 
intended  for  me.  @g  gefd)tef)t  bit  red)t  It  serves  you  right.  @g  nu$t  bcm 
Siignet  nid)tg.  5Bag  nritrbe  eg  3fynen  nu$en?  (£g  niifct  fcincr  SSerbauuna,  (H.  von 
Hofmannsthal's  Elektra,  p.  14).  S)er  fann  mtr  tttdjt  fdjaben.  2Bag  ift  Sfjnen  ? 
What  ails  you  ?  (Sr  ftreut  bem  33tef).  The  verb  may  be  understood  or  may 
be  unnecessary  :  3)vum  vett'  erft  i()n,  junt  $tt>etten  btcfeg  Jftnb,  |  bie  britte  Safytt 
ber  @d)»efter  iinb  ber  SJlutter  (Grillparzer's  Ein  treuer  Diener,  4). 

c.  Fitness,  a  belonging  to,  believing,  trusting,  obeying,  listening  :  etgnen  to 
belong  to,  be  characteristic  of,  folgcn  to  follow,  obey,  gebufyren  to  be  due  to,  belong 
to,  be  becoming  to,  gefyoren  to  belong  to,  ge  T)ord)cn,or  now  less  commonly  gefyorfamen, 
in  colloquial  language  also  i>arteren,  to  obey,  ylauben  (see  259.  15),  fyordjen  (259. 
18),  fyoren  (now  no  longer  common,  usually  auf  einen,  ettoag  fyoren)  to  mind,  pay 
attention  to,  answer  to  (a  name),  tafjm  to  become,  look  pretty  on,  licgen  to  be 
adapted  to,  pafjen  to  fit,  suit,  be  agreeable  to,  fetn  (poet.)  to  be  accorded  to  (see 
ex.),  ftfcen  to  fit,  jhljen  to  become,  look  well  on,  trauen  to  trust,  ntiftrauen  to 
distrust,  ttettrauen  to  confide  in,  toerben  (in  choice  language)  to  come  into  one's 
possession,  fall  to  one's  lot,  jtcmen  to  befit  :  £)a3  .§aug  eignct  mir.  9iuv  bcr  ^crpft 
€tgnet  {men  SKadjten,  bie  bag  bunfle  @d)icffat  flJecbten.    35en  8ott?en  etgnet  e3,  eiufam  ;;u 
lagcvn.    llnb  bod)  bin  id}  ber  etnjtge,  bem  er  (ber  ^ubet)  ^ort  (Lessing's  Minna,  i  ,  8). 
(Selbft  ber  3orn  td^t  i^r  fd)6n.     ®ef»en  Jrir  fd)lie^ltd)  ju  bem  unfereg  aSifffng  erften 
SBerfud)  ber  auf  bel(etrijitfd)em  ©ebtet  beltebten  &rau  3tfe  grapan:3lfunian  fiber,  fo  iwd 
mid)  bebunfen,  ba^  aud)  btefer  talentroden  Same  bag  bramatifdje  ©enre  jtidjt  Itegt 
(Stockhardt  in  Die  schbne  Literatur,  Beilage  zum  Literarischen  Zentralblatt, 
Nr.  24,  3.  Jahrg.).    3)er  €?ad)e  fet  it)t  9Jed)t,  bem  9Zed)t  fei  9iad)e!  (Grillparzer's 
Ein  treuer  Diener,  4).    $>iefer  SRccf  ft^t  S^nen  ttte  angegoffen  This  coat  fits  you 
to  perfection.     Grljre  tparb  eitd)  unb  ©teg  (Schiller).     @tn  granbtoferer  Slnblict  tfl 
mtr  nie  gewcrben  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen,  Anno  1870).    3)ergtetd;eit  jtemt 
mir  ntd)t. 

Earlier  in  the  period  fetn  was  used  with  a  dative  of  possession  :  Sffiem  ift 
bag  £au$  ba  bruben?  (Goethe's  Stella,  i).  @treng  gemeJTen  ijl  mein  2luftrag,  |  jebe 
SSot;nung  ju  burd)fud^en,  |  icem  iie  fet,  icem  fie  gefyore  (Grillparzer's  Die  Ahnfrau, 
•2).  This  construction  is  still  common  in  popular  speech  :  Sag  93ud)  ift  mir. 

d.  Approach,    restraining,   yielding,   similarity,    dissimilarity  :    afyneln, 
or  less    commonly    afynen,   to  bear  some   resemblance   to,  afyuben   (earlier 
in    the   period)  or    afynen   (M.H.G.  anen,    lit.  to   come  upon  •    now    with 
non-personal   subject  when   the   dat.   is  employed,  earlier   in   the   period 
sometimes  also  when  the  ace.  was  used  ;  also  with  a  personal  subject  and 
an  ace.  object)  to  have  a  presentiment  of,  begegnen  (earlier  in  the  period  not 
infrequently  with  the  ace.,  and  still  occasionally  so)  to  meet,  treat,  fid)  beugen 
(with   simple   dat.   or  .»or   with   dat.)   to   bow    to,   submit    to,   erliegen  to 
succumb  to,  erfdjetnen  to  appear  to,  fotgen  to  follow,  fid)  etnem  or  more  com- 
monly ju  einem  gefetten  to  join  (go  to)  some  one,  gleidjen  to  resemble,  be  like, 
fommen  to  come  to  (in  a  figurative  sense),  attack,  treat,  speak  to,  (fid))  ttafyen 
or  fid)  tiafyern  to  approach,  parie'ren  to  parry  one's  thrust,  meet  one's  argu- 
ments, fteuern  to  check,  trdumen  (see  also  219.  4.  A.  b)  to  appear  to  in  a  dream, 
dream  of,  »erfa((en  to  meet  with  (a  sad  fate,  &c.),  become  a  prey  to,  icefyren  to 
hinder,  restrain,  check,  lcetd)en  to  yield  to:    3>r  @oljn  dfyiteU  oft  bem  SSater. 
Unb  dt)n'  id)  fo  bem  Siere  mefyr  —   |   tuofylan  !   fo  fyaut'  id)  mid)  vnefleidjt  etnmal,  | 
unb  eg  entpu^t,  hne'g  ja  jmweiten  fdjon  |  gcfd)cl)en  tfl,  fid)  aug  bem  £tet  ber  ^etltge 
(Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  2,  6).     (§3  afynt  (formerly  also  a^nbet)  mtr 
(formerly  also  mid))  md)tg  ®uteg.    3d)  a^nte  ntd)tg  ba»on.     3d)  bin  if)m  auf  ber 
<2trafje  begegnet.   3)a  begegneten  it»tr  SBunberltd),  ben  ?lffeffcr,  auf  ber  Xreppe  (Bismarck 
to  his  wife,  Sept.  26,  1850).     (Sr  begegnete  auf  ber  ©trafje  bte  Secret  Bom  ©tytnna; 
fxum  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  xxii).     S^idjt  beine  3af)re  jafylte  bag  93o(f, 
nut  beine  itaten  ....  ©reife  beugten  fid)  wtllig  betner  Sugmb  (Sudermann's  Teja, 


258.1.  A./.  THE  DATIVE  OBJECT  531 

3).  SSeuge  bid)  uor  bent  Sitter !  ©id)  biefen  ju  gefellen,  fief  Dptfc  abet  nidjt  ein  (Fon- 
tane's  Quilt,  chap.  iii).  (£r  gleidjt  feinem  23ater,  tone  etn  (5i  bent  anberen.  £>iefe 
(Sinftdjt  fommt  3i)nen  fyat.  .fommen  3fynen  ba  feine  ©ebanfen,  Dfjm  9letnl)olb? 
(Halbe's  Zter  Strom,  p.  n).  2Bir  fommen  tljm  eben,  itie  man  fo  einent  fommen 
ntufj.  Sangfant,  tforfid)ttg,  ©djritt  um  ©d)ritt !  (ib.,  p.  55)  We  shall  attack  it  (the 
river,  in  attempting  to  regulate  its  course),  &c.  8afj  bit  nid)t  fo  fommen !  Don't 
put  up  with  such  treatment !  Jlotnm  mir  nidjt  fo !  Don't  speak  to  me  in  that 
way !  SBagte  fie  etnmal,  ifyren  3Rann  nad)  -§einj  ju  fragen,  fo  blieb  er  enhveber  ganj 
bie  Slntwort  fd)ulbig  ober  l)iefi  fie  tljm  nut  bem  3ungen  ein  fur  a((e  SDtal  nid)t  mefjr  $u 
fommen  (Storm's  Hans  und  Heinz  Kirch},  3d)  ftabe  bag  ©efufyl,  bafj  ailed  fyalbj 
toegd  ©efdjeite,  bad  id;  im  §irn  Ijatte,  »eraudgabt  ifl,  um  3ljnen  ju  parteren  (Suttner's 
Im  Berghause,  p.  33),  but  3d)  ^arterte  ben  <5d)lag  mtt  einem  @tocf.  @r  fteuert  bet 
Unorbnung.  Slid  fie  enbltd?  fd)licf,  trduntten  t()t  l)a'^lid)e  $5tnge  (H.  Bohlau's^rf^w 
und  Eva,  chap.  i).  (Sr  verftel  einem  traurtgen  @d)i(ffa(.  3dj  oerftel  ben  3been,  bie 
bu  fennft  (Otto  Ernst's  Jugend-von  heute,  4,  7).  SKan  «tuf  bem  Sofen  tt>e^reii 
mit  Barter  ©trafe. 

After  transitive  verbs  of  removal  the  dative  is  much  used  to  indicate  the 
person  from  whom  the  thing  in  the  ace.  is  taken :  (Sr  nal)tn  mir  metne  Srtef; 
tafdje  t»eg  He  took  my  pocket-book  away  from  me.  @r  flal)l  ntir  tneine  golbene 
Ul)t.  5)er  SBolf  raubt  bent  ^trten  @d)afc.  This  dat.  is  thus  often  rendered  in 
English  by  from,  but  in  German  it  does  not  in  fact  express  separation,  but  is 
a  dative  of  interest  (see  3.  B,  below)  denoting  the  person  that  is  benefited  or 
injured  by  the  action. 

e.  A  declaration,  response,  announcement,  ad-vice :  abfagcn  in  the  olden 
times  to  send  a  challenge  to,  now  to  break  with  a  person,  renounce  a  person  or 
thing,  abjure  (one's  faith),  in  other  meanings  with  the  ace.  (as  einett  Sefttd) 
abfagen  to  send  an  excuse  for  not  coming,  &c.),  abfdjretben  (with  dat.  of  person) 
to  write  to  one  to  cancel  or  recall  some  previous  engagement,  in  other 
meanings  with  ace.,  abfd)tt>oren  to  renounce  allegiance  or  fidelity  to  with  the 
dat.,  to  renounce  a  thing  or  abjure  with  ace.  or  dat.,  in  other  meanings  with 
the  ace.,  anttoorten  (see  a,  Note)  to  answer,  bcten  (with  dat.  only  in  elevated 
style,  usually  with  511  +  dat.)  to  pray  to,  burgett  (einem  fur  ehrad  burgen)  to 
answer,  vouch,  be  responsible  to  some  one  for,  guarantee,  entgegnen  to  reply 
to,  erttnbern  to  reply  to,  flagen  to  complain  to  (in  this  meaning  usually  in 
connection  with  an  object :  einem  fettt  Seib  flagen),  mourn  for  (earlier  in  the 
period  with  dat.,  now  with  ace.  in  poetic  style,  and  in  plain  prose  replaced 
by  beflagen),  fltugeln,  fd)e(len,  or  tauten  to  ring  the  bell  for,  funbtgen  to  give  notice  to 
leave  (a  dwelling,  position,  &c.),  lugen  to  tell  a  lie  to  (in  early  N.H.G. ;  see 
Judges  xvi.  10 ;  now  replaced  by  cinen  belugeu),  lie  to  or  deceive  (still  in 
poetic  language),  ^rebigen  to  preach  to,  raten  advise,  einem  rufen  (see  259.  26), 
einem  or  an  einen  fd)retben,  telegrapfyieren,  telepfyonteren  to  write,  telegraph,  telephone, 
to  some  one:  3d)  tjabe  tfym  abgefdfyriebcn.  SBollt  Sljr  bem  Jtaifer  abfdjworen \ 
(Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,"2,$}.  3d)  fel)rte  in  ber  Jt'irdje  @d)c{j  jurucf,  |  fdjttwr 
meinen  3rrtum  ab  in  feine  -ipanbe  (id.,  Maria  Stuart,  I,  6).  (Sl)e  id)  gu  eudj  jurncfs 
feljrte,  Jvurbe  id)  meinem  ©ott  abfd)l»oren  (Telroann's  Wahrheit,  VII).  2>er  Jperr 
flingelt  bent  fflebtenten.  S3on  funf  ju  funf  SKttmten  ^at  er  bem  Jtellner  gelautet 
(Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alien  Doktors,  p.  270).  9)?ir  ifl  gefunbigt  I  have 
received  notice  to  leave  (my  position  or  dwelling,  according  to  the  connection). 
JDenn  ailed  log  mir,  uxid  id)  ()od)gead)tet  (Schiller's  Wallensteins  Tod,  2,  7).  2Bem 
nidjt  jit  ratcit  ifl,  bem  ifl  aud)  nid)t  ju  b,elfen.  (Sr  prebigt  tauben  Df)rcn. 

/.  Poetry  prefers  the  dat.  in  a  large  number  of  cases  where  in  prose  some 
other  construction,  especially  a  prep,  phrase,  is  used:  ©einen  [=  »or  fetnen] 
SMtrfen,  feinem  aiUnfen  |  mod)t'  id)  in  bie  Jhiiee  ftnfen  (Goethe's  Faust,  1.  6630) ; 
fd)munjetn  (ib.,  1.  6100),  rum^fen  (1.  5272),  &c.  J)ad  madjt  mtd^  bem  Sob  erblaffen 
(Grillparzer's  Ahnfrau,  2).  3d)  will  lad)en  feinem  SSiiten  (ib.).  9Jie  fyab'  id) 
bem  Xob  gejittcrt  (ib.).  £itmpf  ertonte  bie  ©egenb  bem  [=  von  bem]  ©tuqe  (id., 
Die  Argonauten,  2).  Many  other  verbs  might  be  added  to  these.  Cf.  3.  A.  b. 

M  m  2 


532  SYNTAX  258. 1.  A.  g. 

g.  In  early  N.H.G.  other  verbs  not  included  in  the  above  lists  governed 
the  dat,,  such  as  befdjeiben  (Matt,  xxviii.  16),  liebrn  (Ecclus.  vii.  28 ;  the 
dat.  still  surviving  after  the  derivatives  belteben  and  gctteben  ;  see  a.  above)  in 
early  N.H.G.  to  be  dear  to,  betten  (see  259.9),  f^roeigen  (Job  xi.  3  ;  now  ju 
with  dat.),  feg(c)nen  (2  Sam.  xxi.  3),  forgm  (i  Cor.  vii.  2i),»erfd)onen  (i  Sam.  xv. 
15),  »erf)tnbertt,  &c.  The  fine  shade  expressed  in  the  dat.  is  not  felt  so  vividly 
as  in  earlier  periods,  and  thus  the  dat.  is  gradually  losing  ground,  yielding 
to  the  ace.  Poetry  still  preserves  here  occasionally  in  case  of  betten  and 
fd)u>eigen  older  usage. 

B.  The  dative  object  stands  after  the  following  prefixes :  ab,  an,  auf,  aug, 
bet,  be»or,  tin,  ent,  cntgegen,  tnne,  nad),  cb,  unter,  »or,  sorauf,  »orau3,  sorbet  (see  259. 
36),  verier,  ttnber,  ju,  gttvor.  Exs. :  <Sein  SBetragen  fie(  mir  auf  His  conduct 
attracted  my  attention.  35er  9tame  fdllt  mit  nicfyt  gleidj  nneber  etn.  !Det  Sdger 
fieUt  bent  Sffitlbe  nad)  The  hunter  is  on  the  watch  for  the  game.  d3  fam  mir 
fonberbar  »cr.  @r  ettte  mit  »oran  He  hurried  on  ahead  of  me.  (S3  ijl  bodj 
merfnritrbig,  bajj  bte  ©iibbeutfdjen  ting  tm  ©efedfdjaftltdjen  tmmet  urn  etnen  guten 
•Sdjrttt  Verauf  ftnb  (Fontane's  Stechltn,  xxi).  3Jht  tfl  grofjeS  Unrest  nnberfafyren. 
3Htr  tfl  »iet  ®ute$  »on  ifynen  tmberfafjren.  SBtberrebe  mir  ntcfyt.  (Sr  fefcte  ntir  mit 
SBttten  fiarf  ^u.  (St  fam  mir  ju»or.  For  exceptions  see  262.  I.  b,  2nd  par. 

In  M.H.G.  mit  belonged  to  this  list,  and  survives  in  mttfptefcn  to  treat  or 
use  ill  or  roughly,  play  a  nasty  trick  on  (some  one),  lit.  to  tilt  with :  2Bte 
fannft  bit  mir  fo  mttfineten  ? 

The  idea  of  personal  interest  is  prominent  in  many  of  these  datives,  but 
the  ideas  of  a  goal,  place,  separation,  point  of  departure,  source,  are  also 
common  :  (Sr  gefyt  feinem  @cfytrffale  mit  Oiufye  entgegen.  £a3  ©cfyiff  ileuerte  bent 
2anbe  ju.  (Sr  tebte  feinem  SSorbilbe  nac^.  G^  tfl  merfwurbig,  bag  mancfcem  Xiamen 
ctwag  n?ie  eine  mt)fttf(^e  2Racf>t  tnnetco^nt  (Fontane's  Poggenpuhls,  chap.  xi).  (St 
^at  fd)on  a[(em  ©lurf  entfagt.  2)tt  btft  metnem  ©tnfluffe  entroac^fen.  @r  tfl  ber  ©efafyr 
entfio^en.  Sag  2Bort  tfl  meinem  SUJunbe  nur  tm  3orn  entfat»ren.  @t  entftammt  etnem 
alten  f atrijtfc^en  ©efd^ted^t. 

a.  Transitives  having  these  prefixes  take  a  direct  object  of  the  person 
or  thing  in  the  ace.  and  an  object  of  the  person  or  thing  in  the  dat., 
denoting  the  individual  to  whose  advantage  or  disadvantage  the  action 
accrues,  or  indicating  a  goal,  place,  separation,  source  :  (Sr  (egt  meinen  SfBorten 
etnen  anbern  @tnn  unter  He  puts  another  meaning  into  my  words.  @ie  ftngt 
«n$  Jjeute  abenb  ba3  2teb  »or  She  is  going  to  sing  the  song  to  us  this  evening. 
(Sr  fagt  mir  $6fe3  nadj  He  speaks  ill  of  me.  @r  bot  mir  fetnen  23eiflanb  an. 
(Sr  n>iberfe^te  ftdj  ber  Dbrigfett.  !Dtt  Ijafl  ben  Singling  bent  ffierberben  jugefufjrt.  @r 
tegt  bem  ^fftbe  ben  3aum  an.  (Sr  fe^te  bent  5)>ferbe  etnen  <Satte(  auf.  @r  fe^te  bent 
93ucfye  cine  Sorrebe  »or.  @r  legte  bem  Jpu^ne  @ter  jum  ®ruten  unter.  3)u  ^afl 
mid)  adem  Setben  entriicft.  (Sr  fyat  bad  93efie  in  fetnen  SBerfen  (t>on)  ben  Stten  entlel)nt. 
At  the  first  glance  it  might  seem  that  the  dative  in  many  of  these  compounds 
depends  upon  the  preposition  contained  in  the  compound.  A  closer  inspec- 
tion, however,  will  show  conclusively  that  the  dative  is  used  with  an,  auf, 
unter,  »ov  even  with  verbs  of  motion,  where  according  to  usage  elsewhere  the 
ace.  should  be  used.  The  dative  is  used  with  these  prefixes  without  regard 
to  the  idea  of  rest  or  motion.  Different  factors  have  brought  about  this 
uniformity.  In  many  of  the  compounds  the  idea  of  personal  interest  is 
stronger  than  the  usual  force  of  the  preposition,  and  thus  leads  to  the  use  of 
the  dative.  The  words  often  have  a  figurative  or  altered  meaning,  so  that 
the  usual  force  of  the  preposition  is  not  vividly  felt.  The  use  of  the  dative 
with  the  transitives  here  is  made  easy  by  the  fact  that  the  construction  is 
thus  conformed  to  one  of  the  commonest  types  in  the  language,  namely,  the 
use  of  the  dative  in  connection  with  an  accusative.  For  additional  treatment 
of  this  common  type  see  262. 1.  b.  The  employment  of  the  dative  with  wiber 
here  while  it  elsewhere  only  governs  the  accusative  is  explained  by  older 
usage,  according  to  which  it  took  either  dative  or  accusative. 


258.1.  c.  THE  DATIVE  OBJECT  533 

b.  Also  a  foreign  prefix  can  take  a  dat.  object  if  it  has  the  force  of  a 
German  prefix :  Sic  nnrfUd)e  (Stymclogie  fucfyt  bag  Sort  auf  ein  verlcren  gegan; 
geneg  ober  ivenigtfeng  aug  bcm  93en>ufjtfein  verfdjtounbeneg  €>tammtt>ort  von  irgenbttne 
mwanbter  33ebeutung  jurucf  jufufyren ;  bte  „  aSolfgetymologte  "  fubflituiert  itmgefefyrt 
tin  2Bort  mit  befannter  SScbeutung  einem  anberen,  iroburd)  btefeg  jugteid)  meljr  ober 
itenigcr  in  fetncr  93ebcutung  serdnbert  toirb  (Wundt).  Set  ©raf  mufte  jxd)  fdjliefc 
ltd)  nod)  beglucftt>unfd)en,  alg  cr  1805  bcm  ®oecftng'fd)en  Jpufaren;9Regiment  alg 
2J?ajor  aggrcgiert  hwrbe  (Fontane's  IVanderungen,  I,  p.  259).  SBir  ntciben  ben 
33qirf,  lt>cld)et  bem  fd)rt>ebifd)en  Jlrieggsolf  fontributert  (=  beifleucrt)  (Freytag's 
Rittmeister,  chap.  iv).  SSie  fonncn  ©ie  mir  bergleid)en  tmputieren,  irag  mir  bod) 
nid)t  cinmal  im  iraume  einfal(en  iwtrbe!  (Spielhagen's  Sturinflut,  I.  9).  5Wtt 
bcm  Stbjcftb  ftat  bag  ^artijunum  gemctn,  ba^  e3  cinem  Subftanttoum  be3  <£a^ 
attribuicrt  ifl  (Brugmann's  Ktirze  Vergkichende  Grammatik,  p.  606).  2Bo 
cin  9Jetatiofa^  cinem  etnfacfycn  Slttribitt  foorbtnicrt  ifl  (Anzeiger  filr  deutsches 
Altertum  ttnd  deutsche  Literatur,  xxix,  3.  Januar  1904,  p.  173).  3a 
fc^en  <£ie,  toenn  man  ben  graucn  o^vontcrt  (cntgegentritt),  fo  nennett  fie  bad  immer 
©rob^ctt  (Otto  Ernst's  Jugend  von  heute,  i,  10).  Thus  also  aff(amiercn  to 
acclaim,  applaud,  avplaubteren  (sometimes  also  with  ace.)  to  applaud,  ajfentieren 
to  agree  with,  afjiliieren  to  help,  be  present  at,  attadjieren  to  attach  to  the 
suite  of  (,  as  in  (St  ifl  bet  [or  bet  ber]  ©cfanbtfdjaft  atta^tert),  einem  ehrad  a»ifieren 
to  notify  some  one  of  something,  tm^onieren  to  impress  forcibly,  awe,  Jjrdfibtcrcn 
to  preside  over,  einem  etu>a$  pro^onieren  to  propose  something  to  some  one, 
fuggerieven  to  suggest  to,  fuf  jebicren  to  follow,  succeed. 

C.  The  dative  object  also  stands  after  a  number  of  verbs  loosely 
compounded  with  an  adjective,  noun,  adverb,  or  prep,  phrase:  an^eimfallen 
to  fall  to  (one's  lot),  devolve  upon,  escheat  to,  fall  a  prey  to,  jum  SRufyme 
gereid)en  to  redound  to  (one's)  glory,  ftanbfyalten  to  hold  one's  own  against, 
ircrtfyatten  to  keep  one's  promise  with,  ju  gute  fommen  to  be  to  one's  bene- 
fit, fyetmfomntett  to  come  home  to  (in  a  fig.  sense),  jit  £ilfe  fommen  to  come 
to  one's  aid,  jit  flatten  fommen  to  come  in  handy  to,  be  of  use  to,  p 
ftefyen  fommen  (see  259. 29)  to  cost,  come  to,  I)etmleud)ten  to  make  short  work 
with  (some  one),  give  (some  one)  a  piece  of  one's  mind,  turn  (some  one)  off, 
cinem  or  einen  (the  dat.  to  be  construed  as  the  indirect  object  of  the  verb  and 
angft  as  a  noun  used  as  direct  object ;  the  ace.  to  be  construed  as  the  direct 
object  of  the  verb  and  angft  as  an  objective  predicate  adjective)  angfl  macfyen 
to  frighten,  alarm  one,  etncm  or  einen  bange  (to  be  construed  as  an  adverb  with 
dat.,  or  as  an  objective  predicate  adj.)  macfyen  to  make  one  afraid,  einem 
grufeltg  macfyen  to  make  one  feel  creepy,  einem  or  einen  fyeifj  madjen  to  make 
one  angry,  excited,  cinem  irarm  madjen  to  make  it  hot  for  some  one,  ben 
£of  madden  to  court,  pay  court  to,  bag  Sffiort  rebcn  to  defend,  etncm  fiir  ettoaS 
gutfagen  to  stand  responsible  to  some  one  for  something,  lobfingen  to  sing 
praises  to,  fyofynfpredjen  to  scoff  at,  einem  jttr  Skrnunft  fpredjen  to  urge  one 
to  come  to  reason,  be  reasonable,  Oiebe  flef)cn  to  answer  one,  account  to 
some  one  for  something,  ju  JDtcnflcn  flcfyen  to  be  at  one's  service,  genugtini  to 
satisfy,  guttun  to  do  good  to,  benefit,  tcib  tun  to  fill  one  with  pity  (see  ex.), 
not  fcin  or  not  tun  to  be  needed  (by  some  one),  be  lacking  to,  be  necessary  for, 
tocfytun  to  hurt,  grieve,  fauer  u?crbcn  to  become  troublesome  to,  cause  difficulty 
to,  jn  tcil  Jpcrbcn  to  fall  to  (one's)  lot,  lwt)lttjo((cn  to  be  kindly  disposed  toward, 
I)Ctmjal)len  to  pay  (some  one)  back  (fig.),  and  many  others  of  like  formation. 
Exs. :  Sag  gercidjt  tfym  jitm  OJufymc  That  redounds  to  his  glory.  £>ag  fcmmt 
U)m  ju  gute  He  gets  the  benefit  of  it.  2)ie  Srfafyrung  fommt  ifjm  ju  flatten 
Experience  stands  him  in  good  stead.  Sag  fofl  tfym  teuct  ju  jleljen  fommen  He 
shall  pay  dearly  for  that.  @r  Ijatte  offcnbar  bie  loblidje  Sbftdjt  geljabt,  mir  ein 
bifjdjen  grufclig  ju  mad)cn  (Paul  Keller's  Waldwinter,  IV).  Sag  Jfrnb  fprad)  bcr 
BJluttcr  jut  a3ernnnft  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Alien  und  die  Jungeri).  ©elbfl  mir, 
fcincm  beflen  greunbc,  I;at  cr  nidjt  barubcr  3?ebe  geflanbcn,  >v>a<3  aug  einev  vrojefticrten 
ober  nnrflidj  »of(jogenen  J&eirat  gc»orben  tjl,  »on  bcr  rot  ctwa  fcd^g  3a^tcn  cin  ©erudit 


534  SYNTAX  258.  I.e. 

erging  (Heyse's  Itn  Paradiese,  I,  chap.  vii).  3Me  Slrjnet  ftirb  Sljnen  guttun. 
<Sie  tun  mir  letb  I  feel  quite  sorry  for  you.  2JZut  i]i  un3  not  unb  fin  gefafjter 
©eijl  (Schiller).  Senfe  beine  <2ee(e  jejjt  auf  anbere  metnetwegen  irbifdje  S5inge,  e3 
tut  bit  net  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  4).  S)a3  tfl,  frag  un3  not  tut. 

We  often  find  this  favorite  dative  construction  where  in  English  we  have  a 
prepositional  object.  In  German  both  of  these  constructions  are  used  with 
a  slight  shade  of  meaning.  The  preposition  points  to  a  person  toward  whom, 
the  activity  is  directed,  while  the  simple  dative  represents  the  person  as 
involved  in  the  action  in  an  emotional  way  or  through  personal  interests : 
@3  toar  bet  evfte  bleibenbe  (Sinbrurf,  ben  ein  umbltcfyeg  SfBefm  auf  mid)  gemad)t  fyatte 
(Goethe's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  I,  5).  3Seld)m  (Sinbrucf  fyat  fie  3b,nen 
gemadjt?  (Suttner's  Im  Berghause,  p.  42).  (Sr  luollte  ilmen  gtetdj  bet  bet  etftett 
23egegnung  (Stnbrucf  modjen  unb  Jjerrfdjte  jie  begljalb  an,  &c.  (Ompteda's  Sylvester 
von  Geyer,  xxvi). 

Such  compounds  occur  often  in  connection  with  a  dat.  of  the  person  or 
thing,  and  an  ace.  of  the  thing  :  (Stned  £age3  ftieg  aud)  er  tangfam  unb  gewid)ttg 
bie  brei  Xtep^cn  ^u  ©ufanneS  SBotjnung  ^inauf,  urn  ft d)  bet  Xante  in  (Stinnerung 
ju  bvtngen  (Isolde  Kurz's  Das  Vermdchtnis  der  Tante  Susanne).  (Sr  gab  feine 
gamiUe  bem  S'tenbe  preiS.  3d)  ^telt  e3  feinet  Unnnffenfyeit  ju  gute  I  put  it  down 
to  his  ignorance.  Slber  man  toufjte,  ba§  bee  alte  J&erc  fetner  3eit  in  $old)o» 
utd)t  angencmmeu  irorben  tvar,  unb  fyteft  t^m  be^^atb  feinen  Born  \\\  gute  (Spiel- 
hagen's  Herrin,  p.  208)  made  allowance  for  his  anger.  3Jlan  fann  tfym  nid)t3  gu 
3)anl  madjen  One  can  never  please  him.  Oitemanb  fann  e3  i()m  red}t  raadjen  No 
one  can  satisfy,  please  him.  2Kad)'  wit  nid^td  wig  Tell  me  no  fibs.  (St  tate 
fetner  jVltege  \v>*$  juletbe, 

D.  A  number  of  impersonal  verbs  take  a  dat.  object.  These  verbs  are 
enumerated  in  219. 4.  A.  b, 

2.  Also  adjectives,  participles,  adverbs,  and  nouns,  take  a  dat. 
object  to  denote  that  (usually  a  person)  toward  which  the  given 
quality  or  activity  is  directed :  @r  ijl  mir,  ben  JJugen  feint)  He  is  an 
enemy  to  me,  to  lies. 

A.  The  following  are  the  principal  adjectives,  participles,  and 
adverbs  which  are  used  with  the  dative : 

a.  Those  signifying  inclination,  attitude  (harshness,  kindness,  favorable- 
ness,  £c.),  gratification,  comfort,  service,  benefit,  a  belonging  to,  fidelity, 
obedience,  fitness,  nearness,  similarity,  conformity,  superiority,  and  their 
opposites,  all  of  which  conform  in  general  meaning  to  the  verbs  in  i.  A,  above : 
©c  iji  ntir  gram  He  has  conceived  a  dislike  toward  me.  @r  ift  mir  bofe  (angry 

at).    3f>r  Sefud)  ijl  mir  fteta  angenef)m.     SBeil tt>eif'$  nid)t  nxrfyr  ijl ;   unb 

tt>eit  mit  nid)t3  guunberer  ift  at$  bie  Umvaljvfyett  (Wildbrandt's  Die  gute  Lorelei, 
vii).  @etn  SSerge^en  tjl  i^m  letb  He  is  sorry  for  his  fault.  ?a$  bir  ba3  nid^t 
tetb  fein !  Don't  be  uneasy  about  that !  £>a3  Unternefymen  tturbe  tfjm  letb  He 
began  to  repent  of  his  enterprise.  3Mefe  Speife  tft  bem  ^ranfen  tttdjt  j^utragltd). 
$>ie  aWatfafet  jinb  ben  93dumen  fdjablid).  5)ie  mir  gef)crigen  93ud;er  the  books 
which  belong  to  me.  Stafdjen  ijl  ben  ^inbern  eigen.  3!)a3  9Wabd)cn  ifl  i^m  treu. 
(Sr  ijl  feinen  3bea(en  abtrunnig  geworben.  @r  tto^nt  un<5  am  nad^fien  He  lives 
nearest  to  us.  SKeinem  ^>aufe  benad;bart  Itegt  bag  §au3  etnes  jubifd)en  2tfanne3 
(Heyse's  Maria  -von  Magdala,  I,  5).  35er  ^nabe  ift  bem  SSater  feJjr  d()ntid;. 
j)te  Gamete  lagern  5e(3b(ocfen  gleid^  tm  ©anbe.  35ie  9?id>tung  be3  ©trome^  bet 
©tromftridj,  lauft  Ijier  bem  Ufer  nid)t  ^arafleL  @t  tft  mir  bartn  uber  He  is  stiperior 
to  me  in  that,  but  when  the  subject  is  a  thing  uber  has  developed  a  meaning 
somewhat  different  in  its  application  :  £>ag  fieben,  bag  jte  jefct  fufyrte,  irar  ifyr 
ot)ne{)in  uber  geworben  (Telmann's  IVahrheit,  IX)  She  had  besides  become  sick 
of  the  life,  &.c. 


258. 3.  A.  THE  DATIVE  OBJECT  535 

Note.  The  dative  after  adjectives,  participles,  and  verbs  is  often  replaced  by  a 
prep,  construction.  Except  in  figurative  language,  or  in  case  of  personification  where 
things  are  represented  as  having  interests,  as  in  the  ninth  sentence,  the  prep,  con- 
struction is  the  rule  for  nouns  representing  things,  and  is  also  common  for  persons, 
as  the  various  prepositions  can  express  so  many  appropriate  shades  of  meaning  :  (§r  tjl 
mit  Qdiciflt  He  is  favorably  inclined  toward  me,  but  3)er  2Renfcf)  tjl  gum  S36fen  geneigt 
Man  is  inclined  to  evil.  2)ie  <3(J)uf)e  VatKIt  mit  The  shoes  fit  me,  but  !Dfr  S)erf«l  pdfjt 

auf  ten  Scpf  The  lid  fits  on  the  kettle.  J)ie  beiben  2mte  paffen  •  redjt  ju  tinanbet 
The  two  form  a  good  match.  2)a8  JpauS  gefycrt  (belongs)  mir.  @r  gefyort  in  baS 
$au$  The  house  is  the  place  for  him.  @r  ge()i5rt  untet  meine  bejlen  ftreunbe  He  is 
one  of  my  best  friends.  @r  gehort  \\\  unfrer  tfteunbfdjaft  He  belongs  to  our  circle  of 
friends,  liefer  @d?ul)  gefyort  auf  ben  Unfen  gup.  2)ie  Slnmerfung  gefyort  nidjt  fcierljer, 
fonbern  an  tine  anbere  <»tefle. 

b.  The  dat.  also  stands  after  adjectives  in  marty  set  expressions  in  con- 
nection with  a  verb,  especially  an  impersonal  verb  :  3J?tr  tjl  tt?ifr  int  Jlcpf  My 
head  is  confused.  9Rtt  tjl  gar  nicfyt  lacfyerlid)  gu  SWute  I  am  by  no  means  in 
a  laughing  mood.  -Wit  nnrb  »on  o((e  bem  fo  bumm,  ate  gina.'  mir  tin  9Ku^lrab 
im  Jlopf  ^erutn.  SKit  tjl  iibet  I  feel  sick  at  my  stomach. 

B.  The  dative  is  sometimes  found  with  nouns  which  have 
meanings  and  form  corresponding  to  verbs  in  i  and  adjectives  in 
A,  above :  SSenjebenS  rear  e3,  bafj  ber  23urgermetfier  ©eijorfant  bem  ©efe^e 
forberte  (Immermann's  Miinchhausen,  6,  n).  2)iefe  Jtunftrcerfe  ftnb  blofj 
feit  1816  nacfy  i^rer  @inoerlci6ung  bem  britifc^en  3Wufeum  in  bie  aUgemeine 
^enntnig  ubergcgangen  (Springer's  Kunsthislorische  Brief e,  p.  197). 
Although  this  dative  has  been  attempted  by  different  authors,  it 
has  not  become  established,  and  is  usually  replaced  by  a  prep, 
construction :  £)ap  ftdj  fur  bie  3ugenb  ©efyorfam  unter  bag  ©ffc£  jteme 
(Gutzkow).  2)er  ©e^orfam  ber  llntertanen  gegen  bie  D&rigfeit.  In  many 
cases,  however,  the  dative  is  seemingly  connected  with  a  noun, 
where  in  reality  it  belongs  to  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  and  is  in  fact 
a  dative  of  personal  interest  as  described  in  3,  A,  B,  C,  below :  (£r 
roar  mir  ein  SBater.  <£r  tft . . .  ein  2Jiufter  SBitrgern  ttnb  SBauern  (Goethe's 
H.  und  D.t  III,  53).  J)a3  rear  eucfy  etne  §reube  That  was  a  joy,  I  can 
tell  you. 

3.  The  Dative  of  Personal  Interest.  The  dative  in  the  preceding 
articles  is  more  or  less  connected  with  a  single  verb,  verbal 
expression,  or  an  adjective  whose  meaning  it  completes,  but  the 
dative  of  the  person  (or  far  less  commonly  of  the  thing)  interested 
in  the  statement  is  often  used  to  qualify  the  whole  sentence.  This 
dative  shows  the  following  shades  of  use  : 

A.  The  dative  of  reference.  The  dative  often  denotes  the  person 
to  whom  the  statement  seems  true,  or  with  reference  to  whom  it 
holds  good  :  3Bir  fyeijjen  ifym  nur  Jltnbcr  We  are  to  him  only  children. 
@ie  ift  mir  fcfyim  To  me  she  is  pretty.  2)aS  tjt  mir  eiit  Oidtfel  That  is 
a  riddle  to  me.  2)aS  fcletbt  mir  ein  grower  Sroft.  £)a3  Jtletb  ift  mir  ju 
lang  The  dress  is  too  long  for  me.  5)er  SRocf  ift  ifym  md}t  reeit  genug. 
2>a3  ijt  mir  nicfyt  ganj  flar.  (53  flang  bem  V*inlid?  gefpannten  Dtyr  rete 
fernf)er  raufc^enbeS  SBajfer.  9Bin  icfy  berfeI6e  benn  nic^t  me^r,  bem  tyier  fonft 
atte  Jitren  fyrangen?  Am  I  not  any  more  the  same  man,  to  whom 
once  all  doors  stood  open?  5Diir  (upon  me,  as  far  as  I  am 
concerned)  tymterlief?  feine  3ftebe  etnen  tiefen  (Sinbrucf.  iDag  ift  mir 


536  SYNTAX  258. 3.  A. 

crinnerlid)  I  do  not  remember  that.  <5r  mad)te  e8  mir  leicfyt  He  made 
it  easy  for  me.  (£r  madjte  e3  mir  moglid)  ju  reifen.  „  28iUft  bit  fein  SSerfcen 
cine  2>rot)ung  nennen  ? "  „  63  ifl  bie  fd;rerflid?fle  Uon  alien  mir "  (Goethe's 
Iphigenie,  i,  2).  2Rir  irar  jmretlen,  alg  fei  id?  Jjon  unfernt  Ite&en  0ott 
gefcfyteben  (Freytag's  Rittmeister,  ix).  3dj  modjte  bir  \va&  fein  fonnen 
(Hauptmann's  EinsameMenschen,  2).  <&o  (because  he  was  supposed 
to  be  unacquainted  with  the  German  language)  fonnte  er  ftd?  Heine 
Sred)tyeiten  etlattfcen,  bie  cittern  attberett  nic^t  bttrdjgegangen  rearen  (Beyer- 
lein's  Jena  oder  Sedan  ?,  iv). 

A  preposition  can  often  replace  the  dative  here,  usually,  how- 
ever, with  a  shade  of  meaning :  £)ie  9tad?rid?t  irar  meinem  SSater  rcidjtig 
The  news  was  important  to  my  father,  i.  e.  he  felt  it  as  such,  but  £>ie 
SRacfyricbt  war  fiir  meinen  SSater  vrtdptig  The  news  was  of  importance  for 
my  father,  i.  e.  in  and  of  itself,  whether  he  was  conscious  of  it  or 
not.  (£r  i|1  ben  Qlrnten  ein  SSater  He  is  a  father  to  the  poor  (and  they 
feel  the  results  of  this  relation),  but  S)er  ntcfyt  jung  rear  nut  unfern 
3imgttngen,  |  bent  unfre  SBorte  nid)t  jum  Bergen  tonen,  |  fann  er  ein  SSater 
fein  jn  feinen  ®6^nen  ?  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  Prolog,  3),  because  the 
poet  calls  attention  to  the  attitude  rather  than  its  resultant  effects 
upon  the  persons. 

a.  Dative  of  agent.  After  the  gerundive  infinitive  (180.  A)  and 
after  verbal  adjectives  in  =t>ar  and  *licfc,  this  dat.  has  the  force  of 
a  dative  of  agent,  as  the  natural  inference  is  that  the  person  in  the 
dat.,  with  reference  to  whom  the  statement  of  the  necessity  or 
possibility  of  performing  the  action  holds  good,  is  also  the  one 
who  actually  performs  it :  (£ine  £aft  fyafc'  id?  getragen  —  [e8  ift]  fetnem 
@terblid?en  git  faffcn!  (Lienhard's  Ko'nig  Arthur,  5,  p.  103).  In 
the  expression  3>a8  madjt  mir  gu  fdjaffen  (185.  B.  I.  2.  d,  toward 
end)  the  dative  is  the  usual  expression.  In  connection  with 
the  gerundive,  &on  is,  in  general,  more  common  in  plain  prose 
and  often  necessary  to  make  the  thought  clear :  23on  biefem  bin  id}  gu 
retten.  In  connection  with  *bar  and  *lidj,  the  dat.  is  usual :  2)ag 
reeiniarifdje  Beater  rear  auf  feinem  t)5d;jlen  itjnt  erreidjfcaren  ^unft  (Goethe). 
The  theater  at  Weimar  was  at  the  highest  point  of  perfection  that 
could  be  attained  by  it.  QlfleS  bem  Qluge  (?rreid;6are  (id.).  <2teit  ift  ber 
5el3;  bie  S9urg  gan^  nnbejrcinglid?  |  unb  fetnem,  ber  nid^t  ^lugel  ^at,  er« 
fd;n:ing(id)  (Gries)  The  precipice  is  steep,  the  fortress  is  impreg* 
nable  and  cannot  be  reached  by  one  who  has  not  wings.  The 
prepositional  construction  with  fitr  is  often  in  plain  prose  more 
common  here  :  (£r  (i.  e.  biefer  QSerfud))  mad?t  Jebod?  feineSrKgS  ben  5lnfprudj 
eine  erfdjopfenbe,  grammatifd^e  Qlnal^fe  ber  <Sprad)e  ©^affpeareS  fcieten  ^u 
njotten ;  eine  fold^e  ifl  fi'tr  ben  QbtftttlHid  rceber  )>rafttfd),  nod)  n-ar  fte  fur  mid? 
jur  3eit  auSfu^rbar  (Franz's  Shakspeare-Grammatik,  Vorwort).  The 
fitr  here  gives  the  statement  more  objective  force,  while  the  simple 
dative  would  impart  a  subjective  meaning  representing  the  thought 
as  the  personal  view  of  the  speaker.  Also  when  laffm  has  a  reflexive 
object  and  a  dependent  infinitive  with  passive  force,  the  agent  can 
be  in  the  dat. :  £>ranf  lafjt  er  fid;  bent  (or  more  commonly  »on  bcm) 
23olfe  fetyen  (Gellert).  Other  examples  are  given  in  262.  III.  2. 
C.  c. 


258.  3.  c.  THE  DATIVE  OBJECT  537 

b.  Poetic  Dative  of  Cause.  In  poetic  language  the  dative  is  very 
common  to  denote  a  person  or  thing  involved  in  the  action  in  the 
relation  of  a  cause :  (Sief),  id)  fce&te  md)t  bir  (in  prose  »or  bir),  id)  frebte 
ber  furdjt&aren  ©ottin  (Burger).  2)em  (in  prose  you  i>em)  (stojj  be0  2Bibber3 
fcefrt  bet  morfd)e  (Stein  (Platen's  Treue,  2).  The  list  of  verbs  given  in 
I.  A./  might  also  be  classed  here.  In  prose  the  dative  is  usually 
replaced  by  a  prep,  construction. 

B.  The  dative  of  interest.     The  dat.  often  denotes  the  person 
to  whose  advantage  or  disadvantage  the  action  results :  <Setn  £erj 
fd)lug  ber  gangen  3)Jenfd$ttt  His  heart  beat  for  all  humanity.     J)ir  (for 
you)  fctufyt  gettsifj  bag  fd)ihtfie  ©liicf  bcr  (Frbe.     3rrc  id;  |  fo  jrre  id)  mir 
(Job  xix.  4).     2Da8  J4Jferb  lief  ir)m  fort  The  horse  ran"  away  from  him, 
lit.  ran  away  to  his  discomfiture. 

This  dat.  is  very  common  after  trans,  verbs,  even  when  from  an 
English  standpoint  there  seems  to  be  no  need  of  it:  <Sd)reifcen 
@te  mir  biefe  Qlufgafce  a6  Copy  this  exercise  for  me.  Jtomm'  aud), 
ftefy'  btr'8  an  Come  too  and  look  at  it  for  yourself.  (£r  fauft  feinem 
(Sofjne  ein  $ferb.  Kammerer  :  <§ie  ftirftt.  Ute  :  3d)  fount'  ifyr  (for  her 
sake)  uwnfcfjen,  t§  icdre  f o !  (Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  II,  vi,  5).  Jtetnem 
anberen  woflte  fte  ben  Jlarren  jtel)en,  aber  ifym  (Carl  Busse's  Die 
scho'ne  Andrea}.  <So  na^nt  id)  nttr  (not  translated  into  English)  ju 
«§aufe  nur  &\i,  mid)  anjujiet^en  (dress)  unb  ju  fru^fiiirfen,  itnb  fufyr  fofort 
icieber  nad)  <Siefcen(d)Io^  (name  of  a  castle). 

This  dat.  is  much  used  in  prose,  but  very  much  more  so  in 
poetry:  2Bol)l  rcittert  jebeS  2Befeit  feinen  5einb;  |  brunt  fyeijt  and;  bir  (in 
prose  Gf9eu  ^i^)  ^cr  «^aifft  unlberu  «§ap  |  unb  unoerfot;nlid;eren,  al3  mir 
(=  gccjen  mid))  feI6fl  (Uhland). 

a.  This  dat.  is  used  with  unusual  frequency  instead  of  a  pos- 
sessive or  a  genitive :  SKtr  (or  2)em  QBil^elm)  fd)eint  bie  @oune  in8 
©efid)t  The  sun  shines  in  my  (or  William's)  face.  Here,  as  in 
English,  the  possessive  or  gen.  might  also  be  used :  £>te  <8onne 
fd)etut  in  mein  (i)eftd)t  (or  in  SBilfjelmS  ®eftd)t).  These  two  construc- 
tions are  not,  however,  exactly  equivalent  in  force.  The  dat. 
makes  more  prominent  the  person  to  whose  advantage  or  disad- 
vantage the  action  accrues.  Sometimes  both  dat.  and  possessive 
are  used :  (?3  gtbt  fcofe  ©etfter,  |  bie  in  beg  3Kenfd)en  uu»envat)vter  35rufl  | 
fid)  augenblirf(id)  i^rcn  SBo^n^Ia^  ne^men  (Schiller).  This  double 
construction  is  in  our  own  time  a  characteristic  of  popular  speech  : 
SBcnn  id)  an  ben  5(renb  (name)  jefct  benfe  unb  an  <8ie,  «§err  Jtunemunb,  unb 
an  bie  ©ertrub  unb  bie  -§unbe  nub  ba3  ubrige  93te^)  unb  ba§  ganje  gute  alte 
Sefcen,  fo  fonnte  id;  mir  meiit  «£embe  in  meinen  Sranen  reafd)en  (Raabe's 
Meister  Autor,  chap.  17).  See  also  138.  3. 

C.  Ethical  dative.     The  dat.  is  not  only,  as  in  the  preceding 
article,  used  to  denote  the  person  who  has  a  material  interest  in 
the  action,  but  is  also  often  employed  to  denote  the  person  who 
has  or  is  expected  to  have  an  emotional  interest  in  the  statement, 
especially  a  dat.  of  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  ist  or  and  person 
which  is  frequently  in  conversation  inserted  here  and  there,  in 
some  particular  proposition,  to  indicate  that  that  particular  point 
seems  important  to  the  speaker  or  should  be  noted  by  the  person 


538  SYNTAX  258.  3.  C. 

addressed :  <Siel)  mir  nidjt  fo  flnfier  au8  Pray,  don't  look  so  sullen. 
2>a8  rear  end?  eine  &reube  That  was  a  joy,  I  can.  tell  you.  <£eit>  mir 
red)t  artig,  tfyr  Jttnbet  Come,  children,  I  do  want  you  to  be  real  good. 
2)afji  mir  feiner  aufS  (£i3  gcfyt !  I  don't  want  one  of  you  to  go  upon 
the  ice.  9ftebe  mir  bod?  nur !  Come,  don't  be  bashful,  speak  right  out, 
for  I  am  anxious  to  hear  it.  <SprtcJ)  bent  QSater  (not  an  indirect  object 
here,  but  an  ethical  dat.)  liebcr  nicfyt  erfi  »on  biefent  SSorfyaben  Don't  say 
anything  to  father  about  this  plan  now,  for  you  can  expect  from  him 
no  interest  in  it,  but  rather  opposition.  Snimer  nntfjte  fie  etrcag  SReueS, 
unb  fo  giftig  fant  3fmen  fcei  if)r  aUcg  IjerauS  She  always  had  something 
new  to  relate,  and  I  tell  you,  she  had  a  mean  way  of  telling  it. 
This  dat.  cannot  easily  be  rendered  into  modern  English,  though 
the  same  construction  is  common  in  Shakespeare :  Whip  me  such 
honest  knaves  (Othello,  I,  i.  47). 

4.  In  the  eighteenth  century  and  even  later  a  dat.  is  found  with  fuljlen, 
fennen,  wifien,  and  tticHen  or  begefyren,  where  a  prep,  phrase  is  now  used :  3d) 
ffifyU  mir  (now  in  mir)  -^offhung,  SJhtt  unb  Jtraft  (Goethe).    3d)  fyatte  etne  gri^ere 
Jpeiterfeit  beg  ©eifteg  gewonnen,  alg  id)  mir  (an  mir)  lange  nid)t  gefannt  (Goethe). 
Unb  I)att'  id)  bit  (bet  bit)  ein  fo  serfofynlid)  £erj  gewujjt  (Schiller).    S&etfj  id),  »a3 
©alabin  mit  (»on  mir)  »tl(?  (Lessing).     2Ba3  pe  t^nt  iroKe  (Freytag's  Bild,  i, 
zoo).    2Ba3  mir  (»on  mir)  bie  ©6ttUd)e  bege^rt,  bag  tt>eijj  id)  (H.  v.  Kleist). 

5.  It  is  a  marked  peculiarity  of  the  uneducated  that  they  use  an  accusative 
often  where  a  dative  is  in  place,  and  on  the  other  hand  a  dative  where  an 
accusative  should  be  employed :   Sa§  mir  in  SRitl) !     3d)  f>ab'  nid)t3  mit  bid)  ju 
fdjaffen !  (May  in  Halbe's  Das  tausendjahrige  Reich,  p.  128). 

Either  Dative  or  Accusative  according  to  Meaning  or  from 
Unsettled  Usage. 

259.  Some  verbs  take  the  dat.  or  ace.  according  to  the  meaning 
involved,  while  others,  on  account  of  fluctuation  of  usage,  admit  of 
both  cases  without  a  difference  of  meaning.  The  difference  of 
construction  with  the  same  verb  usually  results  from  analogy,  the 
verb  breaking  away  from  its  original  construction  to  follow  that  of 
another  verb  of  the  same  meaning. 

1.  attge^eit  to  concern,  usually  with  ace.,  but  occasionally  also  with  dat. 
in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  dat.  to  express  a  relation  which  con- 
cerns inner  or  material  interests  (see  258.  i) :  2Ba3  gefyett  bcm  (Sftrttfen  biefca 
SWanneS  93en>eife  an?  (Lessing,  10,  10).     !Da3  a,el)t  mid)  ntd)t<3  an,  or  3)a$  gcfyt  mir 
nid)t3  an  (Hildebrand's  Voin  deuischen  Sprachunterricht,  p.  65). 

2.  atlf  omilietl  t   (A)  to  depend  or  hinge  upon,  with  dat.  of  interest :    Gd 
fommt  mir  aitf  ein  i>aar  Xater  md)t  an  I  do  not  mind  giving  a  few  talers  more. 
(B)  To  get  at,  with  dat. :   2J?an  fann  bent  33erbred)er  nid)t  anfommen.     (c)  To 
come  (hard,  easy,  &c.)/or,  with  ace.  early  in  the  period,  but  later  also  with 
dat.,  the  fluctuation  continuing  without  a  marked  preponderance  of  either 
form:  33nb  eg  fant  fie  fyart  an  vber  ber  geburt  (Genesis  xxxv.  17).    65  ijl  mir 
fd)»er  angefommen  (Schiller).      Unb  bag  fyitmtnefymen,  irare  mir  fyart  angcfommen 
(Fontane's  Fran  Jenny,  xvi).     <Sauer  tjVg  mid)  genng  angefommen  (Anzengruber's 
Schandfleck,  VII).     @g  fant  i^m  fauer  an,  bajj  er  if)r  je^t  etnen  gropen  @d>merj 
bereiten  follte  (Rosegger).     @g  fam  i^m  ^art  genug  an  (R.  Voss's  Das  Opfer,  XI). 
Sg  ijl  mir  l)art  angefommen,  meinem  3ugenbfreunb  biefeg  £eib  an^utun  (Schubin). 
6g  fam   mid)  I)art  an,  mid)   gu  verjiellen  (Marriot).     @te  fu^lte,  ba^  fte  ben 


259.  7-    VERBS  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE      539 

gvejjtcn  28er(uit  ertttt,  bap  eg  fur  bie  anberen,  fo  fitter  eg  fie  anfam,  bod)  nid)t  bad 
bebeittete,  hue  fur  fte  (G.  Ompteda).  (D)  To  befall,  come  upon,  with  ace.  in 
early  N.H.G.,  later  also  frequently  with  dat.,  now  perhaps  more  commonly 
with  ace. :  Surest  ttnb  jittern  ifi  mid)  anfomen  (Psalm  Iv.  6).  9ltd)t  etnen 
Slugenbltcf  ifl  mir  eitte  Surest  »or  ber  £6lle  angefommen  (Goethe).  £)er  »erftcrbene 
<Sd)icfebanj  fyatte,  tote  ber  Sob  tfyn  anfam,  etn  £eben  fytnter  fid),  bag  fid)  in  jroet  fefyr 
serfd)iebene  §alften  teilte  (Fontane's  Stechlin,  xii).  2>aneben  fatten  eg  tyre  33riefe 
an  ftd),  bajj  etrcag  hne  leidjte  53erg(uft  baraug  fyervoququellen  fd)ten,  fo  bafj  mir  9teib 
unb  SSef)  anfam  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  XXV).  2Ktd)  fam  etn  getoalttgeg 
drrfdjrerfen  an  (ib.).  Unb  une  mir  nun  etnjul,  bap"  id;  ganj  alletn  in  bem  cben  Jpaufe 
tt>ar,  fam  mir  ein  <£d)aubcr  an  (ib.  XXVIII). 

3.  attUcgrtt  to  entreat,  usually  with  dat.,  though  occasionally  the  ace. 
after  the  analogy  of  angefyen  to  entreat  is  found :  3d)  tag  ber  Gutter  an,  itnb 
btefe  fud)te  ben  93ater  jit  bereben.    £ter  (ag  Slntonio  ben  ^onig  fefyr  an,  ii)m  beiju* 
fprtngen  (Lessing,  6,  163). 

4.  nuiuaiibflti  to  befall,  come  over,  usually  with  ace,,  occasionally  also 
intransitively  with  dat.:  fturd;t  wanbelt  mid}  nid)t  an.    9Ba$  ift  bir  angewanbelt? 
(Tieck). 

5.  ait'Sbictf  it  t  (A)  to  give  notice  to  leave  the  house,  city,  &c.,  with  dat. 
or  ace. :  3d)  btete  Cent  3unfer  au3  (Schiller)  I'll  give  the  young  gent  notice  to 
keep  off  the  premises.     3n  SBien  fyat  man  al(e  ^remben  auSgeboten  (Goethe)  In 
Vienna  all  strangers  have  been  given  notice  to  leave.     (B)   To  outbid  (= 
iiberbteten),  with  ace. 

6.  bc&cutctl  to  instruct,  inform,  give  a  sign  to  somebody  that  (with  depen- 
dent clause)  or  (with  infin.)  to  give  somebody  to  ^lnderstand,  to  order,  except 
in  the  first  two  meanings  usually  with  dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of  the 
thing,  or  instead  of  the  ace.  a  clause  or  infinitive  :  £>anfmar  bebeutete  ifym  SRufye 
(Gutzkow).    SDJan  bebeutet  ifym  gu  fd)iveigen  (Otto  Ernst's  Flachsmann  als  Er- 
zieher,  3,  8).     Unmuttg  ivenbete  unb  toarf  er  )td)  t;tn  unb  fyer  unb   gab  jute^t 
bem  SBadjtcr  93efe^(,  bem  SWuftfantcn  jit  bebeuten,  ba^  er  ben  SPfunb  fyalte  (Raabe): 
The  ace.  of  the  person  is  also  not  infrequently  found,  usually  so  in  the  first 
two  meanings :  Ufyerefe  bebeutete  ben  93ern?aUer  in  aflem  (Goethe).    Sa  fie  ijiemlidj 
laut  fyrad),  fam  ber  ^farrer  an<3  genjier  unb  fragtf,  tnaS  c$  gebe.   @ie  bebeutete  iftn  (id., 
Dichtungund  Wahrheit,  II,  10).    S3Ieiben  <Sie  nur,  bebeutete  i^n  2out3  (Gutzkow). 
2)te  grait,  bie  ifyn  fie^enb  empfangen  fjatte,  bebeutete  tfyn  mit  etncm  ffitnfe  ber  £anb, 
$[a^  jit   ne^men  (Wildenbruch's   Vice-Mama).     5)a  id)  if}ti  bebeutete,  bajj  fein 
44?ater  aud)  ba^  Jlranfenjimmer  ntetbe,  ba  fc^uttette  er  ben  Jtepf  (Meinhardt's  Heinz 
Kirchner}.    SWatted  @^rnrcid)  .  .  .  bebeutete  fte  buvd)  ©cbdrben,  ba§  er  baS  ®elb  bet 
jid)  I)abe  (Schonherr's  Sonnwendtag,  p.  71).    The  ace.  of  the  person  explains 
the  frequent  passive  construction  here :  @d»ne((  toerben  trir  bebeutet,  I)ier  fet  »on 
etner  9Wef)rf)ftt  bie  Oiebe  (Goethe).    (Sr  h>i(l  fid)  nid)t  bebeuten  taffen  He  will  not 
listen  to  reason. 

7.  In'fVfoleti,  befe^Itgrit/  flc tnctcit :    (A)  befefyUn  to  commend,  commit^ 
with  ace.  of  the  thing,  now  limited  to  elevated  diction  :  2>atcr  |  3d)  bcfety  meinen 
©ei|^  in  beine  §enbe  (Luke  xxiii.  46).    befell)  bem  £(S9i9J9t  bctne  ir-ege  (Psalm 
xxxvii.  5).     (B)    93efelj(en  to  command,  to  give  a  command  to,  with  dat.  of 
person  :  Gr  bffaljl  mir  fytnjugefycn.     (c)  23cfefylen  to  order  to  appear  at,  summons t 
invite  (used  in  circles  where  the  invitation  is  equal  to  a  command  as  in  case 
of  an  invitation  or  request  from  a  prince,  king),  with  ace.  of  the  person  :  !Det 
Surfl  befatjt  i()n  jur  $afel  The  prince  invited  him  to  dinner.     In  the  meanings 
to  desire,  order  to  bring,  or  pass  (a  thing)  with  ace. :  93efiel)(|l  bu  beine  ^Sfeife, 
$ava?  (Sudermann's  Die  Heimat,  I,  6).      ^efeljten  <Sie  ned)  etirad   (Su^pe? 
May  I  help  you  to  some  more  soup  ?     (D)  93efe()ltgen  usually  used  in  the  sense 
of  to  have  command  of  (in  a  military  sense),  with  ace.  of  the  thing :    (Sr 
befebligt  ba^  Jpeer,  ben  linfen  Slugel  beg  jeered.     (E)  ©ebieten  with  a  simple  ace. 
of  the   thing,  to  enjoin,  impose,   require :    (Sr  gebtetet    <StUlfd)tt>cigen.      Die 
greunbfd)aft  gebietet  eg.    With  the  simple  dative  of  the  person  or  personified 


540  SYNTAX  259.  7. 

thing,  to  govern,  rule,  curb,  bridle:  @o  widen  gebietejt  bu!  (Schiller's  W alien- 
steins  Tod,  2,  3).  @r  gebietet  feinen  Setbenfdjyaften.  With  dat.  of  person  and 
ace.  of  thing :  (£r  gebtetet  tfynen  @tillfd)tt>eigen. 

8.  fceltcben :   (A)  to  choose,  please,  like,  with  dat.  when  the  subject  is  a 
thing,  when  it  is  a  person,  with  ace.  :  Grg  beliebte  tfym  nid)t  jU  anhverteu  He  did 
not  choose  to  answer.     9Jd)meu  @ie,  ivaS  3f)nen  beliebt  (pleases).    23elieben  <£ie 
(would  you  like  to  have)  rotcn  2Bein  V     (B)  To  inspire  love  in  somebody  for 
something,  with  dat.  of  person  and  ace.  of  thing,  a  Swiss  idiom :  [@r]  tt?anbte 
ftdj  an  tie  9?egierung,  intent  er  ifyc  bie  Srfyaltung  einjefner  fdjcner  Saume  al$  einen 
allgemeinen  ©runbfajj  belteben  ii>ol(te  (Keller's  Seldw.,  2,  262). 

9.  bctteit :  (A)  to  make  the  bed(s)  always  intrans. :  £ag  2Kabdjen  fyit  nod) 
md)t  gebettet.     Also  a  dat.  of  interest  can  be  associated  with  the  verb,  to 
prepare  a  couch  for,  to  bed  (horses,  &c.) :  5Bem  (for  whom)  bie  Siebe  better,  ritfyet 
gut  (Chamisso).     (Sr  bettet  bent  i>iel).     (B)  In  the  sense  to  lay  oneself  or  some 
one  down  to  repose  betten  was  used  earlier  in  the  period  intransitively  with  a 
dat.  of  interest,  while  present  usage  employs  it  transitively  with  a  direct 
object  after  the  analogy  of  ftd)  fytnlegen,  or  einen  tnS  S3ett  tegen :  SBettet  id)  nut 
in  bie  -£>elle  |  @ifye  |  fo  bijht  and?  ba  (Psalm  cxxxix.  8).    91od)  uetfnd)'  id)'3,  fie  jn 
retten,  |  »o  nidjt,  auf  ifyrent  @arge  wit  jn  betten  (Schiller's  Maria,  3,  8).    3d) 
bettete  mid)  auf  h>etd)e3  2J?oc$.    Die  2Kutter  bettete  ba^  ^inb  in  bie  hammer.    The 
dative  still  survives  in  poetic  style. 

10.  bcjatjlctt  to  pay,  with  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  ace.  of  the  thing 
when  there  are  two  objects,  but  with  the  ace.  of  the  person  if  the  thing 
stands   after  a  prep,  or  is  omitted  altogether :    3d)  t)abe  bent   ©dfyneibcr  bie 
9ied)nung  bejafylt.     3d)  l)abe  ben  @d)netber  fitr.  ben  9iocf  bejafylt.     3d)  Ijabe  ben 
(Sdjneiber  be^afylt.      Sometimes,  however,  the  dat.  in  the  latter  case :    £>aS 
SDtabcfyen  fetbft . . . .  mit  beren  J&offnung  |  er  gern  ntir  ju  bejatjten  fd^iene  (Lessing's 
Nathan,  4,  4). 

11.  btitlfen    (and  the  rare  form   bunfetn)   and  the  less   common  form 
bc&iinf  ett  (and  the  rare  form  bebunfe(n)  to  seem  took  in  early  N.H.G.  the  ace. 
almost  regularly,  but  now,  after  the  analogy  of  ttorfontmen  and  fd)einen  to  seem, 
take  also  the  dat.  :  Grei  bitnft,  or  beud)t,  or  bebunft  mid)  or  ntir.    3d?  bunfe  mid) 
or  mir  et»a3  ($u  fetn)  I  think  myself  to  be  somebody  of  consequence.   Although 
the  accusative  is,  in  general,  more  common,  the  dative  is  often  more  expressive 
and  hence  preferred  to  emphasize  the  personal  element :  llnter  ben  ttornefjmen 
„  5tanbrifd)en "  aber  u>at  OHdjnnn  unebetum  ber  9lcid)fte  unb  SSorne^m^e  unb  e6 
bitnfte  i^m,  er  fet  bod)  fafl  itm  einen  Jt opf  fiber  bie  Sunfte  uberfjau^t  I)inau6get»ad)fen 
unb  auf  ein  ^>aar  fo  gto£  H)ie  ctn  ^atrijter  (Riehl's  Der  stumme  Ratsherr,  I). 

12.  Qcltett:  (A)  to  be  aimed  at,  be  intended  for,  with  dat.:  £)er  Jlnfdjlag 
gait  nid)t  fetnent  8eben,  fonbern  feincm  ©elb.    2Bem  gilt  biefe  gSemcrfung?     (B)  To 
concern,  be  valued  at,  be  worth,  with  adverbial  ace.,  sometimes  also  with  dat. 
of  interest  in  addition  to  the  ace. :  @S  gilt  fein  Seben  It  concerns  his  life,  or 
His  life  is  at  stake.    £>a$  93ud)  gilt  einen  £aler.    2)a3  ©emalbe  gilt  mir  jel)nmal 
mefjr  (ace.)  als  rt  mit  fojht. 

13.  gcluftctt  to  covet,  long  for,  lust  after,  with  ace.  of  the  person  and  gen. 
of  the  thing,  or  more  commonly  the  thing  is  in  the  dat.  after  the  prep,  nad) : 
2as  bid)  nidjt  geluften  betneS  Sftefjcften  9Beib3  (Exodus  xx.  17).    @$  geluftct  bae  Jttnb 
nad)  bent  Dbft.    Also  the  dat.  of  the  person  is  here  sometimes  used,  after  the 
analogy  of  the  dat.  with  other  verbs  of  kindred  meaning  as  belteben,  gcfallen  : 
60  gelitftete  t()nen  nad)  einer  (Jtyane  (blue-bottle)  (von  Hormann).    See  also  262. 
II.  B.  d,  2nd  paragraph. 

14.  getratten,  trauett :    (A)  The  simple  verb  trauen  in  the  meaning  to 
trtist  in,  rely  upon,  takes  the  dat.  or  a  prep,  phrase  :  3d)  traue  U)nt  or  auf 
tljn.    3d)  traue  if)m  nid)t  fiber  bie  ©affe  I  would  not  trust  him  across  the  street. 
(B)  Straiten  or  getrauen  to  dare,  venture,  with  ace.,  rarely  with  dat.,  if  there  is 
no  dependent  infinitive :  3d)  gctraute  mid)  nidjt  bcrtfytn  I  did  not  venture  to  50 


259.20.    VERBS  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE      541 

there.  3dj  getraue  midj  nidjt  ju  ifjm  (to  go  to  his  house),  (c)  £rauen  or  a,etrauen 
to  trust  one's  self,  or  have  confidence  in  one's  self,  or  be  bold  enough  to  under- 
take something,  to  dare,  with  ace.  or  dat.,  if  there  is  a  dependent  infinitive : 
3d)  getraue  mid}  or  mir  eg  jit  tun.  If  there  are  two  inflected  objects,  one  of 
the  person  and  one  of  the  thing,  the  person  is  in  the  dat.  and  the  thing  in  the 
ace. :  3d)  getraue  mir  ben  (Sprung  ntd)t  I  haven't  the  courage  to  make  the  leap. 
Earlier  in  the  period,  the  ace.  of  the  person  and  the  gen.  of  the  thing  was 
common  here,  and  still  occurs  in  poetic  language  :  3d)  getraue  mid)  bejfen  1  have 
the  courage  to  attempt  it.  In  such  sentences  as  (Sr  getraut  ftd)'3,  the  e3,  which  is 
in  reality  a  gen.  (see  140.  c),  was  taken  for  an  ace.,  and  the  ace.  jtd)  was 
erroneously  taken  for  a  daL,  and  thus  arose  the  now  common  construction  of 
the  dative  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing.  (D)  Urauen  to  unite  in 
•wedlock,  always  with  the  ace. :  2)er  ^rcbiger  toirb  meine  @d)tt>c|1er  trauen. 

15.  glailbcit :  (A)  to  believe in  the  sense  of  having  confidence  in  the  veracity 
of  somebody,  or  the  reliability  of  something,  with  the  dat. :  3d)  glaube  ifym.  3d) 
glaubte  meinen  9lugen  faum,  al«  id)  ifyn  fat).     (B)  To  believe  to  be  true,  with  the 
ace. :  £)tefe  ®e|"d)id)te  glaube  id)  nid)t.     The  dat.  of  the  person  represented  as 
the  authority  for  the  statement  can  also  accompany  the  ace.  of  the  thing : 
Jtein  Sftenfdj  glaubte  if)tn  ba$  No  one  believed  him  when  he  said  that,     (c)  To 
have  a  firm  belief  that  something  exists,  or  that  the  claims,  teachings  of 
somebody  are  worthy  of  implicit  confidence,  usually  with  the  ace.  after  the 
prep,  an,  but  sometimes  with  the  simple  ace. :  @r  glaubt  an  ©ott,  an  (Sfyrtftum, 
an  £raume,  an  ©eifler,  an  bie  2Baf)rfyetten  ber  {Religion,  an  bie  &uferftef)uitg  ber  £cten. 
Goethe :  (Gretchen  asks :)  ©laubji  bu  an  ©ott  ?     (Faust  replies :)  2Ber  barf 
if)n  nennen  ?  |  Unb  u>er  befennen :  |  id)  glaub'  tl)n  (=  an  tljn)  ?  |  2Ber  empftnben  |  unb  jid) 
nnterroinben  |  ju  fagen  :  id)  glaub'  i()n  (=  an  ifyn)  nid)t? 

16.  flraiicit,  graufett,  gratifelu,  (jrtifeln,  &c.    For  fluctuations  of  usage 
among  impersonal  verbs,  see  219. 4. 

17.  Ijclfeit :  (A)  to  help,  now  usually  with  the  dat.     Earlier  in  the  period 
the  ace.  was  also  sometimes  used  here :  £@3R9t  bu  fyilffeji  bribe  3Wenfd)en  unb 
SiUje  (Psalm  xxxvi.  7).   Sieber  $aw>e  [^apa],  id)  fyelfe  bid)  (Goethe's  Des  Kunstlers 
Erdenwallen,  i)  (probably  used  here  for  the  sake  of  the  rhyme  or  in  imitation 
of  the  language  of  a  child).    In  the  colloquial  language  of  the  North  we  some- 
times find  an  ace.  of  the  thing,  a  construction  well  known  in  English  and  Low 
German:  Jan :  ,,Ddj,  Jtaptetn, —  icf  funn  bat  bod)  nicf)  fyelpcn! "  —  unb  bie  fleine  gratt 
Doftorin  ladjelte  ben  ©eftrengen  ciu§erft  retjenb  an  unb  nteinte :  ,,9Btrflid)  — erfonnte 
($  nid)t  ^elfen,  ^>err  J?a}.ntan  (Schulze-Smidt's  O  Tannebaum,  III).     (B)  to  avail 
or  Profit,  with  dat.,  or  earlier  in  the  period  also  quite  frequently  the  ace.  of  the 
person  :  2Ba<3  Ijitlff  3  ben  Menfd)en  [ace.  sing.]  |  u?enn  er  bie  gan^e  ffielt  gewunne  | 
vnb  neme  an  feiner  Seelen  fd)aben  (Mark  viii.  36).   SBaS  ^ilft  btd)'3,  ber  bejie  ju  [ein  ? 
(Goethe's  Rein.  F.,  8).     ©S  In'lft  il)n  nid)t<J  (Uhland). 

1 8.  f)Otd)CH  to  hearken,  listen,  usually  w.  dat.  or  more  commonly  a  prep, 
phrase,  sometimes  w.  ace.  in  elevated  discourse :  (Sr  fycvdjt  bent  ©efange  ber 
95cgel.    2)u  fteJjjl,  id)  ()ord)e  bcinen  SSorten  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  5,  4).     Sr  l)ord)t 
auf  bie  SDfujif.     2Kan  barf  »or  bent  .Snaben  nid)t  reben,  et  f)ord)t  auf  jebe3  9Qort. 
Jpord)e  auf  meinen  SQunfd).     So  fangen  bie  $arjen ;  |  ed  I>ord)t  ber  33erbannte  |  in 
nad)tli*en  Jjjofjten  |  ber  9lltc  [auf]  bie  C'icbcr,  |  benft  [an]  Jlinbcr  unb  (Snfel  (Goethe's 
Iphigenie,  4,  5).    The  prep,  inclosed  in  brackets  would  be  required  in  prose. 

19.  fid  Dm  to  clothe,  always  w.  ace.,  but  in  the  meaning  to  become,  look 
well  upon,  w.  either  the  ace.  or  dat.  (not  rare  as  stated  by  grammarians) : 
!Die  UKijje  2Mnbe  fleibet  bid)  nid)t  (Goethe).     £>ie  ^cffm  fleiben,  une  uppige  Jlvdnje 
nur  braune  Sodfen  (C.  F.  Meyer's  Plautus).    3Kand)em  fleibet  e3  ju  fpredjen,  unb 
mandjem  fleibct  cS  ju  fd)Weigen  (Fontane's  Stechlin^  XV,  p.  197). 

20.  f  ofctt  to  caress,  make  love  to,  w.  ace.,  rarely  w.  dat. :  3fV0  moglid),  bafj 
id),  Sicbd)cn,  bid)  fofe  ?  (Goethe's  Div.,  8, 7).    Sir  mit  aBo^lgcvud)  ju  fofen  (ib.,  7, 2). 
Now  more  commonly  mit  cinem  fofen. 


542  SYNTAX  259.  ai. 

21.  f  often :  (A)  to  taste,  always  w.  ace.  when  used  transitively.     (B)  To 
cost,  w.  dat.  or  now  perhaps  less  commonly  ace. :  £>tefe  9lrbeit  fyat  mir  or  mid} 
vtcl  2Riifye  gefoftet.    The  ace.  here  leads  fommen  to  cost  to  take  sometimes  the 
ace.  instead  of  the  correct  dat.:  Da«  fame  @ie  fefyr  fofifyielig  (Uber  Land und 
Meer).     See  also  29,  below. 

22.  Hebfofen  to  caress,  formerly  with  the  dat.  and  in  choice  language  still 
with  that  case :    @r  .  .  .  liebfofete  iljnen  fo  fd)cn  (Wieland's  Grazien,  3).     3d) 
liebfofh  btr  (Heyse's  Meleager,  I).     2Bag  bin  id)  fur  ifm?     9lid)t  wert,  bafj  mir 
feine  Jpanb  meiner  ©ange  liebfofie  (id.,  Maria  von  Magdala,  4,  i).     Now  quite 
commonly  with  the  ace.  after  the  analogy  of  fuffen  and  fyerjen :   2)ie  2Rutter 
Uebfojl  if)t  Jtinb. 

23.  lofwcn  /0  reward,  w.  dat.  of  the  person  and  ace.  of  the  thing  when 
there  are  two  objects  :   (Sr  fofynt  mir  meine  2J?uf)e  He  pays  me  for  my  trouble. 
When  there  is  only  one  object,  and  that  is  a  thing,  it  is  now  occasionally  in 
the  genitive  in  accordance  with  older  usage  (as  in  Lessing's  Minna,  5,  9), 
more  commonly,  however,  in  the  accusative  and  sometimes  in  the  dative : 
!Der  ©ewinn  fofynt  ber  SWufye  (genitive  now  usually  confined  to  this  word)  or  bte 
SUuIje  nid)t.    ©oldjen  gcttfetigen  £aten  fann  nut  ©ott  lofynen  (Goethe).    Sebtjafter 
SBeifatt  lofynte  aud)  biefev  Oiebe  trie  a((en  ccrfjergegangenen  (H.  Hoffmann's  Wider 
den  Kurfiirsten,  chap.  27).     If  the  single  object  is  a  person  it  may  be  in  the 
dative  or  accusative,  the  dative  emphasizing  the  idea  of  inner  gratification, 
the  accusative  that  of  financial  compensation :    Sebfyafter  93eifal(  lofynte  bem 
OJebner.     (Sr  lofynt  bte  Slrbeiter.    This  distinction  is  not  strictly  observed :  2>en 
lofynt  ntd)t  ©olb,  ben  lo^nt  ©efang  (Burger). 

24.  nac^a^mcit  imitate,  uacfcaffcit  to  ape,  imitate,  na^macBen  to  copy, 

imitate :  (A)  The  person  is  in  the  dat.  and  the  thing  in  the  ace.  if  there 
are  two  objects  :  dr  madjt  mir  bag  Jtitnflftiicf  nadj  He  is  copying  this  trick  from 
me.  ,,Sd)  »erad)te  bid)  ferr,"  affte  id)  ifyr  nad;  unb  betonte  bag  ,,ferr"  nod)  fd)drfcr  al£ 
fie  (Carl  Busse's  Diggd).  (B)  If  there  is  only  one  object  and  that  the  name  of 
a  thing  or  a  person  whose  name  is  used  instead  of  his  works,  it  is  now  usually 
in  the  ace. :  @r  afymt  ben  ©ang  unb  bte  ©ebarben  femes  93ruber$  nad).  28ie  id)  al3 
^nabe  ben  SEerenj  nad)juat)men  toagte  (Goethe),  (c)  If  there  is  only  one  object 
and  that  a  noun  representing  a  person  or  a  thing  which  is  endowed  with 
personal  attributes,  it  is  in  the  dat.  when  the  verb  has  the  meaning  of  striving 
in  a  laudable  way  to  imitate  somebody,  but  the  ace.  when  the  verb  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  mechanical  copying :  ffiiele  £>td)ter  afymen  bem  <Sd)i(ler  nad).  35et 
©djaufpieter  afymt  (imitates  in  the  role  that  he  is  playing  all  the  external 
characteristics  of)  einen  gtanjofen  nadj. 

25.  f  ateit :  (A)  to  advise,  w.  dat.  of  the  person,  or  if  there  are  two  objects 
w.  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  ace.  of  the  thing :  @te  rieten  mit  baju  You  advised 
me  to  do  it.    (§r  riet  mir  ©uteg  He  gave  me  good  advice.    (B)  To  guess,  w.  ace. 
of  the  thing :  2Kan  rat  ctn  {Hatjet. 

26.  rttfeit  to  call,  fdjreien  to  cry  out  to,  pfeifett  to  whistle  for,  locf  ett, 
fonten,  fo&ern  to  decoy,  flittgdit,  tauten,  frfjcllen  to  ring,  ttnnfcit 
to  make  a  sign  to,  fleljett  to  implore,  take  a  dat.  to  denote  the  person  toward 
whom  the  action  is  directed,  and  with  the  exception  of  fd)reten,  fdjellen,  Iduten, 
and  flingeln,  may  with  a  slight  shade  of  meaning  take  the  ace.  to  represent  the 
person  as  the  direct  object  of  the  action  :  ©ie  ttnrb  bei  ©ufen  fein ;  ruft  tfyr  bod) ! 
She  is  probably  with  Susan;  call  out  to  her!     2Ber  ruft  mir?  (Otto's  Ernst's 
DieGerechtigkeit,-2.,i).     ButflRufefte!  Call  her!     Although  the  dative  was  not 
infrequent  earlier  in  the  period  and  survives  in  part  still,  present  usage  inclines 
toward  other  constructions  in  case  of  some  of  these  words.    OJufen,  tocfen,  fcrnen, 
and  fobern  usually  take  the  ace.,  fcfyreien  and  flefyen,  ju  +  dat.,  while  ttnnfen  may  still 
take  a  simple  dat.  and  flingcln,  Iduten,  and  fd)e(len  either  a  simple  dat.  or  a  pre- 
positional construction  :  9113  fie  S3erta  2Bttt  fa(j,  totnfte  fie  il)r  (Frenssen's  Die  drei 
Getreuen,  II,  5).    £cv  £ert  fltngelt  bem  S3ebienten  or  nad)  bem  93ebienten.    ^tingedt, 


259.33-    VERBS  WITH  DATIVE  OR  ACCUSATIVE      543 

Iduten,  and  fdjellen  may  also  take  an  accusative  in  connection  with  a  prep, 
phrase :  Sklb  war  id?  aud)  am  iDoftorfyaufe  unb  fltngelte  ben  alten  3)oftor  ©nittgev 
au3  ben  Sebern  (Storm's  John  Kiev?}.  (Rufen,  fdjreien,  and  nnnfen  can  still  be 
freely  used  with  a  dat.  of  the  person  in  connection  with  a  direct  object  of  the 
thing,  an  infinitive,  or  clause:  33alb  rief  ntir  tneine  DJlntter :  ,,Jlontm,"  or  ju 
fommen,  or  ba§  id?  fommen  follte.  3Kan  unnfte  ifym  2lufmunterung.  Oiufen  is  used 
with  the  simple  dat.  in  a  few  expressions  and  pfeifen  quite  commonly  so,  and 
pfeifen,  rufen,  and  unnfen  can  also  take  the  ace.  of  the  person  in  connection 
with  a  prep,  phrase :  @r  rtef  feinent  braunen  ^ufynerfjunb,  bet  in  einem  SBtnfet 
gelegen  fyatte  (T.  Storm).  Sent  9Wannd)en  rufen  to  call  the  male.  (Sr  pfeift  feinent 
£unbe.  @r  pfiff  ben  £unb  ju  jtd)  fyin.  In  Switzerland  rufen  with  dat.  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  to  call  for :  3Me  SSefdjaffenfyeit  ber  <Ed)ullofalitdten  ruft  bringenb  einec 
Otepatatur  (Bliimner's  Zum  schweizerischen  Schriftdeutsch,  p.  47). 

27.  f<*0CU  to  say,  tell,  w.  a  dat.  of  the  person  and  an  ace.  of  the  thing,  when 
there  are  two  objects :  (Sr  fagte  ntir  bie  2i$af)rf)ett.     However,  the  simple  dat.  is 
replaced  by  ju  w.  dat.  when  the  exact  words  of  direct  discourse  are  reported : 
2>te  Jiinber  fagen  meift  $u  tfyren  (Sltern  *papa  unb  SDlama.    (Sr  fagte  ju  ntir:  ,,3d) 
fomme  morgen  irieber,"  but   indirectly :    (Sr  fagte  mtr,  er  fcmme  morgen  irteber. 
Dialectic  and  French  influences  often  affect  the  construction  here  and  cause 
the  dropping  of  the  $u  in  direct  discourse:  ,,3d)  fyabe/'  fagte  fte  i^m  (for  jit 
i{)m)  mil  bewegter  ©ttrnme,  ,,betne  ©egeinuart  gettwnfcfyt." 

28.  fprpd^cil,  tc&cit :  (A)  to  speak,  usually  require  some  prep,  as  wit,  gu,  an 
before  the  case  of  the  person:  3d)  farad)  etnigeSSorte  suifym.  3cfy  fprad)ntiti^m.  3d^ 
rebe  nttt  ifym.  We  sometimes  find  an  ace.  of  the  thing  and  the  dat.  of  the  person  : 
©old;  ein  wetnunfttgeg  SSort  fyafi  bu  nitr  fetten  gefprocben  (Goethe's  H.  und  Z>.,  II, 
1 06).    When  a  prep,  phrase  modifies  the  verb  in"  connection  with  a  personal 
object,, we  not  infrequently  find  the  simple  dat.  of  the  person   instead  of 
a  prepositional  construction :  9Metnanb  fyrid)t  gern  einem  anbem  »on  feiner  Stebe 
(Zschokke).    D  ntfin  S3ruber !  fprtd)  mir  nid)t  »on  bet  (Stye !  (Ebers).    The  simple 
dat.  here  is  usually  a  gallicism  which  is  not  especially  to  be  recommended, 
but  it  is  sometimes  a  good  German  dative  of  interest  or  an  ethical  dative,  as 
in  the  last  sentence.     (B)  <Spred)en  (not  reben)  to  talk  (consult)  with,  w.  ace.  of 
the  person  when  there  is  no  object  of  the  thing :   3d)  ntodjte  <Sie  auf  einige 
Slugcnblicfe  a-llein  fpred)en. 

29.  ftc^Ctl :  (A)  To  become,  look  well,  w.  dat. :  !Da3  Waue  JKeib  fle^t  t^r  au3« 
gejeidjnet.     (B)  To  take  one's  stand  against,  w.  dat. :  3d)  ftefye  felbji  in  meinen 
3at>ren  nod)  bent  Setnbe.     (c)  To  be  equal  to,  be  a  match  for,  w.  ace. :  (Sr  fteljt 
feinen  SDlann  He  is  a  match  for  any  fellow.    £>or  3Jlann  fle^t  (comes  up  to)  fetnen 
9Jul)m  (Lessing).    (D)  gu  fteljen  fommen  to  cost,  usually  w.  the  dat. :   „  (§n?a$ 
fommt  einem  tetter  $u  fle^en"  ijl  9Jejl  etner  altern  auegebeJ)ttteren  93erh?enbung  won 
ftefyen  =  „  jit  »erfaufen  fetn  fiir  etnen  gemiJTen  ^retS"  (H.  Paul).    After  the  analogy 
of  foften  to  cost  the  ace.  is  also  used  :  35ag  fommt  bid)  btdiger  jit  jhfyen  (Spitte- 
ler's  Conrad,^,  158).    Sometimes  simple  fommen  is  still  used  here;  see  21, 
above. 

30.  ftciictll :    (A)  to  steer,  trans,  w.  ace. :    £er  @d)iffer  fleuert  fetn  ©d)iff. 
(B)  To  check,  prevent,  w.  dat. :  !£er  fiefyrer  ftcucrt  bent  Sufpatfommen  ber  ©d^iiler. 

31.  trnuoii,  see  getraiictt,  above. 

32.  iibcrf  otnmrii :  (A)  to  come  over,  seize,  usually  with  ace.  but  occasionally 
with  dat. :  (Sine  pl6fcttd)e  ?lngft  itberfam  mid).     (Sine  tiefe  [geiftige]  Safymung  uber; 
fant  tfjin  (Lewald).     <3te  \vanbten  bcr  oben  9iad)fd)auenben  ben  OJurfen,  unb  fonberbar, 
l»ie  nut  einer  3lugentanfd)ung  uberfam  e^  bent  Slid:  ©tbtyHe  2ttnb^orjii5  (Jensen's 
Jenseits  des  Wassers,  ix).      (B)  Regularly  w.  the  dat.  in  intrans.  use  with  the 
meaning  to  be  transmitted  to,  be  delivered  to :  $)er  9lame  tft  mir  uberfommen  unb  fo 
fann  eS  mir  perfonltd)  nut  oblicgen,  i^m,  nad)  bent  befdjeibenen  SUJapc  metner  gafytgfetten, 
@^re  ju  madden  (Fontane's  Chile,  chap.  13).    (Sin  Srtef  tft  mir  uberfommen. 

33.  ubcrtPicgeii  to  outweigh,  w.  ace.,  rarely  w.  dat.  :  £er  Xabel  ubentog 
bag  2cb. 


544  SYNTAX  259. 34. 

34.  Dcrgcfeett  and  tterjeiljen:  (A)  wgeben  to  forgive,  w.  simple  dat.  of 
the  person,  or  if  there  are  two  objects  w.  dat.  of  the  person  and  ace.  of  the 
thing:   a>nt>  vevgib  »n3  nit  fere  Sdjulbe  (now  @d)ulben)  une  n>ir  unfcrn  Sd)ulbto,ern 
vergcben  (Matt.  vi.  12).    3d)  sergebe  bir  bie  $e(eibigung.     (B)  93ergebcn  to  poison, 
correctly  with  the  dat.,  but  after  the  analogy  of  sergiften  also  with  the  ace., 
now  rather  uncommon  in  this  meaning,     (c)  2Ser$etf)en  to  pardon,  condone, 
with  the  same  construction  as  sergeben  in  (A)  :    ^erjeif)  ntir.    23erjetl)  mem 
Unred)t.    SSerjeif)  ntir  metn  Unrest. 

35.  »erftcf>crit '  (A)  to  assure,  w.  dat.  of  the  person  and  ace.  of  the  thing, 
or  the  ace.  of  the  person  and  gen.  of  the  thing:  3d)  serfidjere  3f)nen  bieS,  or 
3d)  »erftd)ere  <2ie  beffen  I  assure  you  of  this.    The  ace.  of  the  person  is  often 
incorrectly  used  with  ace.  of  the  thing  :  see  262.  II.  B.  b.    The  thing  is  usually 
expressed  by  a  clause  and  then  either  the  dat.  or  ace.  of  the  person  is  used : 
3d)  »erjtd)ere  3fynen,  (or  <£ie ,)  bajj  id)  bieg  tun  werbe.  Of  the  constructions  accusative 
and  genitive  and  dative  and  accusative  the  former  is  more  common,  while  of 
the  constructions  accusative  and  clause  and  dative  and  clause  the  latter  is 
more  common.     Aside  from  the  question  of  greater  frequency  there  exist, 
doubtless,  shades  of  meaning  between  the  different  constructions.    The  dative 
emphasizes  the  idea  of  personal  interest  or  reference,  while  the  accusative 
indicates  a  greater  intensity  of  the  verbal  action  and  emphasizes  its  direct 
bearing  upon  the  object:   %id  Xroja?     Xeurer  Sftann,  »erftd)r'  eg  ntir  (dat.  of 
interest)  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  2,  2).     Grr  scrjid)erte  ntir  (the  party  to  whom  the 
statement  was  made),  bajj  er  fommen  toerbe.    3d)  »erjid)ere  eg  (140.  c]  <Sie  auf 
ntein  (Sfyvcinrort.    SBenn  id)  bid)  nun  auf  ntetne  (ffjre  tterfid)ere,  bap  ufir.  (Lessing). 
•Kan  fyat  mid)  nneberfyolt  »erfid)ert,  bajj  nfro.     @r  »erfid)evte  ben  Skwatften  feineg 
SBetjlanbeg   (or  if  the  idea  of  personal  interest  is  uppermost :  »erfld)erte  bent 
SSettcaifien  feinen  93eiftanb).   Correspondingly  in  the  passive :  3Rtr  (the  interested 
party)  iji  toieber^olt  »erjtd)evt  ttorben,  ba§  atteg  in  Drbnnng  fet,  unb  nun  btefcr  ge^lbetrag ! 
2J?tr  lutrb  »evftd)crt,  ba^  uf».  I  am  told,  assured,  that,  &c.,  not  3d)  toerbe  t>erftd)ert, 
bafj  ufw. ;  but  <£eien  <Sie  »er(td)ert,  bap  ufro.  You  can  rely  upon  it  that,  &c.     (B) 
To  insure  (one's  house,  £c.),  always  w.  ace. :  3d)  toerbe  metn  -§aug  gegen 
gefa^r  »erftd)ern  laffen. 

36.  VOtbei  (coming  up  to  something  and  then  passing  beyond), 

(from  one  side  to  another)  past,  in  composition  with  verbs  of  motion  take 
a  prepositional  phrase  as  a  complement,  or  a  simple  dative  or  accusative : 
@r  ging  an  mtr  sorbet,  cfyne  ntir  guten  £ag  gu  fagen.  S3et  etnent  etnjeln  fie^enben 
J&aufe  gte^en  ttir  worbet  (Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen}.  (Spacer'  ein  ©tunbdjen 
lang  bent  @ptege(gtag  voruber  (Goethe's  Faust,  1.  2887).  3d)  partere,  tt?enn  tt»ir 
n>ett(aufen,  id)  lattfe  bir  »orbet  (Marchen).  ^aunt  ein  3Bagen  ging  ntir  »orbet 
(Wildenbruch's  Die  heilige  Frau,  p.  122).  2)agmar  ging  ntit  unTjcrfaren 
@d)rttten,  ba  jxe  bent  ©etag  »orbetfanten  (Storm's  Ein  Fest  auf  Haderslevhuus, 
p.  289).  £>tt  ge^jl  bein  @d)(ofj  »oruber  (Uhland).  Of  these  constructions  the 
prepositional  one  is  more  common  for  the  literal  idea  of  passing  and  going 
beyond.  The  dative  emphasizes  the  person  or  thing  which  is  associated 
with  the  action,  as  in  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  sentences.  The  ace. 
represents  the  person  or  thing  as  the  object  of  an  action,  and  is  now  most  com- 
mon in  the  figurative  sense  to  pass  by,  pass  without  mention,  overlook,  slight'. 
(Sine  S3emerfung,  bie  fyterfyer  $u  gefyoren  fd)ctnt,  fann  id)  md)t  vorbeigeljen  (Lavater). 
9ttd)t  ungern  getjen  fie  ben  9Mfd)of  sorbet  unb  tt>enben  fid)  an  ben  ^apft  (Ranke). 

The  accusative  construction  can  be  put  into  the  passive :  [bae]  unrb  a(<5 
befannt  sorbeigegangen  (Lessing). 

In  literal  use  the  ace.  is  not  so  common  as  the  other  constructions,  but  it 
was  not  infrequent  earlier  in  the  period. 

The  verb  of  motion  is  often  omitted  in  these  constructions :  93alb  ipar  ber 
Cberft  biefer  £ruppe,  nur  »on  etnent  Xrompeter  beglettet,  bet  ntir  voruber  [geritten] 
(Liliencron's  Kriegsnovellen).     6g  begegneten  nnd  balb  Seute,  bie  tins  erfi  u 
bert  anjlarrten,  unb  wenn  i»tv  i(;nen  sorbet  warett,  jteljen  blieben,  &c.  (Raabe). 


260.  GENITIVE  OBJECT  545 

37.  Accusative  or  dative  of  the  person  affected.  Usage  often  makes  a  fine 
distinction  between  the  dat.  and  ace.  after  such  verbs'  as  to  beat,  strike,  hit, 
bite,  seize,  &c.,  when  the  activity  of  the  verb  is  represented  as  affecting  a 
person.  If  the  person  alone  is  mentioned  without  indication  of  the  particular 
part  of  the  body  affected,  the  ace.  is  used  :  3Me  Gutter  fd)ldgt  batf  Jhnb  mit  ber 
Otute.  If  the  part  of  the  body  affected  is  mentioned,  the  ace.  of  the  person 
or  personified  thing  is  used,  when  the  person  is  represented  as  the  objective 
point  of  the  activity  in  a  literal,  exterior  sense,  but  the  dat.  is  employed  when 
he  is  represented  as  more  or  less  interested  or  involved  in  the  action,  either 
as  to  his  material  interests,  comfort,  or  his  inner  feelings,  or  as  affected  by  an 
accident  or  the  operations  of  a  natural  law :  3d)  fd)netbc  mid)  in  ben  Singer, 
but  £>ie  £rauerbotfd)aft  fd)ncibct  mir  burd)  ben  Sctb.  (Sr  griff  mid)  an  bcr  Jtefyle  He 
caught  me  by  the  throat  (it  was  his  purpose  to  do  so),  but  !Ber  Jjcrabfaflenbe 
3iegct  fd)lug  mir  grabe  auf  ben  Jlopf  The  falling  tile  hit  me  right  on  the  head 
(the  falling  was  accidental).  @t  tiertcunbete  fetnen  ©egner  an  ben  <£d)lafen,  but 
£>er  §lr;t  fdjneibet  bent  Jtranfen  in$  Sleifd)  The  physician  cuts  into  the  flesh  of 
the  patient  (for  the  good  of  the  latter).  IJHmm  bie  Jpanbcfyen  uom  Dfen  iwg,  bu. 
brennft  bid)  fonji  baran,  but  2)er  Streid)  brennt  mir  nod)  auf  bet  SSange.  (Sr  fyat 
ben  Sftagel  auf  ben  Jtcpf  getroffen,  but  £er  Oiaud)  Bcifjt  mir  in  bte  Slngen.  (Sr  fyat 
mid)  tn^  <Seftd)t  gefd)(agcn,  but  £)a<3  fdjlagt  ber  Safirfyeit  inS  ©eftd)t  (Wustmann). 
<Du  l)aft  mid)  mit  beinem  @tocf  ins  9luge  gcjlcdjen,  but  9lm  ©djaufenfter  flad)  mir  ein 
fdjenet  S3rillantfd)mucf  insS  Sluge  (id.).  We  even  find  this  distinction  in  case  of 
verbs  that  do  not  take  a  simple  ace.  of  the  person  in  the  same  meaning : 
(Sr  trat  mid)  auf  ben  5uf  (intentionally),  but  3m  ©ebrdnge  tritt  man  einer  Jfrait 
auf  ben  9Jocf.  This  distinction,  however,  is  often  not  observed :  „  -iperr,  3fyt 
fiabt  mid)  |  unfanft  auf  ben  gup  getretcn  "  —  @prad)  Jung  SBerner :  „  S)ag  bebau'r 
id)  "  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Zehntes  Stiick). 

A  good  deal  depends  in  all  the  above  cases  upon  the  standpoint  of  the 
speaker,  so  that  usage  is  quite  unsettled  here.  If  the  person  is  conceived  as 
interested,  the  dative  is  used,  but  if  the  person  is  regarded  as  an  object  the 
accusative  is  employed. 

•i 

Genitive  Object. 

26O.  The  genitive  object  after  verbs  and  adjectives  is  a  rapidly 
decaying  construction,  especially  after  verbs.  There  is  now  no 
strongly  marked  shade  of  meaning  in  this  object  in  contradistinction1 
to  the  ace.  object,  and  hence  those  verbs  which  have  a  force  similar 
to  that  of  transitives  have  in  common  prose  become  transitive,  and 
now  take  an  ace.,  while  those  that  have  pronounced  intransitive 
nature  follow  the  trend  of  intransitives,  and  take  a  prep,  object. 
In  choice  language,  however,  a  number  of  verbs  still  prefer  the 
gen.  object  to  the  ace.  or  prep,  object,  and  in  certain  cases  the 
old  and  new  constructions  are  both  used  with  the  same  verb 
with  a  fine  and  beautiful  shade  of  meaning.  The  ace.  here 
represents  the  object  as  thoroughly  affected  by  the  action,  while 
the  gen.  sometimes  represents  the  object  as  suffering  only  in  part 
from  the  effects  of  the  action  :  2)ic  iSpi^ufren  fyaben  mir  iifleS  flenommen, 
but  SSnfc  ber  ^ktefter  fol  bc§  Huts  nemett  »om  (sctntlfopffer  (Leviticus 
xiv.  14)  And  the  priest  shall  take  some  of  the  blood  of  the  trespass 
offering.  Similar  to  this  partitive  gen.  is  the  gen.  of  the  goal, 
which  represents  the  object,  not  as  actually  receiving  the  full 
force  of  an  activity,  but  as  being  the  point  toward  which  an 
activity  is  directed :  2)ttt  biefent  ^roeiten  $feil  burcfyfcfyofj  id)  — 

N  n 


546  SYNTAX  260. 

rocnn  id)  ntein  liebeS  Jtinb  getroffen  tyatte,  |  unb  (£urer  —  rcatyrtid),  t)att' 
id?  nid?t  gefefjlt  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  3).  QSer  ein  2Beib  anftfyet  jr  (140.  b) 
gu  begtren  (Matth.  v.  28).  The  old  partitive  gen.  and  gen.  of  goal 
are  now  usually  replaced  by  the  ace.  in  plain  prose.  Some- 
times a  prep,  construction  is  now  used  instead  of  the  gen.  of  the 
goal ;  see  next  paragraph.  Sometimes  the  ace.  expresses  a 
material  or  superficial  relation,  while  in  choice  language  the  gen. 
may  denote  a  deep,  inner  relation,  or  be  used  in  figurative  or 
changed  meaning:  S)er  (Sfel  fann  bie  Jtoft  Ijeitte  entbefyren,  but  Sftein 
£aug  ent6d)rt  beg  23aterg.  5>ie  ^ugel  »erfef}tte  ifcr  %id,  but  £>ie  Otebc 
tterfefylte  ber  SBirfung.  2>ag  ift  einen  $aler  rcert,  but  2)ein  SSater  ifl  eineg 
3^rone8  irert  (worthy  of).  Other  shades  may  arise.  The  gen.  may 
be  used  with  fcergeffen  when  the  activity  proceeds  from  an  act  of  the 
will,  while  the  ace.  is  employed  when  the  act  of  forgetfulness  is 
an  unconscious  and  thorough  one  :  Unb  taten  iibel  »or  bent  <§errn 
unb  »ergaf?en  beg  4?errn,  ifyreg  ©otteg,  unb  bienten  33aalim  unb  ben  «§ainen 
(Judges  iii.  7,  rev.  ed.).  llnb  »or  bem  Sinf^Iafen  ....  fattete  er  bie 
«§anbe  unb  fcetete  ju  i^r,  ber  SSerflarten :  ba§  fte  in  i^ver  ^)tmmlifd)en  (Settgfett 
i^re§  einjtgen  <So^ne§  auf  (Stben  nic^t  t>ergeffen  unb  nid;t  gugeben  mog?,  er  tue 
etreag,  bag  tljrer  unrcurbig  fei  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  178).  Soc1^  nuc^ 
biefe,  icie  atte  SBeifcer  3crufalemg,  oerfcfyltept  ftc^  fireng  »or  bem  romifcteit 
SKanne,  fo  ba^,  aud^  roenn  i(^  je  meiner  ©c^njitre  Dergeffen  fonnte,  &c. 
(Heyse's  Maria  von  Magdala,  2,  i).  But  3cfy  ^)a6e  ba§  SBort  »ergeffen. 
When  the  forgetting  is  represented  as  only  temporary,  and  conse- 
quently the  act  as  only  imperfect,  the  old  partitive  gen.  is  still  quite 
frequent :  Setynert  after,  ber  aft  bie  3«i*  u&er  mit  fcefonterem  ^Iei§e  gearbeitet 
^atte,  ^atte  fetneS  in  bie  ^obelfpane  gejleHten  ^affeeg  ganj  t>ergef|en  (Fontane's 
Quitt,  chap.  ix).  [In  spite  of  the  word  ganj  here  the  forgetting  was 
only  temporary,  for  his  mind  soon  returned  to  the  thought  of  his 
coffee.]  (£8  gab  %tittn,  in  benen  fte  fetbft  ifyre§  Jttnbe3  Jjergaf  (Schubin's 
Refugium  peccatorum,  V).  llnb  reenn  er  eine  SRinute  lang  feiner  ^rauer 
»erga^,  fo  tear  it)m  bag  bei  @ott  uid^t  ju  Derbenfen  (Ganghofer's  Der  Dorf- 
apostel,  I).  ;Dabei  utu^te  idj  befldnbig  an  metne  ®abe  benfen ;  ic^  ^atte  ifyret 
fafi  ijergeffen  unter  ber  ©efcfya'fttgfeit  ber  Ie§ten  3^it  (Anselm  Heine's  Eine 
Gabe,  Den  9.  Dezember).  The  genitive  formerly  expressed  the  idea 
of  deprivation,  separation,  and  traces  of  this  usage  survive  :  @r  bebarf 
beg  Qlrjteg,  ber  (Scfyonung.  The  ace.  is  now  also  used  here.  The  gen. 
is  preferred  to  express  a  deep  inner  relation :  Scfy  bebarf  ®elt>,  but  beS 
SrofleS. 

The  distinction  between  the  genitive  and  a  prepositional  object 
lies  sometimes  in  the  same  direction.  The  latter  by  means  of  its 
preposition  calls  attention  to  the  outward  direction  of  the  activity, 
while  the  genitive  may  emphasize  an  inner  causal  relation  between 
the  activity  and  the  object :  liber  tren  Iad?t  man  ?  liber  SBityelm.  Qlber 
bu  <§©H3fl  uurft  jrer  lacfyen  |  33nb  ader  <§eiben  fpotten  (Psalm  lix.  9). 
In  general,  however,  there  is  little  difference  between  the  gen.  and 
the  prep,  construction,  except  that  the  former  is  more  suitable 
to  a  solemn  or  poetic  style.  Originally  the  idea  of  a  goal,  as 
indicated  above  in  another  relation,  and  also  that  of  speci- 
fication, often  lay  in  the  gen.,  and  indeed  still  lie  there  half 


260.  i.  GENITIVE  OBJECT  547 

concealed :  (®r)  rcartet  itur  eineg  SBtnleg  [also  auf  etnen  SEtnf]  . . .  urn 
Iog$ubred?ett  (Hausser's  Deutsche  Geschichte,  3,  187).  <§at  nid)t  S)iane, 
flatt  erjiirnt  gu  fein,  bafj  fie  ber  blut'gen  alteit  Dipfcr  [gen.  of  specification] 
mamjelt  [now  also  ba§  eg  i^r  an  bctt  blutigen  alteu  Cpfern  mangelt],  &c. 
(Goethe's  Iphigcnie,  i,  2).  The  gen.  after  ivalten  to  hold  sway  over,  rule 
over,  now  largely  restricted  to  poetic  language,  does  not  represent 
the  object,  as  the  direct  objective  point  of  an  activity,  but  in  accord- 
ance with  an  older  meaning  denotes  the  sphere  where  an  activity  is 
exerted,  and  is  thus  related  to  the  gen.  of  specification  and  the  gen. 
of  place.  The  sphere  over  which  the  activity  is  extended  is  now 
more  commonly  expressed  by  placing  itber  (with  dat.  or  ace.)  before 
the  noun.  Thus,  in  general,  as  the  force  of  the  gen.  is  not  now  clearly 
felt,  prepositions  are  often  used  to  make  more  vivid  these  relations. 
The  employment  of  the  gen.  can  often  be  explained  only  in  the 
light  of  its  history.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  gen.  was  used  un- 
restrictedly, later  it  disappeared  entirely,  or  survived  in  certain 
meanings  (as  in  @r  fpottete  it  ber  mid),  but  £>ag  fpottet  jeber  3?efd)reibung), 
or  in  certain  authors  was  retained  in  its  former  unrestricted  limits. 
In  case  of  several  compound  verbs  the  gen.  is  in  fact  an  attribu- 
tive objective  gen.,  as  it  modifies  the  noun  element  in  the  compound  : 
SRimm  ber  gfmjligen  ©elegenfyeit  rcafyr  (M.H.G.  war  observation).  As  the 
two  elements  of  the  compound  enter  into  close  relations,  the  noun 
often  loses  its  identity,  and  the  compound  is  felt  as  a  true  compound 
verb  and  takes  an  ace.  object :  3d?  fyabe  bie  (Srjcfyeinung  ivafyrgenommen. 
Sometimes  in  case  of  adjectives  and  some  verbs  the  ace.  has 
arisen  from  a  misapprehension.  The  old  gen.  eg  (see  140.  c),  which 
is  still  often  used  here,  is  mistaken  for  an  ace.  This  leads  to  the 
use  of  the  ace.  in  case  of  other  pronouns,  and  even  in  case  of  nouns. 
For  examples  of  this  ace.  see  the  fourth  from  the  last  example  in  2.  A 
and  also  the  last  one  in  3.  b,  below. 

The  gen.  object  is  now  found  in  the  following  groups,  which  are 
fairly  complete  for  the  present  period,  but  were  still  fuller  in  early 
N.H.G. 

i.  Partitive  Genitive  Object.  This  object  is  used  in  elevated  dic- 
tion with  a  few  verbs  of  pronounced  transitive  nature,  much  as 
of  is  used  in  English  with  the  corresponding  group  of  words.  The 
most  common  of  these  German  verbs  are  bringeu  to  bring,  efjen  to 
eat,  geben  to  give,  giepen  to  pour,  pour  out,  |)aben  to  have,  najdjen  to 
nibble  at,  sip  of,  nefymen  to  take,  fenbctt  to  send,  fdjenfen  to  pour  out, 
ftenben  to  bestow,  be  lavish  with,  trinfen  to  drink.  Exs.  :  SSer  big 
irafferg  trtncfet  |  Den  irirb  rciDer  burjlen.  5Ber  aber  beg  SBaffcrS  trtnrfen 
icirb  |  bag  id)  jut  gebe  |  ben  ivirb  ovigltd;  nid?t  burjlen  (John  iv.  13-14). 
©orgfant  bracfyte  bie  Gutter  beg  flaren  l)errltd?en  SOSeineS  (Goethe's  H.  u. 
£>.,  i,  166).  Sg  fdjenfte  ber  SBofyme  beg  ^crlenben  SBeing  (Schiller's  Graf 
v.  Habsburg).  Jlainn  mag  id)  beg  Sktneg  najd?en  (Scheffel's  Trompeter, 
Werner's  Lieder  aus  Welschland,  xi).  See  also  255.  II.  i.  H.c. 
Compare  :  She  gave  him  of  that  fair  enticing  fruit  (Milton). 

Such  verbs,  except  in  a  few  expressions,  now  usually  take  in 
plain  prose  the  ace.  without  the  article,  or,  to  make  prominent  the 
partitive  idea,  son  with  the  dative  becomes  object,  or  the  real  object 

N  n  2 


548  SYNTAX  260. 1. 

is  placed  in  apposition  with  etnxig :  (£r  nafym  SBrot,  or  con  bent  SBrot, 
or  etrcag  93rot.  The  partitive  gen.  objects,  beffen,  beren,  are,  however, 
still  quite  common :  «£>afcen  <Sie  nod?  papier  ?  3a,  id?  fyafce  beffen  nod). 
4?afeen  @ie  8?ebem?  3a,  id?  fja&e  bereit  nod?.  See  also  255.  II.  i.  H.  c. 

The  partitive  idea  appears  also  in  the  gen.  object  of  a  number  of 
the  verbs  enumerated  in  2.  A,  below. 

2.  A.  Genitive  Object  after  Intransitives,  The  gen.  object  is  used 
with  the  following  intransitives,  or  verbs  originally  intransitive, 
especially  in  elevated  diction,  but  other  constructions,  indicated  in 
parentheses  after  each  verb,  are  also  found,  especially  in  certain 
meanings  of  the  same  word,  and  are  often  more  common  in  ordi- 
nary prose  :  nfcgefyen  (with  gen.  only  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  with  i»on 
with  dat.)  to  desist  from,  give  up,  abftefyen  (with  gen.  only  in  early 
N.H.G.,  now  with  Sjou  with  dat.)  to  desist  from,  give  up,  abirarteu 
(with  ace. ;  earlier  in  the  period  with  gen.  or  dat.)  to  attend  to,  arisen 
(auf  with  ace.,  sometimes  with  simple  ace.)  to  heed,  pay  attention  to, 
take  notice  of  (in  this  meaning  commonly  in  the  form  fceadjten,  with 
ace.),  respect  (in  this  meaning  with  ace.),  adjtfyafcen,  or  in  negative  form 
also  gar  feme  QId?t  tyafcen  (the  gen.  common  in  a  few  expressions,  as  e3 
[see  1^9.  c]  acfytfyaoen,  also  elsewhere,  but  more  commonly  with  auf 
with  ace.,  sometimes  with  simple  ace.)  to  heed,  pay  attention  to, 
tefcuvfen  (with  ace.)  to  need,  require,  fcegefyren  (with  ace. ;  nad?  with  dat.) 
to  desire,  long  for,  covet,  demand  (with  ace.),  fcenotigen,  or  less 
commonly  fcenoten  (with  gen.  or  ace.,  both  constructions  of  recent 
date ;  for  older  and  still  more  common  construction  fcenolicjt  fein  see 
3,  below)  to  have  need  of,  need,  Brandon  (with  ace.)  to  need,  use,  be 
in  need  of  (with  gen.),  gcbraud?en  (with  ace.)  to  use,  mipraud?en  (with 
ace.)  to  misuse,  banfen  (always  with  dat.  of  the  person,  sometimes 
with  gen.  or  ace.  of  the  thing,  or  more  commonly  with  fiir  with  ace. 
with  the  one  exception  that  the  gen.  is  still  common  in  a  few  ex- 
pressions, such  as  ®ott  fet  eg  [old  gen. ;  see  140.  c]  gebanft)  to  thank 
for,  benfeit  (an  with  ace.)  to  remember,  think  of,  gebenfcn  to  mention 
(with  gen.),  think  of,  remember  (in  the  last  two  meanings  with  gen. 
or  an  with  ace.),  emM)ren  (with  ace.)  to  be  without,  miss,  entgelten 
(only  in  early  N.H.G.,  now  with  ace.)  to  pay  (atone)  for,  entratert 
(with  ace.)  to  get  along  without,  dispense  with,  entfagen  (262.  II.  A* 
b\  to  renounce,  give  up,  ermitben  (con  with  dat.)  to  become  weary 
from,  erfcfyrerfen  (now  with  iiber  with  ace.,  or  oor  with  dat.)  to  take 
fright  at,  errcdfynen  (with  gen.  or  ace.,  only  rarely  with  son  with 
dat.)  to  mention,  errcarten  (see  rcarten,  below),  fct)Ieu  or  Derfel)Ien  (both 
verbs  also  with  ace.)  to  miss  (a  mark,  road,  &c.),  fail  of,  come  short 
of,  frofylocfen  (uber  with  ace.)  to  exult  at,  fitrd)ten  to  fear  for  (,  as  in 
nnferS  £e6en8  fiirdjteit  —  Josh.  ix.  24;  now  fiir  nnfer  £eben  fitrdjten), 
fear  (trans.,  always  with  ace.),  gelten  (185.  A.  I.  6.  Note  2),  genefm 
to  recover  from  (gen.  or  Son  with  dat.),  be  delivered  of  (a  child  in 
child-birth,  with  simple  gen.),  geniejjen  (or  ntejjcn  in  early  N.H.G. ; 
both  also  with  ace.)  to  enjoy,  partake  of,  eat  (usually  with  ace.),  gefunbeu 
(now  with  Jjon  with  dat.)  to  recover  from,  geiva^ren  (see  irafyren,  below), 
gcroarten  (see  rearten,  below),  geirofynen  (with  gen.  or  ace.,  earlier  in 
the  period  and  still  in  poetic  language,  now  except  in  the  adj. 


260.  2.  A.  GENITIVE  OBJECT  '549 

perfect  participle  [see  geirotynt  in  3,  below]  usually  replaced  by  fief) 
getrofynen  an,  with  ace.)  to  become  accustomed  to,  Barren  (auf  with  ace.) 
to  wait  patiently  for,  tyerrfcbm  (iiber  with  ace.,  sometimes  with  simple 
dat.  or  ace.,  with  simple  gen.  only  in  early  N.H.G.)  to  rule  over, 
fyoffen  (auf  with  ace.  ;  simple  gen.  now  rare)  to  hope  for,  expect, 
fyofynen  (with  ace.)  to  scoff  at,  frotynlacfyen  (i't&er  with  ace.)  to  laugh  at  in 
scorn,  fyoren  (with  gen.  earlier  in  the  period ;  for  use  with  dat. 
see  258.  I.  A.  c)  to  hear  (now  with  ace.),  listen  to  (i.  e.  lend  ear  to, 
heed,  now  with  auf  with  ace.) ;  f)uten  (with  ace. ;  only  in  early 
N.H.G.  with  simple  gen.)  to  guard,  tend  (sheep,  &c.),  f often  (earlier 
in  the  period  with  simple  gen.,  now  with  ace.  or  sometimes  Don  with 
dat.)  to  taste  (of),  lacfym  (ttber  with  ace. ;  uerladjen  to  deride,  always 
with  ace.)  to  laugh  scornfully  at,  make  light  of,  Idcfycln  (ufcer  with 
ace.)  to  smile  at,  lauern  (usually  auf  with  ace.)  to  lie  in  wait  for, 
leitgnen  (with  ace. ;  with  gen.  in  early  N.H.G.)  to  deny,  lofynen  (259. 
23),  uiangeln  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  with  ace.,  now  more  commonly 
impers.  with  an  with  dat. :  @3  mangeft  intr  ber  nottgen  (Jnergte,  or  more 
commonly  an  ber  nottgen  ©nergie)  or  ermangeln  (:  2)u  ermangelft  gdnjltcfy 
beg  8'Ieijjee)  to  be  without,  lack,  nttffen  (with  gen.  in  early  N.H.G.,  now 
with  ace.)  to  miss  (goal,  way),  be  without,  miss  (notice  or  feel  the 
absence  of;  see  i  Kings  xx.  39),  pflegen  (with  ace.)  to  attend  to,  take 
care  of,  discharge  the  duties  of  (usually  with  gen.),  carry  on,  give 
one's  self  up  to  (with  gen.),  indulge  in  (with  gen.),  take  (gen.,  as  in  bev 
Otufye,  feiner  S8equemU$feit  $flegen),  fcfyonen  (now  with  ace. ;  formerly  also 
with  dat.)  or  t»erfct)onen(with  ace.)  to  spare,  use  tenderly,  fctyireigen  (oon 
with  dat.  or  utter  with  ace.)  to  be  silent  about,  gefcfcicetgen  or  less  com- 
monly fd)iveigen  (both  usually  with  gen.,  especially  frequent  in  the  infi- 
nitive with  gu)  to  pass  over  in  silence,  say  nothing  about,  f paten  (with 
ace.)  to  spare,  fptelen  (formerly  with  gen.  and  still  occasionally  so,  as 
in  QJerftecfen  or  23erftecfen6  fpielen  ;  now  usually  with  ace.)  to  play,  fpotten 
(iifcer  with  ace. ;  sometimes  with  simple  dat. ;  sometimes  trans,  with 
ace.,  hence  the  biblical  expression  ©ott  Ia'f;t  ftcfy  nicfyt  f  pot  ten  God  is 
not  mocked ;  the  transitive  form  is  usually  tterfpotten)  to  scorn,  mock, 
oerbieuen  (with  ace.)  to  be  deserving  of,  »erfefylen  (see  fefylen,  above),  oer* 
geffen  (with  ace. ;  in  S.G.  and  in  a  less  degree  in  the  North  also  auf  or 
an  with  ace.,  or  sometimes  tton  with  dat.)  to  be  forgetful  of,  forget,  per* 
langen  (gen.  poet. ;  for  prose  construction  see  262.  II.  B.  d)  to  long 
for,  Derleugncn  (sometimes  in  early  N.H.G.  with  gen.,  now  with  ace.) 
to  deny,  disown,  oermtffcn  (with  ace.,  in  early  N.H.G.  also  with  gen., 
as  in  i  Sam.  xx.  18 ;  gen.  now  rare)  to  miss,  feel  the  want,  absence 
of,  irafyren  to  look  out  for  or  keep  (with  gen.),  guard  or  care  for  (earlier 
in  the  period  with  gen.,  now  with  ace.),  observe,  preserve  (with 
ace.),  geivafyren  (now  usually  with  ace.)  or  geroabr  (gen.  or  ace.)  iterben 
to  perceive,  iral;rnel)men  to  take  care  of  (children,  &c.),  take  advan- 
tage of  (an  opportunity,  &c.,  in  this  meaning  also  with  ace.), 
perceive  (with  ace.),  look  after  (one's  interests  ;  with  ace.),  make 
good  (one's  expenses;  with  ace.),  iralten  to  discharge  the  duties 
of,  have  charge  of,  bring  to  pass  (in  this  meaning  now  also  with 
ace.),  hold  sway  over  (in  this  meaning  with  the  simple  gen.,  or  more 
commonly  with  the  ace.  or  dat.  after  the  prep,  iifcer,  sometimes  in 


550  SYNTAX  260. 2.  A. 

poetic  style  with  ob  with  the  dat),  rcarten  to  await  or  wait  for  (in  this 
meaning  with  gen.,  or  more  commonly  auf  with  ace.),  attend  to  (with 
gen.),  care  for,  look  after  (in  these  meanings  with  gen.  or  more 
commonly  the  ace.),  ertvarten  (with  ace.)  to  await,  gctrarten  (rare  ;  with 
gen.  or  ace.)  to  await,  ^urnen  (with  itber  with  ace.  or  reegen  with  gen.) 
to  be  angry  at  (something).  Exs. :  (So  laufen  rctr  uad?  bem,  ivag  t»or 
ung  flteljt,  |  imb  ad?ten  uid?t  beg  SBegeg,  ben  ittr  treten  (Goethe's  Iphigenie, 
"2,  i).  3d?  ad?te  nid?t  auf  bid?  unb  beincn  3ofn.  ©rofjmutter  ftebt  ibm 
Bet ;  |  bte,  reeifjt  bu,  ad?tet  nid?t  bein  3orngefd?ret  (Hauptmann's  Versunkene 
Glocke,  3).  3d?  ad?te  (respect)  ifyn,  aber  id?  Carat  tt;n  nid?t  lieben.  <£o,  in 
mid?  fytnetn  brittenb,  b/atte  id?  3ettd?eng  ©egenrcart  unb  tfyreg  (Spiels  gar  feme 
5ld?t  met)r  get)abt  (Spielhagen's  Was  will  das  werden,  I,  chap.  vii). 
£>enn  er  glaubt  intmer  nod?,  id)  fet  in  etnem  franfen  SBa^n  befangen  un&  inuffe, 
anfiatt  ju  fatten,  felfcfl  beg  Qtr^teg  benoten  (Anselm  Heine's  Eine  Gabe, 
Den  i.  Juli).  [3d?]  3)anfe  ber  gutigen  9^ad?frnge  (Raabe's  Fruhling, 
chap.  viii).  The  more  common  form  of  the  preceding  sentence  :  3d? 
banfe  fur  bie  giitige  9Rad?frage.  3f)r  banf  e8  (old  gen.,  now  felt  as  an  ace. ; 
see  140.  c)  .  .  .  if)r  banfe  &eid?  unb  Sefcen  (Fulda's  Talisman,  4,  7).  3d? 
irelfj  ntd?t,  rcte  id?  btr  bag  banfen  foil,  aber  oerlap  bid?  barauf,  id?  banf 
btr'g  fd?on  einmal  (Beyerlein's  Jena  oder  Sedan  ?,  iv).  @r  ^at  fte  auf 
bent  ©erciffen,  ba^  cr  beg  2)?etg  nid?t  entfagte,  ba  eg  3e^  ^ar !  (Frenssen's 
Die  drei  Getreuen,  1 1,  9).  3rce 1 9ftnberer  ermubeten  ber  ^a^rt  (Grillparzer's 
Des  Meeres  und  der  Liebe  Wellen,  3).  @ie  errcci^nten  gennffer  D^fer,  bie 
(£ie  trtngen  mufjten  —  (Baumbach's  Der  Schwiegersohn,  X).  £>er 
@d?nce,  ber  lag,  gab  gerabe  £id)t  genug,  unt  beg  SSegeg  nid?t  311  fe^Ien  (Fon- 
tane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  IV,  19).  5)enn  bie  einjelnen  $tere  genoffen  bet 
ben  ^abetten  eineg  befonberen  Oiufeg,  je  nad?  itjren  ijerntetntltd?  guten  ober 
bofen  @tgenfd?aften  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  xxxix).  £)enn  je§t 
^or;nlad?'  id?  beiner  (Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows,  3,  14).  3d?  n?il 
Iteber  ber  ^b/ur  Bitten  in  metneg  ©otteg  tyaufe  |  benn  lange  ironen  in  ber 
©ottlofen  ^iitten  (Psalm  Ixxxiv.  u).  @r  ^o^nte  mir  mein  Qtmulett,  | 
^tett  nid?tg  »on  2)Ztttetn !  Iad?te  alter  @£rud?e !  (Hauptmann's  Der  arme 
Heinrich,  3,  i).  Sort  im  ©ornmer,  tvenn  ber  gro^e  |  SWecrIad?g  feine  Ofi^ein* 
fa^rt  mad)t,  |  lauerte  mtt  fd?arfem  @pie§e  |  fetn  ber  aUemann'fd?e  S'ifd?er 
(Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Drittes  Stuck).  Qdtf  bent  Srtebfyof  fflegt  ber 
Sotengraber  tjajrtg  feineg  Qtmteg  (Ernst  Zahn's  Wie  dem  Kaplan  Lon^ 
ginus  die  Welt  aufging}.  5)eg  d^ampagnerg  Ijatte  man  nid?t  gefdjont 
(Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  233).  @tn  breitfd?ultriger  unb  furjtyalftger 
aJZann  »on  2)cxttte  5)rei§ig,  beffen  ©tu^ut  unb  ^ed)tgraiter  9Rorf  mtt  grunen 
Sftabatten  (teg  £irfd?fangerg  ganj  ^n  fd?rcetgen)  uber  feinen  33eruf  fetncn  3weifcl 
laffen  fonnte  (Fontane's  Quitt,  chap.  i).  5)er  $arf  mtt  feinen  tiefen 
@d?attcn,  ben  fonntgen  ®ra§pld^en,  auf  benen  trir  >§afd?eng  unb  Oteifen 
fytelten  (Spielhagen's  Frei geboren,  p.  14).  £)er  «§err  ^at  mein  nod?  me 
»ergeffen,  »ergi^,  mein  &\%,  and?  fetner  nid?t  (Gellert).  2Benn  fie  alfo 
gefniet  ijatte  aug  IMebe  ju  tt)m,  redtjrenb  er  fern  »on  it;r  weilte  unb  aflgemad? 
tt;rer  t>ergap?  (Ertl's  Walpurga).  @r  ^)at  ben  SRanten  beg  2ftanneg  yergeffen. 
23ergept  nur  nid?t  auf  Sureg  Qjaterg  @i'H3^Iein,  Sungfer!  (Storm's  Zur 
Chronik  von  Grieshuus,  p.  109).  2)ann  berga^  id?  auf  bie  <£ad?e  (Roseg- 
ger's  Geldtragen).  S)ann  t»ergeffe  id?  auf  afleg,  unb  bann  fpred?e  id?  mtt 
2Kartt;a  fd?Ieftfd?  (Paul  Keller's  Waldwinter,  xvii).  2)n  Dergi^t  ja  ganj  aufg 


260.  2.  B.  GENITIVE  OBJECT  551 

(rffen,  £>Itfd)i  (Berlepsch's  Vendetta).  «§errgott,  bie  £orte  !  9Retn  fcergeffen 
Mtten  icir  jefct  auf  bic  !  (delle  Grazie's  Sphinx).  3d)  ^afce,  glaufc'  id),  fd)on 
rcieber  an  ting  beibe  »ergeffen  (Hirschfeld's  Der  junge  Goldner,  p.  226). 
@o  bad;te  bie  5rau  .  .  .  |  ifyrer  ©tyre  ju  iratyren  imb  bop^elt  rrar  fte  tterloren 
(Goethe).  £)er  tcetfe  Salbot,  ber  beg  @iegelg  trafyret  (Schiller's  Maria,  i, 
7).  SBafyr'  beiner  <§cmt  (Werner's  Ostsee,  i,  39).  fatten  fte  fid)  afle 
gefyalten  icie  er  unb  ein  J?ned)t,  eg  irdre  metn  imb  meineg  fleinen  «§dnfd)en§ 
tibcl  gen?at)rt  gercefen  (Goethe's  Gdtz,  3,  6).  3d)  reerbe  iljre  3Red?te  roafyren. 
Sen  Qinfianb  reafyren  to  observe  the  decorum,  ben  @d)cin  reafyren  to  save 
appearances.  <2te  fltrbt  »or  6fet,  irenn  fie  metn  gereafyrt  (Hauptmann's 
Der  artne  Heinrich,  2,  6).  SHefymet  ber  Jtinber  .  .  .  icaf)r  (Goethe's 
Rein.  Fuchs,  3).  Dliinm  ber  gimftigen  or  more  commonly  bte  gtmfttge 
©elegen^ett  ica^r.  Fernet  ivar  ber  £ilien  auff  bent  felbe  (Luke  xii.  27).  3cfy 
t)abe  an  iljm  feine  ^erdnberung  n;at)rne^men  fonnen.  @r  nimntt  metn 
3ntereffe  rcafyr.  @r  ntmmt  feine  5(it8tagen  itafcr.  9Ste  ttttt  id?  alfo  meineS 
bttteren  Qlmteg  walteu  itnb  Oiicfyter  fein  ?  (Lienhard's  Konig  Arthur,  3). 
2Bge  e3  (140.  c)  3Rit$ra8,  ber  QlKgittige,  iralten  !  (Fam.  BL,  4,  459,  a). 
5)aS  (or  bee)  n?olte  ®ott  !  2D?ad)t,  bte  fetneS  <2d?icffal3  waltete  (Freytag's 
Bild,  i,  406).  (£r  irartcte  beg  (SrfofgeS  fetner  5rtng»orrid)tung  (H.  Seidel's 
Der  Luftballon).  %im\t  ntd?t  ber  bretften  ftrage,  trie  fonntet  3^r  bieS  einfame 
i!eben  nnter  bem  rctlten  SSolf  ertragen  ?  (Freytag's  Rittmeister,  chap.  3). 

a.  The  gen.  object  is  also  found  after  the  following  verbs,  where,  however, 
it  may  also  be  classified  as  an  adverbial  gen.  :  fasten  to  drive,  gcfyen  to  go, 
fcmmen  to  come,  fd)U  tdjen  to  sneak,  jtctym  to  go.  Exs.  :  cin  ixnrtltcfy  Sat^  j  fiir  a((e 
SBanbrcr,  tie  t>c3  SBcge^  fasten  (Schiller's  Tell,  1,2).  S)tc  Jtnabm  fltngen 


tg  [till  i()vcc  2Bege  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  yii).  Sa^t  jcben  fetne^ 
gcf>en.  ©atfcte  fd)lid)  i^  mcincr  il^cgc.  (Etc  ade  gic^en  t()rc3  3Segc(3  fort  an  tfyr 
@efd)aft.  The  ace.  is  also  used  after  these  verbs,  usually  without  difference 
of  meaning,  but  sometimes  with  a  shade  of  difference.  The  gen.  represents 
the  action  as  beginning,  or  as  directed  toward  only  a  part  of  the  object, 
while  the  ace.  represents  the  action  as  a  thorough  one,  or  as  extending 
entirely  over  the  object  :  ©d)  betncn  !li5eg  Go  on  your  way,  keeping  to  it  till 
you  reach  the  end,  but  @flj  bctneS  2Bcgc3  Start  out  on  your  way.  The  genitive 
here  is  a  decaying  construction.  It  is  quite  common  with  masculine  words 
in  certain  set  expressions.  It  is  also  occasionally  found  with  feminines  in 
a  few  expressions  :  fetucr  ©trafjc  jtcfyen  (Tieck).  3d?  jtcfye  riifHg  mcincr  Strafjeu 
(Uhland).  But  it  cannot  be  freely  used.  The  simple  accusative,  though 
more  common  than  the  genitive,  has  its  limitations.  The  usual  mode  of 
expression  here  is  the  accusative  in  connection  with  an  adverb  or  preposition  : 
(S'r  cjing  bie  ©trape  Ijinuutcr.  ®r  fam  bte  £reppe  Ijcrauf.  Gt  ging  bic  ©trafjc,  but  5l»fJ 
cntlang. 

b.  With  Iffccn  and  fterbcn  the  gen.  is  used  in  a  few  set  expressions  to  denote 
the  means  or  cause  :  3d)  lebc  ber  (or  in  ber)  Jpcffmmg,  bap  I  live  in  hopes  that, 
&c.  £cr  ©crcd)te  unrb  feints  ©laubentf  Ubcn  (Rom.  i.  17).  9ht  abet  mug  id) 
bitrftt?  fterbcn  (Judges  xv.  18).  Compare  the  gen.  and  ace.  with  fterbcn  in  223. 
111.  a.  and  257.  2.  A. 

B.  In  changing  sentences  containing  a  gen.  object  into  the  passive 
construction  the  gen.  does  not  become  nom.,  but  remains  gen.  for 
the  same  reason  that  the  dat.  object  remains  dat.  in  changing  from 
the  active  to  the  passive  (258.  i).  The  subject  of  the  passive 
sentence  must  then  become  the  impers.  eg,  expressed  or  under- 
stood :  2tfan  gebenft  mciner  They  are  thinking  of  me  becoming  in  the 


552  SYNTAX  26O.2.B. 

passive  SRetnet  nnrb  gebacfyt,  or  C?g  irirb  nteiner  gebad?  t.  Those  verbs  that 
also  admit  of  the  ace.  object  in  the  active  may  likewise  be  treated 
as  regular  transitives,  in  which  case  the  ace.  of  the  active  becomes 
nom.  in  the  passive  :  @r  enrdfyute  biefen  Umfknb,  or  btefeS  UmfianbS  He 
mentioned  this  circumstance  becoming  in  the  passive :  2)iefer  Umfiaub 
irurbe  errcdlmt,  or  btcfeS  UmftanbS  irurbe  ericdfynt.  In  case  of  those  verbs 
which  prefer  the  prep,  object  in  prose,  the  impersonal  passive  must 
be  formed  :  @r  fyottete  itber  micfy  He  scoffed  at  me  becoming  in  the 
passive  C?S  irurbe  fiber  mid?  gefpottet,  or  @8  unirbe  meincr  gefpottet. 

3.  Genitive  after  adjectives,  adverbs,  participles,  and  nouns  (in  con- 
nection with  a  verb).  The  genitive  here  denotes  a  goal,  separation, 
cause,  specification,  plenty  or  want,  value,  or  it  often  has  the  force 
of  an  objective  genitive.  In  earlier  periods  the  genitive  was  much 
more  common  here  in  most  of  these  categories  than  it  is  to-day. 
Former  usage  often  survives  in  compounds :  fonnenoerbranut,  fcfyirffalS- 
fcfyrcer,  fofyirabeufcfytcarj,  fyanbelgflug,  getftesafwefenb,  geifre§franf,  getfk§* 
tterrcanbt,  fegengmcty,  mannStofl,  &c.  In  compounds  proper  we  cannot 
—distinguish  the  syntactical  relation,  as  the  modifying  component 
always  has  the  form  of  the  bare  stem :  ju'eIDm?ufjt,  gelb^ierig,  &c. 

The  genitive  now  stands  after  the  following  words  in  elevated 
language,  and  in  large  part  also  in  common  prose,  but  other  con- 
structions, too,  are  found  with  the  same  forms,  as  is  indicated  in  each 
case  in  parentheses :  acfytloe(in  choice  prose  with  gen.,  more  commonly 
auf  with  ace.)  heedless  of,  not  paying  attention  to ;  anftcb,  tig  (originally 
with  ace.,  now  also  with  gen.,  and  perhaps  more  commonly  so),  used 
only  in  the  predicate  after  irerbeu  in  the  meaning  to  get  sight  of;  bar 
(rarely  won  with  dat.  or  an  with  dat.)  free  from,  void  of;  beburftig  in 
need  of;  befltffeu  given,  devoted  to,  engaged  in  the  study  of;  begterig 
or  giertg  (both  with  gen.  in  choice  language,  more  commonly  with 
nart)  with  dat.,  or  auf  with  ace.)  to  be  desirous  of,  eager  for ;  benotigt 
(sometimes  with  ace.),  usually  in  the  predicate  after  few,  to  be  in 
want,  in  need  of;  beraubt  deprived  of,  stripped  of,  robbed  of;  bericfytet 
or  bericiit  (in  use  earlier  in  the  period  ;  see  also  262.  III.  i.k)  well 
versed  in ;  beirufjt  (sometimes  with  ace.)  conscious  of;  blof  (some- 
times you  with  dat.)  not  furnished  with,  wanting,  free  from,  exposed 
to  (in  this  meaning  with  simple  dat.),  eingcbcnf"  or  gebenf  (poet.)  mindful 
of;  erfafyicn  (gen.  earlier  in  the  period,  now  iu  with  dat.)  experienced 
in,  skilled  in,  versed  in  ;  einig  (De8  ^reifeg,  beg  «£anbel8,  beg  JtaitfeS  eintg, 
elsewhere  iiber  with  ace.)  or  dug  (in  beg  $retfe3,  ^anrelS,  beS  JtaufeS  cine) 
agreed  upon ;  erfi'iflt,  see  gefuttt ;  erftitttgt  satiated  with ;  (Srnrdfynung 
(sometimes  you  with  dat.)  tuu  to  make  mention  of:  fafytg  capable 
of;  frei  (gen.  earlier  in  the  period,  now  usually  with  t>on  with  dat.) 
free  from;  frof)  enjoying,  rejoicing  in  (the  possession  of),  happy 
in,  usually  with  iiber  with  ace.  in  the  meanings  glad  of,  rejoiced 
at,  over ;  gefuflt  (gen.  poet. ;  usually  with  nut  with  dat.)  or  erfiitlt  (with 
gen.  in  a  few  expressions,  or  more  commonly  with  con  or  mtt  with 
dat.)  filled  with  ;  geijtg  (usually  uad)  with  dat.)  eager  after ;  gefdttigt 
(with  gen.,  or  perhaps  more  commonly  oon  with  dat.)  satiated  with, 
tired  of;  geftdubig  (sometimes  with  ace.)  used  only  with  the  verb  fcin  in 
the  meaning  to  confess,  plead  guilty  to  (an  offence) ;  geu?af?r  (gen.  or  ace.) 


260.3.  GENITIVE  OBJECT  553 

used  with  rcerben  in  the  meaning  to  perceive ;  geirartig  (sometimes  the 
acc.)expecting,on  the  look-out  for;  geirijj (sometimes with  ace.;  earlier 
in  the  period  vou  with  dat.)  certain  of;  gereofynt  or  gercoljnt  (both  more 
commonly  with  simpleacc.,  or  in  case  of  gereofynt  still  more  commonly 
with  an  with  ace.,  geirofynt  sometimes  with  an  with  ace.)  accustomed 
to ;  fyabfyaft  (sometimes  with  ace.),  used  with  irerben  in  the  meaning 
to  get  hold  or  possession  of;  inne  or  less  commonly  innen  (both  forms 
also  with  the  ace.),  used  with  icerben  in  the  meaning  to  become  con- 
scious of,  perceive ;  <§err  (also  fiber  with  ace.)  fein  to  be  master  of, 
have  the  mastery,  control  of,  have  the  free  disposition  of  (one's 
time,  &c.),  *£>err  (also  itber  with  ace.)  rcerben  to  get  the  mastery  of; 
ffinbig  (now  rare)  or  more  commonly  funbig  well  acquainted  with  (a 
road,  &c.),  versed  in  ;  Ia§  (poetic)  tired  of;  leiig  (gen.  or  tton  with  dat.) 
free  from  ;  leer  (gen.  poet. ;  now  usually  con  or  an  with  dat.)  void  of, 
free  from ;  log  (gen.  poet.,  now  usually  ace. ;  earlier  in  the  period 
with  yon  with  dat.  also  after  fein  and  iwben,  now  with  sou  with  dat. 
only  after  other  verbs  than  fein  and  rcerben  :  3d)  Inn  ifyn  Io3,  but  @r  ift 
»om  SMtlitdr  log  gefommen.  @r  macfyte  fid;  t>on  mir  loes)  rid  of;  madjtig 
master  of;  2Met|ler  (also  son  with  dat.,  or  fiber  with  ace.)  in  connection 
with  the  verbs  fein  and  iterben  to  be  master  of,  get  the  mastery  over, 
have,  get  the  control  of,  get  the  better  of;  mute  (with  gen.  or  ace.) 
tired  of;  notig  or  tton  notcn  (both  with  gen.,  or  now  more  commonly 
ace.),  used  with  fyaben  in  the  meaning  to  need,  or  not  fein  to  be  need 
of,  not  fyaben  to  have  need  of;  quttt  (sometimes  with  ace.,  earlier  in 
the  period  also  »on  with  dat.)  free  from,  rid  of,  clear  of;  fatt  (gen.  in 
choice  language,  more  commonly  ace.)  satiated  with,  tired  of; 
fdntlbio,  (with  gen.)  guilty  of,  unfdjulbig  (gen.  poet.,  usually  an  with 
dat.)  innocent  of;  felig  (in  with  dat.  or  burd;  with  ace.)  happy  in; 
ftrtjcr  (only  rarely  with  ton  with  dat.)  sure  of;  teilfjaft  or  tetlfyaftig 
sharing  in ;  iiberbrfiffig  (with  gen.  or  ace.)  weary  of;  fiberl)oben, 
used  with  fein  in  the  meaning  to  be  exempt  or  relieved  from,  be 
spared  the  necessity  of]  unad;tenb  paying  no  attention  to ;  ungldubig 
(with  gen.  in  biblical  language ;  see  Acts  xxvi.  19)  incredulous 
with  regard  to ;  Derbdcfytig  suspected  of;  ttergeffen  forgetful  of;  ber« 
lufttg  forfeiting,  losing;  yermutenb  or  oermuten  (both  usually  with 
ace.),  used  with  fein  in  the  meaning  to  be  expecting;  ferftdjeit 
assured  of;  ttofl  (often  also  with  non-inflection  of  the  noun  in 
the  sing,  and  with  the  dat.  in  the  pi.  where  the  dependent  sub- 
stantive has  no  inflected  modifying  word  before  it,  otherwise  with 
simple  gen.,  or  con  [sometimes  mitj  with  the  dat,  sometimes  also 
with  simple  dat.)  or  oofler  (with  non-inflection  of  the  noun  in  the 
sing,  when  there  is  no  modifying  word  before  it,  otherwise  with 
gen. ;  see  111.  8)  full ;  uxrt  worth  (in  this  meaning  with  ace.),  worthy 
of  (with  gen.) ;  nnffenb  (in  poetic  language)  knowing  of,  informed 
concerning;  nntrbig  (sometimes  with  ace.)  worthy  of;  jufrieben  (now 
usually  mit  [in  the  eighteenth  century  also  t»on]  with  dat.)  satisfied 
with.  Exs. :  Unb  $ule§t  be3  IHdjtS  fcegterig,  bifl  tit,  <Sd)metterIing,  oerorannt. 
(5r  t|t.nad?  ®elb  begicrig.  (?r  ift  anf  ben  •ilitSgang  begterig.  3^c»fel»b  unb 
bod)  afler  ®enn£l;eit  erfuttt  (Raabe's  Gutmanns  Reisen,  chap.  xi).  £>enn 
id;  t;atte  nid;t  nur  einen  be§  SebenS  erfdtttgteu  ®rei3  mit  bem  ireifen  SEifleu 


554  SYNTAX  260.3. 

ber  Sftatur  ufrcreinfitmmenb  ftd?  £>on  ber  (Srbe  iteg  einer  unfcefannten  (Sirigfett 
^inrenben  fefyen,  &c.  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Ursleu,  chap,  xxxvii).  <3ie 
tat  ineiner,  ticfeS  8?flfleg  ©mdfynnng.  @ie  nnirben  ja  ityrer  Siebe  ntctot  ntefyr 
fret)  (Tavote)  They  surely  would  never  become  happy  in  one 
another's  love  again.  3d?  bin  gefdttigt  beg  fufjen  9Betns  (Halbe's 
Lebenswende,  i,  p.  20).  3d?  rear  inir  fetneg  Qlngrtffg  gercdrtig.  £en  ftno 
bte  £od?ftafetftnber  gercdrtig,  ef)e  fte  abjtefyen  (Ernst  Zahn's  Menschen,  I). 
<Sie  nwrben  beg  2Serbred?erg  ntd?t  i)abf)aft.  <3ie  irerben  ifyreg  SSafmeg  inne 
rccrben  (Schiller's  Jungfrau,  5,  4).  SBenn  fte  ivurben  innen  |  ^ier  metn 
feltfameg  8eginuett  (Grillparzer's  Ahnfrau,  2).  dr  reurbe  ntd;t  <§err 
feiner  Setbenfc^aft.  $£er  3««ge  bin  id?  SKetfter,  ntd?t  be8  Qtugeg  (Kotzebue). 
aSteleS  OtebenS  ifi  je^t  nidjt  not.  @ie  ^at'S  (the  e3  an  old  gen.  [14O.  c], 
but  felt  as  an  ace.)  ntd>t  not  (R.  Wagner's  Flieg.  HolL).  9iuu  ^afct  i^r 
fctneg  SSormunbS  notig  (Lessing's  Sinnged.,  i,  124),  now  usually  fetnen 
SSormunb.  Sin  Aligner  ijl  ber  (Sfyre  »erlufiig.  @tn  $erfen  »ott  2Eaffer0 
(Wieland).  ©in  ed?ter  Drtt)oborer  bofl  ©laitbengeifer,  afeer  and?  tiott  93itd> 
iingen  gcgen  bte  gute  ©efeflfdjaft  ifl  ber  «§itlf§^rebtger  Oto^rlanb  in  ben  Stit^en 
ber  ©efeUfd^aft  (Albert  Geiger  in  Beilage  zur  Allgemcinen  Zeitung, 
13.  Dezbr.  1901).  2)aS  ®eftd?td?en  afcer  ttra^Ite  »ott  ettel  ©ntjurfen  (H. 
Hoffmann).  (Sine  ^rau  fcegegnete  mtr  mtt  einent  ^orfce  tiott  fritter  -Ttpfel 
(Immermann).  2>ie  ©tube  rear  »ott  bunfelrotem  ^eimlid)en  fiid?t  (Frenssen). 
*2lfle3  fo  ootler  !^td?t  (Lessing).  £)te  @tu6e  rear  hotter  SSiid^er  unb  5tltertitnier 
(Novalis).  (Sin  t»o(Ie§,  ganj  »on  einer  ©m^finbnng  t)oUe3  <£>er;$  (Goethe's 
Goto,  i,  5).  (£r  ^at  ben  J:opf  fo  fcofl  mtt  feinent  Ungliid!  (Fulda's  Die 
Kameraden,  2,  4).  2)ann  mad?'  id?  itjn  triffenb  ber  3iutOermad?t,  |  bnrd?  bie 
er  fte  ftnben  nnb  btnben  fann  (Sudermann's  Die  drei  Reiherfedern,  i,  2). 
Qlud?  tin  be6  2)tenfle§  (now  mtt  bem  X)tenfie)  id?  reo^t  jufrieben,  ben  fte  mtr 
geletftet  (Goethe).  3d?  Bin  e§  (gen.  still  common  in  this  expression) 
gufrieben.  llnb  bin  bason  (now  bamit)  iro^t  jufrieben  (id.). 

a.  Instead  of  a  gen.  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  an  infinitive  with  jit 
(or  more  rarely  itm  ^u)  or  a  clause  is  often  found  with  these  adjec- 
tives :  3d?  bin  frof),  <Ste  $u  fefyen.     @r  i|l  nid?t  fd^ig,  (itm)  eg  ju  begretfen. 
3d?  bin  frol),  baf  <2ie  gefontmen  ftnb. 

b.  The  ace.  after  the  above  adjectives  is  more  common  in  case  of 
pronouns  than  nouns.     Especially  the  neut.  ace.  eg  is  common  even 
after  adjectives,  which  do  not  usually  admit  of  the  ace. :  9Benn  id? 
eg  ganj  nnb  gar  it6erf)oben  fein  fonnte !  If  I  could  be  relieved  from  it 
entirely  !     The  eg  is  here  in  reality  the  gen.  (see  140.  c],  but  is  now 
felt  as  an  ace.     The  ace.  now  very  commonly  used  after  some  of 
the  above  adjectives  and  participles  has  arisen  from  this  misunder- 
stood pronominal  form  eg,  and  then  spread  to  other  pronouns,  and 
also  to  nouns  :  Weislingen  :   <£eib  3fyr  mid?  fd?on  miibe  ?    Adelheid : 
Gad?  nid?t  foreo^I  alg  (Suern  Umgang  (Goethe's  Gotz,  2,  9). 

c.  The  gen.  object  usually  precedes  the  governing  adjective : 

te  3t)rer  <Sad?e  gercif  ? 

Prepositional  Object. 

261.  In  the  preceding  articles  the  object  of  verbs  or  adjectives  is 
in  some  simple  case  form,  but  it  may  also  be  in  some  case  after 


262.  I.  DOUBLE  OBJECT:  ACC.  &  DAT.  555 

a  prep.,  usually,  however,  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning  or 
feeling,  if  the  same  verb  also  governs  a  simple  case :  3d?  benfe  beta 
I  am  thinking  of  you  is  choicer  and  more  expressive  than  the  more 
common  3d)  benfe  an  bid;.  Further  shades  of  meaning  can  be  intro- 
duced by  using  different  prepositions :  £enfe  auf  betne  SRettung  Be 
thinking  of  some  plan  to  bring  about  your  rescue.  3d)  f?afce  lange 
iifcer  bag  SiHdtfet  gcbad?t  I  have  long  pondered  over  the  riddle.  Many 
verbs,  adjectives,  and  participles  have  an  object  or  objects  in 
a  simple  case  form  in  some  expressions,  but  have  prepositional 
objects  in  other  expressions,  other  words  have  only  prep,  objects : 
(Sing  bitte  id?  bid?,  but  3d;  bitte  urn  (5ntfd?ul&igung.  3ebcr  war  auf  bag 
5luf?etfte  gefafjt. 

By  glancing  at  the  preceding  and  following  articles  it  will  be  seen 
that  verbs  which  once  took  an  object  in  a  simple  case  form  now 
often  take  a  prepositional  object.  The  prep,  construction  has  become 
a  marked  favorite,  and  hence  the  study  of  the  prepositions,  their 
meaning  and  grammatical  use,  is  a  vital  one.  This  subject  is  treated 
at  considerable  length  in  225-232. 

Double  Object. 

262.  An  ace.,  dat.,  gen.,  or  prepositional  object  may  not  only 
each  be  used  singly  after  a  verb,  but  two  objects  may  be  employed, 
one  in  the  ace.  to  denote  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  and  one 
in  the  simple  ace.,  dat.,  or  gen.,  or  in  some  case  after  a  prep.,  to 
denote  a  second  object,  which  stands  in  various  relations  to  the 
verb  or  some  other  word  as  described  below. 

I.  Accusative  of  the  Thing  and  Dative  of  the  Person. 

This  construction  is  found  after  a  great  many  verbs,  especially 
those  with  the  general  meaning  of  giving,  taking,  bringing,  sending, 
commanding,  owing,  selling,  making,  preventing,  &C.,  where  the 
accusative  denotes  the  object  or  thing  affected  or  produced,  and 
the  dative  the  person  to  whose  advantage  or  disadvantage  the 
action  accrues :  3d)  fd?enfe  3f?nen  biefcS  3?ud).  Gr  entjicfyt  mir  feine 
UnterfKtfcung  He  withdraws  his  support  from  me.  3d)  tterfdwffe  mir 
ctnen  ^aft.  2)er  SBufre  f)at  mir  ben  iHorf  entitcnbct.  3d?  serbanfe  bir  mciit 
©li'id*.  iWan  tvaojt  if;nt  bie  (Styetfen  auf.  Gr  mad?t  if; in  cin  ^aar  <Sd?uf;c. 
Chr  f)at  mir  »iel  Q3erbrujj  ocrurfad)t.  Sie  ttenvefyrtcn  bcm  Jdnbe  ten  lltergang 
They  prevented  the  enemy  from  crossing.  As  in  a  number  of 
these  examples,  the  verb  is  often  compounded  with  certain  prefixes ; 
see  258.  i.  B.  a. 

The  idea  of  personal  interest  is  prominent  in  many  of  these 
datives,  as  in  the  examples  given  above,  but  the  ideas  of  a  goal, 
place,  position,  separation,  source  are  also  common,  especially  after 
verbs  compounded  with  a  preposition  :  C?r  fitfjrte  unS  fcercofjnteren 
©egcnben  jit.  drr  fitl?rte  bie  ftrage  einer  neuen  @ntfd?eibung  entgegen.  3d? 
untenverfe  mid?  fctinbltngS  3f)rem  Qlu^umtd?.  3d?  itnterjief;e  mid?  bent 
fdncierigen  ©efdjdft,  ber  Operation,  ©arum  entjtef;fl  bit  bid?  unferem  SSer* 
feijr  ?  @r  f;at  bag  ®Ieid;nt3  tent  or  t>on  (or  aue)  bem  <§omer  entlef;nt.  3d) 


556  SYNTAX  262.  I. 

entnefyme  (au§)  3^rem  9Briefe,  ba§  itfro.  I  learn  from  your  letter  that,  &c. 
For  fluctuation  in  usage  here  see  b,  below. 


a.  The  ace.  is  often  replaced  by  an  infinitive  with  ju  or  by  a  clause  : 
!ann  ben  2J?enfd)en  nid)t  »  erwefyren,  git  benfen,  toag  fie  ttcften.    SKeine  ®  efd)dfte  crlauben 
imt  feinen  (angen  Slufentljalt,  or  Sftetne  ©efcfyafte  ertauben  ntir  nid)t,  mid)  tange 
oitf  jufjatten,  or  weitte  ©efdjdfte  crtauben  (mir)  nid)t,  ba£  tdj  mid)  tange  auf  (jaltc. 

b.  This  double  object  construction  is  productive,  and  is  growing  at  the 
expense  of  other  double  object  constructions.     Thus  geivdfyren,  which  in  early 
N.H.G.  belonged  to  II  (as  in  3)er  £@9t9l  cjeroere  bid)  aller  betner  bitte  —  Psalm 
xx.  6),  now  usually  belongs  here  (as  in  !Der  §err  getodfyre  bir  atte  beine  23itten). 
In  a  number  of  cases  this  change  of  construction  has  resulted  from  a  con- 
fusion of  forms.     Thus  we  often  find   such    expressions   as   Untcrftd)  bit's 
[instead  of  bid)'g  =  bid)  eg],  SJZdbel  !    (Beyerlein's  Damon  Othello,  2,  2).    The 
dative  and  accusative  in  such  cases  originated,  perhaps,  in  such  expressions 
as  (£t  unterflefyt  fid)'  (5,  where  fid)  is  in  fact  an  accusative  and  eg  an  old  genitive 
(140.  c),  but  fid)  is  construed  as  a  dative  and  eg  as  an  accusative  in  conformity 
with  the  familiar  dative  and  accusative  construction.     Sometimes  the  thought 
influences  the  construction.     As  the  idea  of  separation  is  associated  with 
both  the  dative  and  the  genitive,  a  number  of  verbs  fluctuate  between  the 
dative  and  genitive:   ©it  mufjt  bid)  beg  Olaudjeng  entwcfynen,  but  also  SiHe  unr 

xbemu()t  finb,  allem  jh>ecfto3  @d)onen  |  .  .  .  uttg  ju  mtwojjnen  (P.  Heyse  in  NordS., 
28,  65).  As  tton  also  expresses  the  same  idea  it  is  likewise  sometimes  used 
alongside  of  the  gen.  or  dat.,  or  of  both,  or,  as  in  the  following  sentence, 
is  preferred  in  certain  expressions  :  £>er  ©dugling  ifi  je^t  »ott  ber  93rufl  entwctjnt. 
Fluctuations  between  dat.  and  gen.  also  occur  in  the  expression  of  the  idea 
of  a  goal,  as  both  cases  contain  this  meaning  with  certain  compound  verbs: 
em  guteg  8anb,  |  itoljt  »ert,  baf  fid)  ein  gurfl  fein  unteminbe  (Grillparzer's  Konig 
Ottokars  Gliick  und  Ende,  3).  @v  iueigerte  nid)t,  bajj  and)  er  bentfclben  ©lauben 
fid)  untenninben  iperbe  (Freytag's  Bild.,  I,  256).  The  dat.  is  the  object  of  the 
preposition  in  the  compound,  while  the  gen.  is  an  old  gen.  of  goal,  which  was 
once  more  vividly  felt  than  it  is  to-day.  The  fluctuation  is  often  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  dat.  and  the  gen.  forms  are  alike  in  all  fern,  words,  so 
that  in  these  forms  the  original  construction  is  lost  from  view,  and  a  false 
construction  arises  which  spreads  to  other  words. 

This  construction  of  dative  and  accusative  has  gained  its  most  complete 
victory  in  connection  with  verbs  compounded  with  a  preposition.  The  dative 
is  here  exclusively  used  in  connection  with  an  accusative  object,  although  the 
force  of  the  preposition  requires  the  accusative  :  3Ran  tegt  bem  ©tiere  bag  3od) 
auf.  For  other  examples  see  258.  I.  B.  a.  In  M.H.G.  we  find  :  die  siege 
(@d)tdge),  die  man  dich  an  leget.  Here  die  is  the  object  of  the  verb  and  dich 
the  object  of  the  preposition  an.  To-day  the  dative  is  invariably  used  as  the 
object  of  the  preposition,  so  that  the  construction  is  now  conformed  to  the 
common  dative  and  accusative  type.  Outside  of  this  type  the  dative  has  not 
secured  so  complete  a  victory.  Thus  with  intransitives  where  there  is  no 
accusative  as  object  of  the  verb  the  force  of  the  preposition  still  asserts  itself: 
Sin  id)  ifolt  angefafyren  :  2Ba$  er  ba  betm  Jperb  gu  tun  fyatt'  ?  (Rosegger's  Martin 
der  Mann,  p.  76).  €>te  nwjjte  felbfl  ntcfet,  wag  fte  uberfommen  tear  (Storm's  Zur 
Wald-  und  Wasserfreude,  p.  188).  The  idea  of  an  interested  person,  how- 
ever, has  in  large  measure  weakened  the  influence  of  the  preposition,  and 
hence  the  dative  is  often  used  here  :  ?Ug  n?dr'  ein  Jtonigreid)  i()m  angcfatten 
(Wieland's  Geron.,  388)  (more  commonly  gugefaUen).  SBie  meincr  guten  Mutter 
btefer  traimge  Buftanb  anflog,  ttettj  id)  mcfit  (Gutzkow's  R.,  2,  117),  but  also 
$pic£lid)  flog  ifyn  eine  greube  an  (J.  Paul's  Tit.,  4,  44).  A  number  of  fluctuations 
here  are  given  in  259.  1,  2,  3,  4,  32.  The  force  of  the  preposition  was  much 
more  vividly  felt  in  early  N.H.G.,  and  hence  the  accusative  could  then  be 
employed  where  to-day  the  dative  is  invariably  used  :  l»ctd)e  nid)t  freiet  j  bie 


262.  II.  A.  a.    DOUBLE  OBJECT  :  ACC.  &  GEN.  557 

forget  lt>a<3  belt  £drru  angefycret  |  bag  fte  fyeiltg  fe»  |  betbe  am  Setbe  »nb  aitd)  am 


(Seiji.    2)ie  abcr  freiet  |  bie  forget  tt>aS  &IC  2Mt  atigefyort  (i  Cor.  vii.  34). 

II.  Accusative  of  the  Person  and  Genitive  of  the  Thing. 

A.  In  this  construction  the  accusative  denotes  the  person  directly 
affected,  and  the  genitive  expresses  the  idea  of  cause,  means,  removal, 
separation,  deprivation,  a  goal,  specification,  or  indicates  a  person 
or  thing  related  in  various  other  ways  to  the  activity  implied  in  the 
verb  :  <£ie  erfreut  ftd)  beg  ©cfdjenfg  She  is  rejoicing  over  (on  account 
of)  her  present.  <Ste  fcfyimt  ftcfy  ifyreg  SSaterg.  Seineg  Sdjrcertg  unrjl 
bit  bid)  nafyren  (Gen.  xxvii.  40,  revised  ed.).  SKait  fcerrcieg  iljn  beg 
£anbeS  They  banished  him  from  the  land.  2)er  jyitrft  fyat  ifyn  beg  Slmtg 
e  ntfefct  The  prince  has  put  him  out  of  office.  @r  befleifjigt  ftd)  bcr  .fturje 
He  aims  at  brevity.  3d)  imbe  mid)  beg  (Jrfolgeg  (gen.  of  specification  ; 
or  rcegett  beg  ©rfolgeg,  or  liber  ben  (Srfolg)  yergercijtern.  The  genitive  object 
can  also  be  replaced  by  a  clause  or  an  infinitive  phrase  :  63  reut  mid; 
ber  Sat,  or  bafj  id?  eg  getau  fyabe,  or  eg  getan  311  ^aben. 

In  a  few  cases  both  objects  represent  things;  see  tyafcen  and 
iriffeu  in  a. 

This  construction  is  formed  after  the  following  groups  of  verbs  : 

a.  The  following  decreasing  list  of  personal  verbs,  which  now 
frequently  admit  also  of  or  prefer  a  prepositional  or  some  other 
construction  instead  of  the  gen.,  or  have  become  obsolete,  as 
indicated  in  parentheses  after  each  verb  :  antlagen  to  accuse  of; 
amuuten  (early  N.H.G.  ;  later  etnem  etrcag  anmutcu  ;  now  eincm  envag 
gumuten)  to  expect  of,  but  biefeS  SDhibdjen  mutet  mid)  an  This  girl  pleases 
me;  anfcfyulbtgen  (formerly  also  sometimes  with  ace.  of  thing  and  dat.  of 
person)  to  accuse  of;  klefyren  (now  usually  iU'er  w.  ace.  ;  earlier  in  the 
period  also  con  w.  dat.)  to  instruct  concerning;  benei)men  (more 
commonly  etnem  etiuag  frenchmen)  to  take  something  away  from  one, 
free  one  from  something  ;  tevauben  to  rob,  deprive  of;  bercben  (see 
III.  i.  h,  below);  6erid;ten  (see  III.  i.  k,  below);  tefdjetben  (iiber  w. 
ace.)  to  apprise  one  of,  instruct  concerning;  frefdnilbigen  to  accuse  of; 
fce^idjtigcn  (formerly  also  mit  with  dat.)  to  accuse  of,  charge  with  ;  bitten 
(w.  gen.  in  earliest  N.H.G.  ;  now  um  w.  ace.  ;  see  also  III.  i.  a, 
below)  to  ask  for;  entbinben  (oon  w.  dat.)  to  release  from;  entblopen 
(»on  w.  dat.)  to  strip  of,  bare  of,  enterbeu  (»on  w.  dat.)  to  disinherit  ; 
entfyebm  (sometimes  simple  dat.  or  son  w.  dat.)  to  relieve  from; 
enttleiben  (sometimes  yon  w.  dat.)  to  divest  of;  entlabm  (oon  w.  dat.) 
to  free  from  ;  entlaffen  (auS  or  von  w.  dat.)  to  discharge  from,  release 
from  ;  entlaftcn  (yon  w.  dat.)  to  free  from  ;  cntlebigen  (oon  or  aug  w. 
dat.)  to  free  from  ;  entfegen  (occasionally  Son  w.  dat.)  to  rob  of, 
depose  from  ;  emiibngen  to  relieve  from,  now  little  used  and  when 
employed  usually  found  in  the  perf.  participle  with  some  form  of 
feiii,  as  cntiibrigt  fctn  to  be  relieved  from,  be  rid  of;  entrccfyren  (gen. 
or  more  commonly  einem  etnv>g  entivefyren  ;  both  constructions  early 
N.H.G.,  now  obs.)  to  rob  of;  entwotynen  (son  w.  dat,  sometimes 
w.  simple  dat.)  to  wean  away  from,  disaccustom  to  ;  erfrnicu 
(now  usually  mit  w.  dat.)  to  rejoice,  delight,  or  gladden  with  or  by 


558  SYNTAX  262.  II.  A.  a. 

means  of;  erinncrn  (now  usually  an  w.  ace.)  to  remind  of;  eriebigen 
(oon  or  au§  w.  dat.)  to  free  from ;  erlaffen  (now  einem  ehra3  erlafjen) 
to  release  from ;  ermafynen  to  exhort  to  (usually  gu  w.  dat),  remind 
of  (gen.  or  an  w.  ace.);  crretten  (early  N.H.G.,  now  son  or  au3 
w.  dat.)  to  save  or  rescue  from;  fragen  (w.  gen.  in  early  N.H.G., 
now  nacfy  w.  dat.,  oruntw.  ace.;  see  also  III.  i.  b,  below)  to  inquire 
after,  ask  for;  freifpred?en  (usually  son  w.  dat.)  to  acquit  of;  gemafynen 
to  remind  one  of  (a  promise,  duty,  &c.),  remind  one  of  (i.e.  put  one 
in  mind  of;  here  more  commonly  an  w.  ace.,  see  also  c  and  B.  d, 
below);  gercafyreit  (in  early  N.H.G.  and  as  late  as  Goethe;  see  Ps. 
xx.  6 ;  now  w.  dat.  of  person  and  ace.  of  thing)  to  grant ;  fyaben  in 
the  expressions  eg  (old  gen.,  for  which  see  140.  c,  now  usually  con- 
strued as  an  ace.,  and  hence  in  case  of  other  words  replaced  by 
an  ace.)  nid?t  SGBort  tyafcen  not  to  admit  it,  eS  nid?t  <§el)t  tyaben  (now 
also  fein  <§cf)t  barauS  mad?en)  to  make  no  secret  of  it;  lofen  (now  »on 
or  aug  w.  dat.)  to  free  from;  lo§fpred?en  (son  w.  dat.)  to  acquit  of; 
inatynen  (usually  w.  preps.)  to  remind  of  (an  w.  ace.),  to  dun  for  (nm  or 
rcegen),  to  urge  to  (jit);  ftdjeni  (Schiller's  Tell,  3,  3)  to  assure  of; 
v  ftrafen  (now  rare  except  in  the  set  expression  jemanben  Siigen  firafen 
to  give  one  the  lie,  where  Siigen  though  gen.  pi.  is  now  usually  felt  as 
an  ace.  pi.) ;  itberfufyren  to  convict  of;  itberfyeben  to  relieve  from,  spare 
one  (the  trouble,  &c.)  of;  ubetrceifeit  to  convict  of,  convince  of  (in  this 
meaning  oon  w.  dat);  nber^eugen  (usually  fcon  w.  dat.)  to  convince  of; 
unterrtcfyten  and  unteriretfen  (see  III,  i,ft  below);  £>erbad?tigen  to  suspect 
of;  fcerjagm  (now  i?on  or  auS  w.  dat)  to  drive  out  of;  ocrgennfjern  (iiber 
w.  ace.,  »on  w.  dat.,  or  ttegen  w.  gen.)  to  assure  of  (the  truth  of  a 
statement,  of  the  existence  of  some  state  of  things,  £c.);  fcerflagen  to 
accuse  of;  t>erftd?ern  to  assure  of  (one's  friendship,  £c.);  cerrreifen  (au§ 
w.  dat.)  to  banish  from;  iciffen  in  the  expression  e§  (old  gen.  —  see 
140.  c  —  now  felt  as  an  ace.,  hence  in  case  of  other  words  some- 
times replaced  by  the  ace. ;  now  more  commonly  replaced  by  fur 
with  the  ace.)  einem  £)anf  reijfen  to  be  grateful  to  some  one  for  some- 
thing ;  iiwrbigen  to  deem  worthy  of;  jeifyen  to  accuse  of.  Exs. :  3dj 
untt  bid?  eineg  SSeffern  fceletyren  I'll  teach  you  better  than  that.  Sin  £iebcfyen 
.  .  .  ,  ireld?c3  jttar  nnr  i>on  iceltltcfyer  £iefce  unb  £ortyett  ^anbelte,  midt>  a6er 
boc^  jugletcfy  atter  Surest  unb  llnru^e  fcenatym  (R.  Huch's  Teufeleien, 
p.  46).  3d?  entbinbe  @te  biefer  $fitd)t,  or  »on  btefer  ^flid;t  2)ie  Ureter 
«§elenag  i^reS  StbeS  ju  gemal)nen  (Schwab's  Sagen,  II,  18).  3d?  gema^ne 
bid?  an  betn  33erfpred?en  (ib.,  I,  275).  @r  iiber^ebt  mid?  ber  ^h't^e  He  saves 
me  the  trouble.  £>tr  aber  iverben  ivir  eS  5)anf  triffen  (Heyse's  Maria 
von  Magdala,  2,  5).  3d?  njetf  bir  beine  ^veigebigfeit  gro§en  2)anf  (Alex. 
Konig,  looi  Nacht,  II,  p.  15).  3d?  n?ei§  bir  fiir  bte  ®abe  2)anf. 

b.  The  following  list  of  reflexives,  which  now  sometimes  admit 
also  of  or  prefer  a  prepositional  or  some  other  construction  instead 
of  the  gen.,  or  have  become  obsolete  as  indicated  in  parentheses 
after  each  verb :  ftd?  abtun  to  free  one's  self  from,  renounce,  give  up; 
ftd?  anmafjen  (now  more  commonly  w.  dat.  of  reflexive  pronoun  and 
ace.  of  the  thing)  to  arrogate  to  one's  self;  ftd?  amnuten  (Wieland's 
Gcron.,  379;  now  obs.)  to  expect  or  try  to  get;  ftd?  anneljnten  to 
interest  one's  self  in  or  for ;  ftd;  bebanfen  (now  fitr  w.  ace.)  to  thank 


262.  II.  A. b.    DOUBLE  OBJECT:  ACC.  &  GEN.  559 

for ;  fid)  bebenfen  to  bethink  one's  self  of;  ftd)  bebtenen  to  make  use  of  ; 
ftd)  befaf)ren  to  fear,  now  obs. ;  ftd)  befletfjen  (or  in  early  N.H.G. 
fleijjen;  see  2  Mace.  xv.  12)  or  fid)  befleifjigen  (or  in  early  N.H.G. 
fleifigenj  see  Rom.  xii.  17)  to  apply  one's  self  to;  ftd)  befitrd)ten  (the 
reflexive  verb  now  replaced  by  the  trans.  befurd)ten,  w.  ace.  object) 
to  fear;  ftd)  tegebcn  to  renounce,  waive,  to  strip  or  deprive  one's 
self  of,  refrain  from;  fid)  befyelfen  (now  mit  w.  dat.)  to  get 
along,  through  with;  fid)  bentad)tigen  to  take  possession  of;  fid) 
bemeiftern  to  seize  on,  overcome,  take  possession  of;  fid)  berebeu 
(see  III.  i.  h,  below);  fid)  berufymen  (Fontane's  Qut'tt,  chap.  7),  now 
usually  replaced  by  fid)  rufymen ;  ftd)  befd)eiben  (now  mit  w.  dat.)  to 
content  one's  self  with  ;  fid)  befd)ttxren  (now  fiber  w.  ace.)  to  complain 
of;  fid)  befumen  (gen.  in  fid)  eineS  SSefferen  beftnxen  to  think  better  of 
something,  to  bethink  one's  self  better;  ftd)  eincS  anbereit  beftnnen 
to  change  one's  mind,  elsewhere  gen.  or  auf  w.  ace.)  to  call  to 
mind,  think  of,  recollect ;  fid)  beforgen  (oor  w.  dat. ;  now  little  used) 
to  fear ;  fid)  beffern  (now  burd)  w.  ace.)  to  improve ;  fid?  beftreben  to 
strive  after ;  fid)  entaufjern  to  rid  one's  self  of,  give  up,  sell,  transfer, 
renounce ;  fid)  nid)t  entbloben  to  be  so  bold  as  to,  dare ;  fid)  entbred)en 
(rare)  to  refrain  from ;  fid)  entfyalten  (sometimes  Don  w.  dat.)  to  abstain 
or  refrain  from;  fid)  entfleibeu  to  divest  one's  self  of;  fid)  cnttaben  to 
ease  one's  self  of;  fid)  entlaflcn  (yon  w.  dat.)  to  free  one's  self  from  ; 
fid)  entlebigcn  to  rid  one's  self  of,  perform  (one's  duty);  fid)  entringm 
(usually  w.  dat.)  to  disengage  one's  self  from,  free  one's  self  from  ; 
fid)  entfagm  (sometimes  Don  w.  dat. ;  the  reflexive  is  now  replaced  by 
the  simple  verb  cutfagen  w.  dat.  or  sometimes  auf  w.  ace. ;  earlier  in 
the  period  and  occasionally  still  also  w.  simple  gen.)  to  renounce; 
ftd)  entfd)lagen  to  free  one's  self  from,  banish  (care,  thoughts,  &c.) ;  fid? 
entfd)ulbigen  (now  usually  iregen  w.  gen.)  to  excuse  one's  self  on  account 
of;  fid)  eutfefcen  (usually  wor  w.  dat.  or  fiber  w.  ace.)  to  be  terrified  at ; 
fid)  entfinnen  (auf  w.  ace.)  to  recollect,  call  to  mind ;  fid)  entrcefyren  = 
fid)  entefyreit  though  not  so  common,  sometimes  with  dat.  of  the 
reflexive  and  ace.  of  the  thing,  in  rare  instances  with  ace.  of  the 
reflexive  and  dat.  of  the  thing  when  =  fid)  entjiefyen  ;  fid)  entrcotynen  (son 
w.  dat. ;  sometimes  w.  simple  dat.)  to  disaccustom  one's  self  to ; 
fid)  cntjicijeu  (usually  dat.,  sometimes  »ou  w.  dat.)  to  withdraw  from ; 
fid)  erbarmen  (iiber  w.  ace. ;  see  also  B.  d,  below)  to  take  pity  on ;  fid) 
erfredjeu  to  have  the  impudence  to;  fid)  erfreucn  (an  w.  dat.)  to  be 
delighted  with,  rejoice  in,  over,  enjoy ;  ftd)  erfyeben  (Goethe's  Rein.  F,, 
5;  now  obs.)  to  boast  of;  fid)  ertyoleu  to  seek  or  apply  for  (advice, 
&c. ;  here  also  w.  dat.  of  the  reflex,  pronoun  and  ace.  or  gen.  of  the 
thing),  retrieve  (,  as  fid)  feineS  <2d)atenS  erfyolen  to  retrieve  his  loss, 
usually,  however,  fid)  oon  fetncm  6d)aben  an  [einem  anbern,  £c.]  crtyolcn), 
recover  from  (sickness,  £c. ;  here  sometimes  w.  gen.,  but  usually 
Don  w.  dat.);  ftd)  crinncrn  (most  commonly  gen.;  sometimes  ace. 
or  dat.  of  the  reflexive  and  ace.  instead  of  gen. ;  frequently  an  w.  ace., 
in  S.G.  often  auf  w.  ace. ;  also  as  in  English  :  etivag  [ace.]  eminent  to 
remember  something;  see  exs.)  to  remember;  fid)  erfu^nen  to  make 
bold;  ftd)  erfitnbigen  (usually  nc.d)  w.  dat.)  to  inquire  after;  ftd)  er« 
lebicjeu  to  rid  one's  self  of;  ftd)  erna'fyren,  see  nafjren,  below;  fid; 


560  SYNTAX  262.  II.  A.  b. 

erfdttigen  (more  commonly  an  or  mtt  w.  dat.)  to  satisfy  one's  desire 
for;  ftd?  erfefyen  (more  commonly  ftd?  [dat.]  feinen  Horteil,  &c.  erfefyen) 
to  perceive,  look  out  for,  avail  one's  self  of ;  ftd;  erird'gen  (2  Cor.  i.  8; 
now  obs.)  to  give  up,  renounce,  despair  of;  ftd;  erirefyren  to  ward  off, 
refrain  from,  resist ;  ftd;  freuen  (also  with  preps. :  Sftan  freut  ftd;  itfcer 
cineit  ©egenftanb,  iiber  cine  Q3erfon,  itber  ba§  ©efdjeljene,  an  bent  ©ea,emrartia,en, 
auf ba0  $iinftige)  to  rejoice  in,  over,  take  a  pleasure  in  (a  thing,  the  idea 
of,  thought  of) ;  ftd;  fiircfyten  (r>or  w.  dat. ;  now  with  simple  gen.  only  in 
the  expression  ftd;  ber  <8itnbe  fiird?ten  to  be  afraid  of  committing  the  sin 
of —  see  ex.  below)  to  fear ;  fid?  (ge)brauc^en  to  use  and  ftd?  mijjbraud;en  to 
misuse,  both  reflexives  now  replaced  by  the  transitives  gebraud?en  and 
mipbraud;en  w.  ace.  object;  ftd;  getrauen  (see  259.  14);  ftd;  getrt>ften  to 
expect  confidently,  comfort  one's  self  with  (also  an  or  mtt  w.  dat.) ;  ftd? 
gercdrtigen(or  ftd?  [dat.]  +  ace.)  to  expect ;  fid;  Barmen  (rcegen  w.  gen.,  or  itber 
or  urn  w.  ace.)  to  worry  about,  grieve  about,  be  annoyed  at,  by ;  fid) 
lotynen  (or  t>erlof)nen)  to  reward,  be  worth,  be  rewarded  by ;  fid;  mcipigcn 
(now  in  w.  dat.)  to  be  temperate  in ;  ftd?  nd'fyren  or  ernafyren  (both 
earlier  w.  simple  gen.,  but  now  usually  mtt  or  »on  w.  dat,  or  bnrd?  w. 
ace.)  to  feed,  live  upon,  make  one's  livelihood  by ;  fid?  rutymen  (ivegen 
w.  gen.,  sometimes  mit  or  »on  w.  dat.)  to  boast  of;  fid)  fdttigen  (now 
an,  mit,  or  sometimes  t>on  w.  dat.)  to  appease  (one's  hunger,  &c.)  with ; 
fid?  fd?dmen  (iregen  w.  gen.)  to  be  ashamed  of;  fid)  fdjeuen  (usually  »er  w. 
dat.)  to  be  shy  of,  shrink  from  ;  ftd?  fd;meid;eln  (w.  dat.  or  ace.  of  the 
reflex,  pronoun  and  w.  gen.  of  the  thing  or  more  commonly  mit  w.  dat.) 
to  flatter  one's  self  with ;  ftd;  trufien  to  rely  on,  content  one's  self 
with,  rejoice  in,  console  one's  self  about  (itber  w.  ace.),  find  comfort 
in  (an,  mit,  burd)) ;  ftd?  ufcerfee'fcen  to  elevate  one's  self  above  others  on 
account  of,  spare  one's  self  (the  trouble,  £c.) ;  ftd?  uberre'ben  (see  III. 
I.  i,  below);  fid)  ttnterfang'en  to  dare  to  undertake;  fid?  witter jlf^'en  to 
be  so  bold  as  to;  ftd?  itnternnn/Den  (see  also  I.  b,  above)  to  dare  to 
undertake,  assume  the  charge,  care  of,  adopt ;  fid?  unterjte'fyen  (gen. 
or  more  commonly  dat.  of  the  thing)  to  undertake,  undergo  (an 
operation,  £c.) ;  fid?  fcerannuotten  (usually  icegett  w.  gen.)  to  justify  one's 
self  concerning ;  ftd?  ttergeretffern  (also  rcegen  w.  gen.,  or  iiber  w.  ace.,  or 
aon  w.  dat.)  to  assure  one's  self  of  (the  truth  of  a  statement,  £c.) ;  fid; 
yerleugnen  (now  simple  leugnen  with  ace.)  to  deny,  deny  the  existence 
of;  fid?  »ernteffen  to  dare ;  fid?  ttermuten  (earlier  in  the  period  fid;  eineS 
2>inge3  git  einem  oermuten,  now  ein  5)tng  son  etnent  tterntuten,  ftd;  [dat.] 
etrca3  »ermitten,  often  without  the  reflexive  :  etira3  yermtiten)  to  expect, 
suppose ;  fid?  ijerfe^en  (ftd;  etncS  2)inge§  [or  ace.]  ju  [or  i>on]  einem  »er* 
fefyen ;  or  fid?  [dat.]  ein  2)ing  oon  (511)  etnent  ttetfefyen)  to  expect  something 
confidently  of  one ;  fid?  »erftd?ern  to  make  sure  of,  seize,  convince 
one's  self  of;  fid?  »erflefyen  (Acts  xxv.  20 ;  now  usually  auf  w.  ace.)  to 
understand;  ftd?  »ertroften  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  10;  now  rare)  to  put 
reliance  on,  trust  in  or  to;  ftd?  oenrunbern  (Luke  ii.  47;  usually  itfcer 
w.  ace.)  to  be  surprised  or  astonished  at ;  fid?  fcenrdgen  (now  little  used 
except  in  perfect  participle;  see  199.  and  Division,  5)  to  dare,  venture 
upon,  renounce,  give  up,  do  without ;  fid?  Derjeiljen  to  renounce,  give 
up,  now  obs.  in  this  meaning  and  construction  ;  fid?  tcefyren  to  defend  ; 
ftct)  iWijern  to  refuse ;  ftd?  mtnfcern  (Luke  iv.  22 ;  usually  itber  w.  ace.) 


262.  II.  A.  c.     DOUBLE  OBJECT :  ACC.  &  GEN.  561 

to  be  surprised.  Exs. :  S)amit  fefct  man  fid)  aber  ing  llnredjt,  roo  man 
border  im  9fted?t  rear  unb  begibt  ftd?  fo  feiner  beften  58affen  (Ompteda's 
Sylvester  von  Geyer,  Ixxii).  3d?  begebe  mid?  (refrain  from)  jebeg  Urteilg. 
@ie  f)aben  an  mir  ein  SBetfpiel,  nne  man  ftd?  felbfi  foldjer  fteffeln  entringen 
fann  (Franzos's  Der  Gott  des  alien  Doktors,  p.  130).  3d?  ertnnere  mid? 
ber  SOBorte.  3d;  ertnnere  mid?  an  U;n.  <Sief?  mal,  3urgen,  bu  erinnerft  unfer 
3ufammentreffen  im  ©arten  (Frenssen's  Jo'rn  Uhl,  chap.  24).  2>arf  id? 
nod?  einer  SSitte  mid?  erfitf;nen?  May  I  be  so  bold  as  to  make  another 
request  ?  (Snblid?  aU  er  ftd?  beg  erften  @d?mer$eg  erfdttigt,  erf?ob  er  ftd?,  nod? 
»om  <5d?lud?jen  erfd?iittert,  unb  fud?te  (L.  Forster's  Die  Flinte  von  San 
Marco,  xiii,  Deutsche  Rundschau,  April  1896).  <2old?er  @l;re  erfdttigt 
(H.  Hoffmann's  Falscher  Bogislaw).  (£r  irirb  ftd?  feineg  33orteil3  fiber 
un3  erfe^en  (Goethe's  Go'tz,  2,  9).  3d?  freue  mid?  feineS  ©IttrfS.  3d?  finite 
mid?  fo  gliicflid?,  baf  id?  mid?  ber  (Sunbe  fiird?tete,  nod?  glurflid?er  roerben  gu 
rcotten  I  felt  so  very  happy  that  I  was  afraid  of  committing  the  sin  of 
desiring  to  be  still  happier.  3Ber  ftd?  beg  ^langeg  tytirmet,  |  ter  mag  in3 
^lofter  ge^'n  (Scheffel's  Trompeter,  Lieder  Jung  Werners,  VI).  @8 
lofynt  ftd?  ber  SWltfye  (also  nom.  bie  2)iut)e)  nid?t.  5)e8  blofen  <§infiarreng 
lo^nte  ftd?  bod?  bie  SKitfye  beS  9Begeg  au6  beinem  rceid?en  ®ett  md?t  (Raabe's 
Unruhige  Caste,  chap.  6).  (seine8  ^leipeg  barf  fid?  jebermann  rit^men. 
Formerly:  3d?  ^dtte  mid?  beffen  gar  nid?t  termittet  I  should  not  have  sup- 
posed that,  but  now  :  3d?  ija'tte  (mir)  baS  gar  nid?t  »ermutct.  6'iner  fold?en 
2lufnaf)me  tyatte  ftd?  ber  arme  SSetter  ju  ber  reid?en  <Sippfd?aft  feineS  2Bei6e8 
nid?t  ijcrfe^en  The  poor  creature  had  not  expected  such  a  reception 
from  the  rich  relatives  of  his  wife.  3d?  fyatte  mid?  eineS  2?efferen  ju 
3f)nen  t>erfe^cn  I  had  expected  something  better  of  you.  S)a3  ^atte  id? 
mir  Son  (ju)  bir  nid?t  berfefyen.  2)?an  rce^rt  fid?  feiner  £aut  One  defends 
his  own  life.  <5ic  weigerte  fid?  beg  gebotenen  @i§eS  She  refused  the 
proffered  seat. 

c.  A  few  impersonal  verbs  belong  here  :  afynben  (only  early  N.H.G. 
here ;  see  also  258.  I.  A.  d)  to  have  a  presentiment  of,  bauern  (only 
early  N.H.G.  here,  now  only  according  to  B.  d,  below)  to  pity,  benfen 
or  gebenfen  (both  earlier  in  the  period  here ;  for  present  construction 
see  B.  d,  below)  to  remember,  efeln  (perhaps  more  commonly  with 
dat.  of  the  personal  pronoun  :  SBenn  it)m  teinat)e  beS  ganjen  £eben3  efelt — 
Lessing ;  for  ace.  here  see  Lev.  xxvi.  44)  to  loathe,  be  disgusted  at, 
erbarmen  (also  according  to  b,  above)  to  pity,  freucn  (also  according  to  b, 
above)  to  rejoice,  gebred?en  (here  only  rarely  even  in  early  N.H.G.,  as 
the  nom.  had  already  supplanted  the  gen.  according  to  B.  d,  below; 
also  differing  from  other  words  in  this  list  in  that  the  dat.  of  the 
person  or  thing  interested  is  always  used  instead  of  the  ace.)  to  be 
lacking,  wanting,  gelitften  or  Hi  (ten  to  covet,  lust  after,  gemafynen  to  put 
one  in  mind  of,  seem  to  one  like,  remind  one  of  (in  this  meaning 
the  gen.  is  now  more  commonly  replaced  by  an  w.  ace.),  jammer n  to 
grieve,  pity,  reuen  or  gereiten  to  repent,  rue,  »erbviff;cn  (now  rarely 
here  ;  the  gen.  now  usually  replaced  by  the  nom.  according  to  B.  d, 
below)  to  vex,  tterlangen  (rarely  here  ;  for  usual  construction  see  B.  d, 
below)  to  long  for,  irunbern  (here  in  the  poetic  style,  usually  according 
to  b,  above)  to  be  stricken  with  astonishment  at,  be  surprised  at. 
The  subject  eg  is  expressed  or  understood  :  3Kid?  antet  [afynbetj  feineS 

o  o 


562  SYNTAX  262.  II.  A.  c. 

®uten  nit  (H.  Sachs).  @g  baitret  mid)  feincr  (Stieler),  or  now  usually 
<£r  bauert  mid?  I  pity  him.  2Jtid?  benft  beg  Qlugbrurfg  nod?  red?t  iro^l  (Les- 
sing's  Nathan,  2,  2).  2ftid)  freut  beg  benvegenen  @ntfd?tuffeg  (J.  H.  Voss). 
3enan  ben  @d?riftgelei:)rten  smb  9fyoflon  fertige  afc  init  fcleig  |  auf  bag  jnen  nid?tg 
(in  fact  a  gen.  but  soon  felt  as  a  nom.)  gef>red?e  (Titus  iii.  13).  Sag 
bid)  nid?t  geluften  beineg  9W)eften  SBeifcg  (Exod.  xx.  17).  @g  gemanet  mid) 
ber  tvelt  rote  eineg  Barefettigen  Ijaufeg  (Luther's  Tischreden,  53 b).  Safj 
bid?  nid?t  gereuen  ber  Xrdnen!  (Geibel's  Ged.,  Ill,  p.  107).  33nb  ba  er 
bag  23old!  fatye  |  jamert  jn  begjel&igen  (Matt.  ix.  36).  2)eg  nwnbert  ityn  gar 
mad?tiglid?  (Wieland).  This  construction  is  often  in  common  prose 
replaced  by  others ;  see  B.  d,  below. 

B.  The  different  constructions  in  A  are  not  so  common  now  as 
in  early  N.H.G.,  and  are  in  instances  now  confined  to  elevated  dis- 
course. In  common  prose  they  are  often  replaced  by  the  following 
constructions,  but  sometimes  the  old  and  the  new  constructions 
exist  side  by  side  with  or  without  a  different  shade  of  meaning. 

a.  In  a  number  of  cases  the  ace.  of  the  person  and  the  gen.  of 
the  thing  can  be  replaced  by  the  dat.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of 
the  thing :  £>effen  t>erftd?ere  id?  @ie  I  assure  you  of  that,  or  25ag  tier* 
fld?ere  id?  3fynen,  or  with  a  clause :  3d)  t>erftd?ere  <8ie  or  3§nen,  bafj  id? 
eg  gefefjen  tyafce.     See  also  i.  b,  above,  and  259.  35. 

b.  The  old  gen.  eg  (see  140.  c)  still  occurs  in  a  number  of  idio- 
matic expressions,  and,  not  being  any  longer  understood,  has  been 
construed  as  a  nom.  or  ace.  neuter.     This  false  conception  has  led 
to  the  use  of  the  nom.  and  ace.  of  other  words,  where  the  gen. 
should  stand,  and  has  thus  given  rise  to  several  common  but  in 
fact  erroneous  expressions :    @g  (gen.,  but  felt  as  a  nom.)  or  bag 
(instead  of  beffen)  nimmt  mid?  SOBunber  (nom.)  That  surprises  me,  or 
literally  according  to  the  original  genitive  construction  :  Wonder- 
ment seizes  me  on  account  of  it.    £>ag  (instead  of  beffen)  »erfid?ere  id?  (£te. 

c.  In  a  number  of  cases,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  remarks  in 
parentheses  in  A,  above,  the  gen.  is  usually  in  prose  replaced  by 
a  prep,  construction.     Also  the  prep,  construction  can  be  used 
with  verbs  which  usually  take  the  gen.,  if  it  is  desired  to  express 
some  different  shade  of  meaning.    Thus  fid)  erfrcuett  w.  gen.  denotes 
possession,  while  w.  on  it  denotes  a  lively  interest  or  pleasure  in 
something :  3d?  erfreue  ntid)  einer  guten  ®efunbt)eit  I  enjoy  (have)  good 
health.     3d?  I)a6e  mid?  red)t  an  tt)nt  erfreut  I  was  delighted  with  him. 

d.  The  gen.  in  the  important  construction  in  A.  c  is  not  now 
common  in  prose.     Instead  of  the  gen.  we  now  find  the  nom., 
which  thus  becomes  subject  in  the  place  of  the  impersonal  eg : 
93nb  efelt  mid)  jr  ntd?t  alfo  |  bag  nut  jneu  aug  fein  folt'  (Lev.  xxvi.  44), 
but  SBeil  if)n  bag  nacfte  <Sd?aufpiet  cfelte  (C.  F.  Meyer's  Gustav  Adolfs 
Page).     @g  erfcarntt  mid?  feiner,  or  more  commonly  @r  erkrntt  mid?, 
or  still  more  frequently  according  to  A.  b  :  3d?  erbarme  mid?  feiner  or 
fiber  it)n  I  pity  him.     -Kid?  freut  beffen,  or  more  commonly  2)ag  freitt 
mid?,  or  according  to  A.  b :  3d?  freue  mid?  beffen.     £>a  meiner  £eud?te  bag 
£)I  gefcrad?  (C.  F.  Meyer's  Nov.,  I,  253),  or  £a  eg  meiner  £eud?te  an 
Dt  (dat.)  qefcrad?.     £>ie  2)ftttel  baju  gebrad?en  ifym  (Jensen's  Die  Kinder 
vom  Ocdacker,  p.  265).     The  sentence  from  Luther's   Tischreden 


262.  III.  i.    DOUBLE  OBJECT:  TWO  ACCUSATIVES    563 

given  in  A.  c  would  now  read  :  Die  SSelt  gema^nt  mid)  (also  mir) 
trie  ein  Baufdfttgeg  £au§,  or  more  commonly  Die-  SBelt  gema^nt 
mid)  an  ein  fcaufdftigeg  <§au3,.  or  sometimes  w.  ace.  of  the  person  and 
gen.  of  the  thing:  Dajj,  roenn  bein  4?er$  |  ber  (Stunbe  bid)  gematynt, 
bit  fagcn  fannft,  |  id)  rceifji  t>on  ifyr  nid)t8  (Wildenbruch's  Kb'nig  Laurin, 
p.  76).  2fttd)  (occasionally  mir)  gereitt  bie  $at,.  ber  getane  @d)ritt.  3Kid) 
jammert  nur  ber  33ater  (Schiller's  Tell,  i,  4). 

The  impersonal  construction,  however,  is  still  quite  common  after 
gelitften  and  litften  (both  sometimes  w.  dat.  of  the  person  instead  of  the 
ace.),  fcerlangen  (w.  ace.,  also  dat.),  and  efeln,  but  with  a  prepositional 
object  instead  of  a  gen.  •  <£3  geliiflet  bie  5rau  nad)  bem  Dfcfi.  Also  w. 
personal  construction  :  3d)  gelufie  nad)  bem  Dfcft.  Sftid)  fcertangt  nad) 
bir.  2Benn  bit  tratfjtefi,  nrie  mir  gerabe  banad)  fcerlangt!  (Fontane's  Effi, 
chap.  10).  SSerlangen  sometimes  takes  a  gen.  object  ;  see  260.  2.  A. 
3Kir  (or  also  mid})  efelt  »or  etreaS  (dat.),  or  now  also  id)  efele  mid;  oor 
etmag  (dat.)  or  an  etirag  (dat.  :  @r  fcltcfte  fid)  n?ie  ein  93erirrter  im  gropen 
Otaume  unt  mit  afl  ben  @puren  beS  gejltrigen  ©elageS  unb  efelte  ftd;  baran  — 
Schulze-Smidt's  Denk*  ich  an  Deutschland  in  der  Nacht,  I).  An 
infinitive  or  a  clause  may  replace  the  prep,  object  :  @3  liijlete  fie, 
etnen  <Sd?metterIing  ju  fangen  (P.  Heyse).  @3  Uerlangt  einent  attma^Iid?, 
ba§  <Sie  bie  StiUe  njteber  unterfcredjen  (T.  Storm  an  G.  Keller,  13.  Sep- 
tember 1883). 

After  benfen  and  gebenfen  both  the  ace.  and  gen.  construction  and 
that  with  the  nom.  and  ace,  have,  perhaps,  disappeared,  though 
both  are  found  earlier  in  the  period.  The  dat.  of  the  personal 
pronoun  is  now  usually  found  instead  of  the  older  ace.,  but  also 
this  construction  is  now  rare  :  SKtr  benft'3  faunt,  bajj  id)  fie  einmal  fal) 
(Morike).  ©ebenft  btr'g  nod),  une  itnS  nad)  8rtebrtd)§  Jtronnng  |  bie  Corner 
ant  Xifcer  ufeerfatlen?  (M.  Greif's  Heinrich  der  LQwe,  3,  2). 


Note.  Sometimes  erbartlten  takes  the  dat.,  especially  in  Austrian  authors:  9Hir 
erbarmt  fte,  fo  oft  id)  fte  feV  (Sophie  von  Khuenberg).  In  N.H.G.  jammevn  may  also 
take  a  dat.  :  ein  »erniinfttg  2Beit>3bUb,  bem  bag  (Slenb  jjammtrte  (Raabe's  Alte  Nester, 
chap.  ix). 

C.  Of  the  constructions  in  A  only  a  can  be  transferred  to  the 
passive.  Then  the  ace.  of  the  person  becomes  nom.  and  the  gen. 
of  the  thing  remains  :  @r  fceraufcte  mid)  after  meiner  4?offnungen  becoming 
in  the  passive  3d)  irnrbe  after  meiner  ^offmtngen  fceraubt.  The  nom.  may 
become  an  ace.  object  :  9hir  ein  £aar  SWat  mctnte  id)  ba3  fd)arfe  @  »or 
einem  anberen  vfonfonanten  ^u  bernel;men,  be  f  fen  id)  felfcfl  freilid;  mid) 
la'ngfi  enticct;nt  glaufete  (T.  Storm). 

III.  Double  Accusative. 

A  double  accusative  is  found  in  the  following  constructions  : 
i.  Accusative  of  the  person  and  accusative  of  the  thing.  This  con- 
struction is  now  limited  to  the  following  verbs:  bitten  to  ask  (a  favor), 
fcefcfyrcoren  to  implore,  fragcn  to  ask  (a  question),  abfyoren,  iiOerfyoren,  or 
yerfyoren  to  hear  recite,  l;oren  (especially  in  the  set  expression  einen, 
also  einem  bie  23eid)te  ^oren)  to  hear,  fyeitjcn  to  bid,  bid  to  do,  foflen  to 
cost,  lefyren  and  in  early  N.H.G.  unterrtd)ten  to  teach,  fiu)ren  and  letten 

002 


564  SYNTAX  262.  III.  i. 

to  lead,  lenfen  to  guide,  bereben  to  persuade,  itberreben  to  persuade, 
jeifyen  to  accuse,  berid?ten  to  inform,  ftd?  unterftetyen  (with  ace.  of  the 
reflexive  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing)  to  be  so  bold,  most  of  which 
admit  of  other  constructions,  hence  are  treated  below  separately. 

a.  bitten  has  two  accusatives   only  when   the  thing  is  a  neut. 
pronoun  or  a  numeral,  otherwise  the  thing  is  in  the  ace.  after  the 
prep,  um :  93itte  mid?  otte§  in  ber  2BeIt,  nur  bag  nid?t.     (SinS  bttte  id?  bid? 
One  thing  I  ask  of  you.     (£r  bittet  mid?  um  eine  ©efdfligfeit.     In  poetry 
the  simple  ace.  of  the  thing  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  um  with 
ace.,  when  the  ace.  of  the  person  is  not  expressed  :  3d?  bttte  nid?t  ®nabe 
(Klopstock).     Sometimes  also  in  terse  vigorous  prose :  SReiten  <8ie 
flur  $abrif  unb  bringen  mir  —  id)  bttte  flotte  (Sangart  —  23erid?t  (Lilien- 
cron's  Kriegsnovellen,  Anno  1870,  Der  Richtungspunkt).    According 
to  II.  A.  a,  above,  bitten  was  in  early  N.H.G.  used  with  an  accusative 
of  the  person  and  the  genitive  of  the  thing.      The  old  genitive 
construction  survives  in  case  of  atteS  and  einS,  as  found  in  the  first 
two  examples    given  above,   but   these  forms   are   now  felt   as 
accusatives. 

98efd?n)6ren  has  the  same  limited  use  of  the  double  ace.  as  bitten : 
SBag  id?  bid?  jungfi  fo  f)eifi  befd?rcoren,  o  ntad?e  ben  $ropfyeten  fhwtnt !  (Lenau). 

b.  fragen  has  in  a  few  set  expressions,  especially  such  as  contain 
a  neut.  demon,  or  indef.  pronoun,  two  accusatives,  the  ace.  of  the 
person  and  the  ace.  (in  early  N.H.G.  also  the  gen.,  as  in  earlier 
periods)  of  the  thing,  but  more  commonly,  aside  from  these  set 
expressions,  the  thing  is  in  the  dat.  after  the  prep,  nad?  after,  con- 
cerning, or  in  the  ace.  after  the  prep,  umfor :  Sragte  er  bid?  ba3  ?    (£r 
fragte  mid?  njenig.    @r  fragte  mid?  etirag.    3d?  fyabe  <Sie  Derfd?iebene3  ju  fragen 
(Wildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  2, 19).    3d?  fragte  if?n  nad?  fetnent 
#lamen  I  asked  him  his  name.    3d?  fragte  t^n  nad?  ber  llrfad?e.   3d?  fragte  if?n 
um  9Rat.    In  early  N.H.G.  the  prep.  Don  was  also  used  here  :  23nb  irenn 
bie  Seute  am  felben  ort  fragten  »on  feinem  9Betbe  |  fo  fyrad?  er  (Genesis 
xxvi.  7).     The  simple  ace.  and  the  construction  with  nad?  are,  how- 
ever, sometimes  used  with  a  different  shade  of  meaning.     The  ace. 
of  the  thing  asks  for  a  formal  statement  or  explanation  of  some 
problem  or  task,  not  for  information,  but  to  ascertain  whether  the 
one  questioned  is  informed,  while  the  dat.  after  nad?  asks  for  in- 
formation about  something :  2)er  ^efyrer  fragt  ben  @d?uter  bie  SSofabeln, 
bie  9ftfgeln,  bie  3a^re§ja^Ien  The  teacher  is  asking  the  pupil  to  give  the 
vocabulary,  rules,  dates.     3d?  fragte  tl?n  nad?  bent  9Beg  I  asked  him  the 
way.     The  passive  of  this  construction  is  formed  as  in  c. 

c.  The  words  obfyoren,  itberfyoren,  tterfyoren  to  hear  recite,  f)6ren  to 
shrive,  have  a  double  construction  —  the  ace.  of  the  thing  and  either 
the  dat.  or  the  ace.  of  the  person :   £>er  Setter  tyat  bem  @d?uler  (or 
sometimes  also  ben  (£d?itler)  bie  5(ufgabe,  bie  SCofabeln  abgefjort  (or  itber* 
fyort,  or  fcerfyort)  The  teacher  has  heard  the  pupil  recite  the  exercise, 
vocabulary.    S5er  4?err  iiber^ort  bie  J?tnber  ein  auSrcenbig  gelernteS  artigeS 
®ebtd?t  (Goethe's  Wander/.,  3,  10).     £>er  $riefler  f)6rt  etnen  (sometimes 
also  einem)  (bie)  9Beid?te.     £oren  is  also  sometimes  used  with  a  double 
accusative  in  its  primary  meaning:  «§6re  mid?  nod?  ein  £aar  3Bortc 
(Goethe).  The  ace.  2Borte  is  an  adverbial  ace.  of  extent  (223.  iv.  2.  A). 


262. III.  i./    DOUBLE  OBJECT  :  TWO  ACCUSATIVES  565 

Ufcertyoren,  tiertjoren,  and  fragen  may  form  a  passive  in  the  following 
ways,  which  are  without  material  difference  of  meaning.  The  ace. 
of  the  person  becomes  nom.  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing  may  either 
remain  ace.,  or  may  form  a  prep,  phrase  with  nad?  in  case  of  fragen, 
and  with  itber  in  case  of  all  three  words  :  £>iefen  Qtbfdmttt  ftnb  rctr  gar 
nid?t  gefragt,  t>erf)6rt  reorben,  or  9tad?  biefem  9lfcfd?nitt  fhtb  nrir  gar  md?t 
gefragt  rcorben,  or  liber  btefen  QlBfdpnitt  ftnb  rear  gar  nid?t  gefragt,  iifcerfyort, 
fcerljort  icorben.  Instead  of  these  different  constructions  the  ace.  of 
the  thing  of  the  active  may  become  nom.  in  the  passive,  and  the  dat. 
of  the  person  remain  dat. :  2)iefer  5lbfd?nitt  tfi  ung  gar  md?t  abgefragt, 
abgel)6rt,  iiberfyort  trorben. 

d.  «§ei§en  cannot  freely  take  an  ace.  of  the  person  and  also  of  the 
thing,  but  is  limited  to  an  ace.  of  the  person  and  a  neut.  ace.  of  a 
pronoun,  or  to  an  ace.  of  the  person  and  an  infinitive :  bap  bu  mir 
(Sefyorfam  fcfntlbig  fcifl  in  atlem,  trag  id?  bid?  fyetfje  (Schiller's  Rauber,  4,  2). 
3eben  Sftorb,  ben  bu  mid?  begefjen  Ijeipt  (id.,  3,  2).     Siebe  Saura !  £>u  fannfl 
mid?  bag  f)ei§en  ?     3d?  j?et§'  tfyn  eilen.     The  ace.  of  the  person  is  now, 
perhaps,  more  commonly  replaced  by  the  dat,  where  the  object  of 
the  thing  is  not  an  infinitive :  28ag  ein  eoangeltfd?er  ©eijHicber  einem 
anbren  fyeijjen  fonnte,  fount'  er  and?  felber  tun  (Telmann's   Wahrheit, 
VIII),  but  usually  3c^  t)afce  btdf;  bag  tun  ^eifen.      In  the  latter  case 
the  dat.  of  the  person  is  also  sometimes  found  :  SBann  i)tefj  id?  btr  bie 
(Shrift  an  SBurletgfy  geben?  (Schiller's  M.  Stuart,  5,  14).     In  the  passive 
the  person  is  usually  in  the  dat.  and  the  thing  in  the  nom. :  £)a3  iji 
bir  gefyetfi en  irorben.     (Is  ift  btr  ge^eipen  rcorben,  bag  ju  tun. 

e.  foften  (see  259.  21.  B). 

/".  Te^ren  (and  sometimes  incorrectly  lernen  =  tefyren)  admits  of  the 
ace.  of  the  thing  and  either  ace.  or  dat.  of  the  person,  the  latter 
(dat.)  less  frequently  in  early  N.H.G.,  but  now  gaining  ground : 
(Sic  lefjrte  ifyn  or  ifym  fleine  iMeber.  2>ie  ^unfl  tfl  ntdjt  gering  ju  ad?tcn, 
einem  jungen  tntetligenten  9J?enfc^en  von  jroolf  3at)ren  2)tnge  jit  lefjren,  bte  man 
fcereitS  feit  langer  %eit  itieber  ftergeffen  t;at  (H.  Seidel's  Die  Schhppe, 
Idylle).  Der  Heine  ©^toefler,  bent  bie  3J?utter  felbft  Sefen  unb  (Sd^reiben 
le^rte  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  vi).  The  infinitive  may  replace 
the  ace.  of  the  thing  ;  see  185.  B.  I.  2.  c.  Also  a  clause  may  replace 
the  ace.  of  the  thing :  (£r  letjrte  ifym,  baf?  jeber  ©egenftanb  fetnen  genau 
ttorgefcfyrtebenen  ^la§  ^atte  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  xxvi). 

In  the  passive  this  construction  assumes  different  forms  :  (i)  The 
ace.  of  the  person  of  the  active  construction  becomes  here  nom., 
and  the  ace.  of  the  thing  remains  ace.  :  3d?  irerbe  bag  nidjt  gelefyrt. 
(2)  The  ace.  of  the  thing  becomes  nom.  and  the  ace.  of  the  person 
remains  ace. :  £>a3  nnrb  mid?  nirfjt  gelefyrt.  (3)  The  ace.  of  the  thing 
becomes  nom.  and  the  dat.  of  the  person  remains  dat. :  5>a3  n?trt 
mir  nid)t  gelet)rt.  The  last  construction  is  now  much  more  common 
than  the  others.  A  clause  may  replace  the  nom. :  2fttr  ifl  gcletyrt 
ivorbcn,  baf?  bieS  metne  $flid?t  fci. 

In  early  N.H.G.  unterrtd?ten  and  unterroeifen  to  teach,  instruct,  might 
take  either  a  double  ace.  or  an  ace.  (in  passive  a  nom.)  of  the  person 
and  a  gen.  of  the  thing :  bag  er  fte  bie  2Bort  beg  ©efcfcg  twterrid?tet  (Neh. 
viii.  13).  Qtuff  bag  bu  gerciffen  grunb  erfarefi  ber  Sere  |  rceldjcr  (in  revised 


566  SYNTAX  262.  III.  i./ 

ed.  in  irelcfyer)  bit  imtetttdjtet  fcift  (Luke  i.  4).  (£r  ttirb  jn  tmtenreifen  ben 
bejten  iveg  (Psalm  xxv.  12).  Older  .usage  is  still  occasionally  found  : 
®ott  fyafce  ben  apofloltfdjien  93ater  be8  recfyten  9Bege8  unterrciefen  (Rundsch., 
2,  5,  220).  The  ace.  or  gen.  of  the  thing  is  now  usually  replaced 
by  a  prepositional  construction :  (£r  unterrid;tet  ung  im  &ran$6ftfd;en. 
3d;  rcurbe  ba»on  unterrid)tet  I  was  informed  with  regard  to  it,  It  came 
to  my  knowledge.  @r  tyat  feinen  (Snfel  im  Sefen  unternnefen. 

g.  ftitfyren,  letten,  and  lenfen  take  an  ace.  of  the  person  and  an  ace. 
of  the  way:  @r  fiityrt  mid;  biefen  3Beg.  Santfye,  fomnt  unb  leite  mid?  ben 
$fab  (Grillparzer's  Des  Meeres  und  der  Liebe  Wellen,  4).  SSoflt  it)t 
nun  mein  af§  etner  ifrau  gebenfen,  |  lenffam  bent  Saunt,  fo  bap  fein  <Stad;el 
not,  |  n:itf  freubig  id;  bie  aftufjmeSbatyn  end;  lenfen  (id.,  Libussa,  i).  In  the 
passive  the  ace.  of  the  person  becomes  nom.  and  the  ace.  of  the 
way  remains:  3a,|a,  rcir  rcerben  eben  unerforfd;Itrf;e  SBege  gefii^rt  (Raabe's 
Schiidderump,  chap,  xxxvi). 

h.  SBereben  to  make  believe  something  false  often  has  a  pronominal 
ace.  of  the  person  and  the  ace.  of  a  thing  instead  of  the  older 
and  more  correct  ace.  of  the  person  and  gen.  of  the  thing :  5Kid) 
rcottt  ifyr  ba§  fcereben  ?  (Schiller's  Don  Carlos,  3,  4).  We  sometimes 
find  the  dak  of  the  person  here  and  the  ace.  of  the  thing  :  @3  (bag 
<§erj)  Idfjt  ftcfy  aUe§  tereben,  it>a8  3|rer  (Stn&tlbunggfraft  i^nt  ju  bereten  ein« 
faflt  (Lessing's  Samps.,  2,  3).  33ereben  to  persuade  takes  the  ace.  of 
the  person  and  the  prep.  311 :  @r  fcerebete  ifm  bajtt.  In  early  N.H.G. 
the  gen.  of  the  thing  was  used  instead  of  both  the  ace.  and  the 
prep,  construction.  In  the  meaning  to  talk  over,  discuss  fcereben  takes 
a  simple  accusative :  <£r  unb  fie  attein  |  fcereben  jle'S  (Hofmannsthal's 
Elektra,  p.  15). 

i.  Uberreben  to  persuade  usually  has  the  ace.  of  the  person  and  the 
prep.  $u :  €r  ^at  raid;  jit  ber  @ad?e  iifeerrebet.  Earlier  in  the  period  we  find 
the  ace.  of  the  person  and  the  gen.  of  the  thing  :  3d?  fann  mid;  beffen 
md;t  iifcerreben  (Adelung).  The  double  ace.  is  also  frequent :  £>er 
2ftenfd;  ifl  gemod)t,  ba§  man  t^n  ba6  Qi6enteuerlid;fie  iifcerreben  fann  (Goethe's 
Werther,  Am  15.  Aug.).  We  also  find  the  ace.  of  the  thing 
and  the  dat.  of  the  person  c  (Sr  iifcerrebet  e8  audj  bent  atten  6a^anbro 
(Lessing). 

The  object  in  all  the  above  constructions  may  in  case  of  the 
thing  be  replaced  by  an  infinitive  (Acts  xviii.  13)  or  a  clause  (Acts 
xxvi.  28). 

j.  Scifjen  to  accuse  has  sometimes  an  ace.  of  a  neut.  pronoun 
instead  of  the  correct  gen. :  2Ba3  id)  ifm  geifye,  rcerb'  id;  felbft  (Schiller's 
Don  Carlos,  4,  6). 

k.  In  early  N  H.G.  Berid;ten  took  an  ace.  of  the  person  and  the 
gen.  of  the  thing,  which  construction  still  survives  in  jemanben  etneS 
39efferen  fcertd;ten  to  disabuse  a  person  of  an  opinion.  Early  in  the 
period  the  gen.  is  replaced  by  a  prep,  phrase  or  an  ace. :  einett  tton 
(or  liber)  etivaS  fcertcfyten,  or  etnen  etica3  (double  ace.)  b"ertd;ten.  The  ace. 
of  the  person  is  now  replaced  by  a  dat. :  einent  etrcag  (or  ubcr  eticae) 
beticfyten.  The  former  ace.  construction  here  still  survives  in  such 
expressions  as  QBenn  id;  red;t  berid;tet  bin,  or  Du  bi|l  falfd;  berid;tet.  See 
260. 3. 


262.  III. 2.  A.  a.     DIRECT  OBJECT  &  PRED.  ACC.  567 

/.  The  reflexive  fid;  unterfteljen  belongs  properly  to  \\,b,  above, 
but  as  the  gen.  object  e3  (14O.  c)  which  is  so  often  used  with  it  is 
construed  as  an  ace.,  the  real  ace.  is  sometimes  used  :  2Ba0  witerftefpet 
fid?  bcr  Qlrme  |  bae  er  enter  ben  SJefcenbtgen  irtl  (ein  ?  (Eccl.  vi.  8).  9Bie  id) 
mid;  bag  imterfretyen  fann!  (Hopfen's  DieftinfzigSemmeln  desStudiosus 
Taillefer,  p.  66)  You  wonder  how  I  am  so  bold  as  to  do  that !  This 
word  is  usually  employed  with  the  object  eS  and  an  infinitive  clause 
which  stands  in  apposition  with  the  e3,  or  with  the  infinitive  clause 
alone  which  takes  the  place  of  the  e3  :  $lfcer  bie  blaffe,  afcgefyannte 
SabDiga  .  .  .  fuf)r  auf  une  ein  nnlbeg  £ier,  icenn  er  flcfy'3  unterftanb,  fte  mtt 
feinen  3drtlid)feiten  fceldjligen  ju  n?  often  (Schubin's  Refugiu m  peccatoru m, 
vi).  3£)r  untertdnigfrer  Jtned;t  (oflte  fid;  unterfWjen,  mtt  einem,  ber  bie  ®nabe 
|>at,  31)nen  anjugetjoren,  ju  janfen  ?  (Lessing's  Minna,  i,  3).  As  the  fid) 
in  such  sentences  is  not  a  distinct  ace.  form,  it  is  sometimes  con- 
strued as  a  dat.,  and  elsewhere  a  real  dat.  is  employed  :  3d)  unter* 
ftdnbe  mtr  nidjt,  ben  SOJunb  aufjutun  (Tieck,  5,  259).  Unterjtef)  bir'0  3Kabet ! 
(Beyerlein's  Damon  Othello,  2,  2).  It  is  quite  common  to  suppress 
the  object  of  the  thing  in  a  few  expressions  :  llnterjle^  bid?  nid?t !  In 
early  N.H.G.  unterftefyen  was  also  a  transitive  verb,  taking  as  object 
an  ace.  or  an  infinitive  clause :  SSmfc  beS  rcitlen  Ijaben  mid;  bie  3iiben  im 
Sempel  gegrtffen  |  SSnb  unterftunben  mid;  jit  tobten  (Acts  xxvi.  21). 

2.  Accusative  of  the  direct  object  and  a  predicate  accusative.  This 
construction  differs  from  the  double  ace.  in  i,  above,  in  that  the  two 
accusatives  together  form  logically  a  sentence  in  which  the  first  ace. 
performs  the  office  of  the  subject  and  the  second  ace.  is  either  the 
predicate  complement  of  the  verb  fein  understood,  or  is  itself  the 
predicate  verb:  @ie  ncmnten  tt)n  etnen  23errciter  (=  @r  tfl  ein  3Ser« 
rater).  3d)  fefye  tfyn  laufen  (=  <£r  Iduft). 

The  predicate  accusative  of  nouns  and  adjectives  is  now,  except 
in  the  group  in  A,  below,  usually  introduced  by  dig,  fur,  or  jit,  with 
differentiated  meanings  as  is  described  in  A.  a,  b,  c,  below,  but  in 
early  N.H.G.,  and  also  in  the  classical  period,  the  objective  predi- 
cate did  not  in  a  number  of  cases  require  these  introductory  particles 
where  they  now  in  ordinary  prose  usually  stand  :  3)arnad?  rcoUen  nrir 
aft  beutfcfye  3Btfd)off  Garbtnel  (now  311  Jtarbindfen)  madjenn  (Luther).  9113 
id)  ...  |  mid;  [al8J  cinen  trembling  fafy  in  biefem  Jtretfe  (Schiller).  This 
use  of  particles  instead  of  a  simple  case  form  is  in  harmony  with 
the  general  trend  in  the  language  to  replace  the  simple  case  form 
by  a  particle  which  more  accurately  defines  the  relation  of  a  noun 
to  some  other  word. 

The  first  ace.  is  always  a  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  direct 
object  of  the  principal  verb,  but  the  predicate  ace.  can  be  : — 

A.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  an  objective  predicate  : 

a.  After  ernennen  (see  J.  H.  Voss,  //.,  23,  90 ;  now  rare  here,  usually 
according  to  d,  below)  to  appoint,  fllauteu  to  believe,  ivdfynen  to  fancy, 
imagine,  gritpen  to  greet  with  the  title  of,  tyeifjen  to  call,  name,  nennen 
to  call,  rufen  to  call,  Jpotten  to  call  in  derision,  taufen  to  christen, 
tttulteren  to  call,  style,  (d;elten  to  call  unjustly,  call  (one  a  harsh  name), 
fdnm^fcn  (stronger  than  frfjelten)  to  call  (one  a  bad  name),  mad)en  (now 
rare  here,  usually  according  to  d,  below),  trdumen  (also  according  to 


568  SYNTAX  262.  III.2.A.a. 

b,  below)  to  dream :  3Siefletd?t  irdre  id?  ber,  ben  bu  mid?  glaufcft  (Lessing). 
25er  3Sater  rodfjnet  <§ippobamien  |  bie  2ttorberin  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  i, 
3).  SBir  ncnnen  ®ott  unferen  SSater.  SSarum  fd?iltft  bu  mid?  einen  5eig= 
ling?  Sittre  bu  fur  bein  £e&en,  ircit  bu  mid?  ^er^og  (may  be  construed 
as  ace.  or  nom. ;  see  Note)  fpottcft  (Schiller's  Fiesco,  5,  14).  £>ann 
fommen  mir  reot)l  Sftomente,  rco  id?  mid?  ifyren  SBruber  trdume  (Spielhagen's 
Selbstgerecht,  II,  p.  35). 

Both  of  these  accusatives  become  nom.  in  the  passive :  £Barum 
reurbe  id?  t>on  btr  ein  fteigling  gefd?olten  ? 

Note.  Instead  of  the  predicate  accusative  we  often  find  a  nom. :  (i)  in  order  to 
preserve  the  exact  form  of  direct  address :  @r  ncumte  jte  tttetn  Ueber  €>d)afe,  metn 
(Sngeldjen,  metn  J?inb  (Holty).  Stidjt  cfine  ©tunb  Ijabe  id?  ifjn  fd?on :  SpfyUipp,  bet 
<Sc^njeigfame,  genannt  (Spielhagen's  Freigeboren,  p.  225).  Unb  id)  fage  eud^,  ba§  tt^ 
fein  Sebenfen  truge,  t^n  ^eitiger  OiuffiniiS  ju  nennen  (Ertl's  Die  Stadt  der  Heiligen). 
@3  ttar  ein  alter  fjalbgelaljmter  93ettter  ba  —  er  nennt  fid?  ber  tange  -§ifc  (Heer's  Der 
Konig der  Bernina,  xx).  (2)  In  case  of  articleless  weak  masculine  nouns;  see  94. 

1.  c.     In  case  of  articleless  strong  nouns  and  weak  feminines  it  is  not  possible  to 
distinguish  here  whether  the  form  is  nom.  or  ace. :  3d?  fonnte  jefct  bag  arme  2Burmd)en 
nidjt  28elten  (name)  rufen  (Raabe's  Die  Akten  des  Vogehangs,  p.  173).     @t  fdjreibt 
fid?  @d?ul^e.    @ie  fiiftU  fid)  9Kutter.     With  a  number  of  reflexive  verbs  there  is  a 
fluctuation  of  usage ;  see  218.  2.  b  and  Note. 

b.  After  the  verbs  anerfennen  to  recognize,  anfefyen  to  regard,  Be* 
gritfjen  to  greet,  6efd?reifcen  to  describe,  6etrad?ten  to  consider,  bejeid?nen 
to  designate,  barfietten  to  represent,  beftarie'ten  to  declare  (to  be), 
benun^ieren  to  denounce,  ratyftblttt  to  recommend,  erftnben  to   find 
(some  one)  out  (to  be  so  and  so),  errcdfmen  to  mention,  fennen  to 
know,  fenn^eid?nen  to  characterize,  ^reifcn  or  rii^men  to  praise,  fd?d£en 
to  prize,  fd?itbern  to  depict,  fe^en  to  see,  fcerbingen  or  ttermieten  to  hire 
out  as,  jeigen  to  show  to  be,  the  objective  predicate  is  introduced 
by  al3,  which  here  denotes  identity  or  oneness  with :  3d?  6etrad?te  iljn 
al8  einen  barren.    3d?  benunjtere  @te  permit  btefer  ®efett(d?aft  at8  notorifd?en 
5(t^etfien  !  (Lienhard's  Munchhausen,  i). 

For  fluctuation  of  usage  in  case  of  reflexive  verbs,  see  218.  2.  b 
and  Note  thereunder. 

In  the  passive  both  of  these  accusatives  become  nom. ;  see  252. 

2.  A.  b.  (i). 

Note.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  at$  was  not  necessary  here,  and  this  older  usage 
survives  in  poetry ;  »nb  fiafl  fte  Sugener  erfurtben  (Rev.  ii.  2).  Site  id) ...  |  mid)  eintn 
trembling  falj  in  biefem  Jlwfe  (Schiller's  Piccolomini,  3,  4). 

c.  After  a  few  verbs  the  objective  predicate  is  introduced  by  fur 
(with  ace.),  which  here  does  not  positively  affirm  complete  and 
absolute  identity  as  does  alg,  but  only  equality,  and  hence  denotes 
that  something  is  considered  or  represented  as  able  or  worthy  to 
pass  for  the  thing  expressed  by  the  predicate :  33?an  erflarte  ifyn  fur 
einen  Setriiger  They  pronounced  him  a  fraud.     @r  gift  fid?  fitr  einen 
©elefjrten  au3  He  makes  himself  out  to  be  a  scholar.     3d?  tyalte  if?n  fur 
einen  <£d?metd?ler  I  consider  him  a  flatterer.     3d?  ad?te  eg  fitr  eine  grojje 
@^re  I  esteem  it  a  great  honor.     3d?  erfcnne  i^n  fur  einen  greunb  I  own 
him  as  my  friend.    For  the  passive  construction  see  252.  2.  A.  b.  (2). 


262.  III. 2.  B.0.     DIRECT  OBJECT  &  PRED.  ACC.          569 

Note  i.  Several  verbs,  as  eradjten,  anfefyen,  etfennen,  au^fdjreten,  augrufen  (to  pro- 
claim as),  are  followed  by  either  alg  or  fur  according  to  the  shade  of  meaning  required  : 
@ie  erfannten  ^  recognized)  bie  von  bent  Sinanjmtmfter  abgelegte  Oledjnung  al3  (as,  here 
expressing  identity)  falfd),  abet  aiiS  2Kangel  an  2Hut  erfannten  (pronounced)  fie  biefelbe 
fur  (simply  letting  it  pass  as)  rtdjtig.  Often  there  is  a  sharp  distinction  between  al$ 
and  fur  ;  alg,  however,  is  decidedly  the  favorite,  and  is  even  used  when  fur  would  be 
more  appropriate. 

Note  2.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  fur  with  those  verbs  was  not  always  necessary, 
and  this  older  usage  survives  in  poetry:  <S6(d)  nnftnntge.Cerffudjte  ©ojim  fiatten  ite 
un3  (Luther,  ErlangerAusgo.be,  32,  226).  2)u  fydltft  C$  (Redjt  (Goethe's  Tasso,  2,  4). 

d.  As  after  rcerben  (252.  2.  A.  b.  (3)),  so  also  after  the  verbs  madjen 
to  make,  einfefcen  to  appoint,  designate,  irdfyleu  to  elect,  ernennen  to  appoint, 
auSrufen  to  proclaim,  fid;  fatten  to  make  one's  self  by  falling,  &c.,  the 
prep,  ju  (with  the  dat.)  introduces  the  objective  predicate  to  denote 
a  transformation  into  a  new  condition  :  2)er  Sroang  ber  Seiten  mad)te 
mid;  ju  ifyrent  ©egncr.  5)er  Jtontg  ernonnte  if)n  jum  Dffijier.  (5r  fyat  ftd) 
gum  ^ru^^el  gefatten.  In  the  passive  the  ace.  becomes  nom.,  but  the 
objective  predicate  remains  as  in  the  active  :  @r  iwirbe  com  Jlonig  jum 
Dffijier  ernannt. 

Note.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  ju  was  not  always  necessary  here :  3)antadj 
iooHen  tone  af(  beutf^e  93 if (^ off  Sarbinel  madjenn  (Luther,  6,  121,  Weimar). 

B.  The  objective  predicate  can  be  an  adjective  or  a  participle, 
now  usually  uninflected,  unless  preceded  by  an  article  or  some 
other  modifying  word  :  (it  white  ftcfy  bte-  Qtugeu  rot.  @r  fcblug  i^in  tot. 
Here  belongs  the  perf.  participle  in  compound  tenses :  @r  fyot  einen 
Srief  gefd)riebcn. 

Instead  of  an  adjective  or  participle  we  often  find  here  a  gen.  or 
a  prep,  phrase  :  SebenfottS  redone  nidjt  barauf,  mid)  anberen  @tnne3  ju 
madden  (Fontane's  Frau  Jenny,  XII).  @r  fid  fid)  tot  or  ju  $obe. 

a.  Instead  of  the  simple  uninflected  form  this  objective  predicate 
is  in  certain  instances,  as  in  case  of  nouns  (see  A.  b  and  c),  intro- 
duced by  the  particles  alg  or  fur  :  2Btr  fcetrad;ten  bie  <2ad?e  a!3  abgemad)t. 
@r  fydlt  mid;  fitr  reid).  The  objective  predicate  here  can  also  be  a 
prepositional  phrase :  £>a3  (Sdjlimmjte  aber  ifl,  bap  bie  fyeramrad?fenben 
Jtiuber  bte  gan^e  tottrige  SCBirtfdjaft  fur  in  Drbnung  fatten  (Frenssen's  Jo'rn 
Uhl,  chap.  v). 

Note  i.  §Ug  and  fur  are  more  extensively  used  in  case  of  certain  adjectives  than 
of  nouns,  as  the  simple  adjective  objective  predicate  may  be  mistaken  for  an  adverb : 
(Sr  fd)alt  mid?  ftefttg  «=  He  scolded  me  severely,  or  He  called  me  passionate.  The 
ambiguity  is  removed  by  using  at$  or  fur,  or  by  converting  the  adjective  into  a  sub- 
stantive :  @r  fdjalt  ntid)  aid  fyrftig,  or  Sr  fdjalt  ntid)  einen  ^efttgen.  Thus  also, 
unless  the  context  makes  the  thought  clear,  it  is  better  to  say  3d)  trfldw  end)  fur  {Jttte 
than  3d)  erftdre  end)  fret.  Usage  in  general  with  regard  to  these  particles  is  not 
entirely  fixed.  Some  verbs  take  a(iJ,  others  fur,  still  others  both  atg  and  fur,  either 
with  about  the  same  meaning  or  a  different  shade,  as  in  the  following  :  j>te  tyrtiii 
rtd)ter  erfannten  ifyn  a(<j  vouugttdjer,  aber  fie  ft  oil  ten  ifjn  and  Otucfftdjt  auf  ben 
mad)tigen  aJiitbeirerber  nidjt  bafur  erfennen. 

Note  2.  Earlier  in  the  period  the  particles  a(S  and  fur  were  not  always  necessary 
here:  UnfittUd)  ttJte  bit  bill,  fyiltfl  bu  bid)  gut?  (Goethe's  Tasso,  2,  3),  now  usually 
fiir  gut. 


570  SYNTAX  262.  III.  2.  c. 

C.  A  predicate  infinitive  is  found  after  the  following  verbs  (the 
more  common  ones  are  in  heavy  type) :  afcnen  to  have  a  presentiment 
of,  fremerfen  to  notice,  jldj>  benfen  to  imagine  to  one's  self,  ftcfy  bitnfen  to 
seem,  em^ftnben  to  feel,  erfclicfen  to  notice,  ftnbcn  to  find,  fiifylen  to  feel, 
fiit)reix  to  lead,  gercafyren  to  perceive,  glauben  to  believe,  fiaben  to  have, 
Ijoren  to  hear,  laffcn  to  let,  order,  cause,  macf;cn  to  make,  fdjaiten  to 
see,  fieljcn  to  see,  fpiiren  to  feel,  tragen  to  carry,  tiernefjmen  to  hear, 
rctifynen  to  imagine,  nriegen  to  rock,  trtffen  to  know,  jetgen  to  show. 
Exs.  :  3f)n  briicft  ber  <2>tunbe  Saft  mentals  gu  fairer  |  unb  nie  fo  letefyt,  bap 
er  ftd)  fliegen  beitcfyte !  (Schnitzler's  Der  Schleier  der  Beatrice,  p.  133). 
3d?  Ija6e  fie  tm  Sftegen  fpajteren  gefii^rt  (Raabe's  Der  Lar,  p.  253). 
3d;  fyore  ifyn  fommen  I  hear  him  coming.  3d?  taffe  ifyn  fommen  (with 
active  force)  I  shall  have  him  come.  3d)  laffe  mir  Son  tf)m  einen  neuen 
Sftorf  madden  (with  passive  force)  I  am  having  a  new  coat  made  by 
him.  (?r  ftefyt  mid;  fommen.  SSetnte  beine  Itebe  2ftama  aud?  immerloS 
imter,  rcenn  bie  fd;rcarjen  banner  beinen  $apa  fcfylafen  tritgen?  (H.  Pichler- 
Felsing's  Auf  Abbruch  verkauff).  For  other  examples  see  185.  B. 
I.  2.  d.  In  some  cases  the  infinitive  here  has  developed  from  a 
present  participle,  which  is  still  more  or  less  frequently  used  ;  see 
185.  B.  I,  2.  ^.(i). 

a.  If  the  infin.  should  have  as  an  object  a  pronoun  of  the  same  form  as 
the  object  of  the  principal  verb,  the  two  similar  forms  should  either  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  several  words,  or  one  of  them  may  be  dropped : 
£a£  mtcfy  |  an  jene  golbnen  3eiten  mid)  erinnern  (Schiller).    SJafj  un$  eignen  3Berte$ 
[unS]  freuen  (Grillparzer). 

b.  After  some  of  these  verbs  a  prep,  phrase  is  often  found  as  a  predicate 
instead  of  an  infinitive :  3d)  fat)  tfyn  toetnett,  or  in  Sranen. 

c.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  dative  of  the  person  instead  of  the  ace. 
is  frequently  found  after  taffen  and  macfyen,  especially  the  former,  and  some- 
times after  fefyen :    @in  ©efd)enf,  bag  mir  jebm  neuern  SSertuft  ertragen  macfyte 
(Goethe  an  Karl  August,  I,  113).     This  construction  is  in  part  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  analogous  French  expressions,  asfazre  votr  quelque  chose  d 
gue/gu'un,  and  in  part  to  the  general  tendency  toward  the  dative  of  a  person 
in  connection  with  the  accusative  of  a  thing.     This  usage  still  lingers  on 
in  the  literature  of  our  time,  also  in  popular  language :  (Sr  gtng  aber  ttergeblid) 
bie  Sttmbenlifle  burd)  unb  toar  enbltd)  frol),  bie  Snfet,  ber  er  feine  SKijjfttmmung  entgelten 
Ucfj,  nad)  jwettdgtgem  5lufent^a(t  ttneber  »er(ajfen  gu  fonnen  (Fontane's  C&ile,  chap, 
xvii).     (Sr  fud)te  tfynt  burd;  Slufmerffamfeiten  bag  unangenef)me  Slbenteuer  Bergeffen  j\u 
madden  (1001  Nacht,  iibersetzt  von  Alex.  Konig).    @te  etenber,  unbanfbarer  9Kenfd;, 
tft  bag  ber  Sofyn,  ba§  wtr  3l)nen  in  unfern  (106.  Note  3)  J&aug  etn  Sa^r  unb  fed)g  3Wonat 
©elb  ^ab'n  uerbtenen  lafjen?  (Anzengruber's  Das  -vierte  Gebot,  I,  8).     In  general 
this  incorrect  construction  is  avoided  now  in  choice  language.    This  dative  of 
the  person,  however,  is  not  infrequently  found  instead  of  the  regular  ace.  in 
einem  (or,  of  course,  etnen)  etrcag  fiifylen,  merfen,  fefyen,  »erft>uren,  hnfjett  lafien :  — 
tote  mir  jeber  3fyrer  SBrtefe  beutltd)  f4cn  lajjt  (Goethe).    SBd^renb  an  ber  £cmau 
unten  |  je|t  bem  Xurl'   ber  ^aiferablcr  |  fetne  Sang'  »erfpuren  Id§t   (Scheffel's 
Trompeter,  Elftes  Stuck).    2)aS  mu§  id;  fennen,  unb  (jatte  eg  tf)m  bctm  erjtm 
^tunferwort  abgcfpurt  unb  eg  tl)m  merfen  lajfen  (Raabe's  Zum  ivilden  Mannt 
chap.  x).    £)u  fannjl  tf)m  Bon  beinen  §lnjtd)ten  toififen  laffen  (Ompteda's  Sylvester 
von  Geyer,  II).     The  dat.  seems  more  natural  here  than  elsewhere  in  this 
construction,  as  the  infinitive  may  in  most  cases  be  construed  as  passive  in 
force  and  the  dative  be  considered  a  dative  of  agent  (258.  3.  A.  a) :  2ftan  liefj 
eg  tfym  merfen,  literally  They  allowed  it  to  be  observed  by  him.    In  connection 


263.  1. 1.  SYNESIS  OF  GENDER  571 

with  toiffen  tafien  the  dative  may  be  felt  as  the  indirect  object  after  the  analogy 
of  etnem  ettoaS  $u  unfien  tutu  The  correct  ace.  of  the  person  is  also  quite 
common :  9tber  um  ©otteg  imfhn  ifyn  niir  nid)tg  fyter»on  mcrfen  lafien !  (Raabe's 
Der  Lar,  p.  204).  3m  ©egentetl  bemitljte  id)  mid),  ijjn  nid)t  tnerfen  gu  lajfen,  bafj 
id)  ehoag  bacon  witgte  (R.  Huch's  Aus  der  Triwnphgasse,  II).  3Jlan  bitrfte  eg  ttjn 
ttatuvltd)  md)t  merfm  lafien,  jebod)  —  tyart  fam  eg  einem  an  (Beyerlein's/<?«a  oder 
Sedan  ?,  I). 

In  the  reflexive  expression  fid)  enrag  merfen  lafien  /0  betray,  show,  "  &/ 0«," 
the  dat.  of  the  person  is  just  as  correct  as  the  accusative,  and  is  much  more 
common :  gaffe  bit  (or  bid})  nid)tg  bavcn  gegen  ifjn  merfen  Don't  let  on  to  him. 
iSber  fyabe  id)  eg  tfct  mcrfen  laffen,  bag  id)  eine  (9J3f)Uofcpl)tn)  bin  ?  —  D  pfui,  ti>enn  id) 
mit  e3  l)abe  ntevfen  lajfcn,  unb  itenn  id)  rait  eg  offerer  ^abe  merfen  faffen !  (Lessing's 
Emilia,  4,  3).  3d)  furd)tete  mid)  fo  fefyt  aid  bte  anbcrn,  Ite^  raid)  e^  abet  ntdjt 
merfen  (Goethe).  25 od)  lieg  tdj  mtr  ntd)t^  merfen  (id.).  3d)  f"td)te,  id)  Ijabe  mtr 
merfen  tajfen,  nne  tctberwartig  mtr  bag  afleg  loar  (Spielhagen's  Frei geboren,  p.  35). 
The  eg  in  such  expressions  as  in  the  first  sentence  from  Goethe  is  in  reality 
not  an  accusative,  but  an  old  genitive  (104.  c}  of  specification,  which  was  not 
infrequent  in  early  N.H.G.:  3d)  licfj  mid)  bcffeit  ntd)t  merfen,  bag  id)'g  »erflunbe 
(Buck  der  Liebe,  I94d,  Frankfurt,  1587),  literally  I  did  not  allow  myself  to 
be  observed  with  regard  to  that.  The  genitive  form  eg  is  now  construed  as 
an  accusative,  and  hence  the  original  construction  is  no  longer  understood 
and  the  thought  has  become  obscure,  which  naturally  leads  to  the  use  of  the 
dative  of  reference  here :  3d)  tieg  rait  eg  nid)t  merfcn,  literally  I  did  not  allow  it 
to  be  observed  on  me.  The  ace,  of  the  thing  here  is  omitted  after  a  com- 
parative ;  2)tefe  (irfenntntg  ivar  benn  aitrf)  metnem  Dnfet  met  efyer  gefommen,  atg  tr 
fid)  merfen  lief  (R.  Huch's  Ludolf  Urslen,  chap.  xxi). 

In  some  expressions  the  ace.  or  dat.  of  the  person  may  be  used,  but  with 
quite  different  meaning :  Gr  lief}  mid)  corlcfen  He  had  me  to  read  to  him,  but 
(St  Ueg  mtr  corlefen  He  had  some  one  to  read  to  me. 

Provincially  the  nom.  often  occurs  here  instead  of  the  ace.  of  the  person  : 
3al)ne:  9ia,  3nbrif !  Xrembe  fragt  fd)on  nad)  btr.  3nbrif :  8ag  er  fragen  (Keyser- 
ling's  Rin  Friihlingsopfer ,  2),  This  peculiar  idiom  is  the  result  of  the 
blending  of  two  constructions :  @r  mag  fragen  and  fiafs  tl)n  fragen 


Synesis. 

263.  Different  parts  of  speech,  especially  pronouns,  often  assume 
a  different  gender  or  number  from  that  required  by  the  strict  rules 
of  grammatical  concordance,  following  in  these  points  the  meaning 
of  the  word  in  the  particular  use  in  question  rather  than  the  usual 
grammatical  gender  or  number  of  the  antecedent  or  the  word  to 
which  reference  is  made.  This  assignment  of  gender  and  number 
according  to  meaning  is  called  Synesis  (,  i.e.  understanding,  sense). 

I.  Synesis  of  Gender.  Words  may  assume  their  gender  according 
to  meaning  in  the  following  cases : 

i.  A  neuter  diminutive,  or  any  other  neut.  or  masc.  word  repre- 
senting a  female,  such  as  2Beib,  28ei Deceit,  SBetblcin,  8'rdulcin,  8rauen= 
Dimmer,  3)idbd)cnr  SlJicibel,  SWacjblein,  Jocfytcrlein,  Socfytercijen,  Jtinb,  ®efd)6pf, 
and  2)ienfd},  require  usually  the  article  and  any  other  attributive  adj. 
standing  before  them  and  also  the  relative  pronoun  referring  to  them 
to  be  neut.  or  masc.,  but  the  personal  pronouns,  possessive  adjectives, 
and  all  other  adjectives  on  the  other  hand  which  refer  to  them  are 
much  more  commonly  fem.  according  to  the  sex  of  the  person 


572  SYNTAX  263.  I.  i. 

represented  :  £>ag  frraulein  ifl  mc6,t  $u  £aufe  ;  fte  ift  fyajteren  gegangen. 
£>u  bofeg  £antdjen  !  2)u  bifl  bag  leutfeltgfle  Jtomtefjcfyen,  bag  eg  nur  auf  bcr 
SBelt  geben  fann.  2>tefe8  SBetb  1)at  i^rem  ©atten  Summer  gemacfyt.  3>u 
fcpnfte  ber  SBeiber!  (Heyse's  Maria  von  Magdala,  3,  10).  Qlkr  bu  bift 
cine  son  ben  reenigen  glitrflicfyen  ^rauenjimmern  (M.  Dreyer's  Winterschlaf, 
i).  <£ie  rear  eine  con  ben  tcentgen  SiDienfcfyen,  bte  311  rcttrbigen  rciffen,  rcag  eg 
fjetfjt  geltebt  311  fein.  Although  synesis  of  gender  is  more  common  in 
this  category  than  any  other,  present  usage  is  inclining  more  and 
more  to  stricter  grammatical  concordance  :  (5g  rear  feine  anbere  Dbfyut 
fur  £ili  geblieben,  alg  bte  alte  4?aug6alterin  beg  23erfbrbenen,  ein  auf  feine 
,r3Hlbung"  fbljeg,  aber  ungebilbeteg  9Beibc^en  (Wilbrandt's  Vater  Robinson, 
II,  chap.  i).  @o^te  ifl  bag  fd;6nfie  (also  bie  fcfyonfte)  ber  2)?a'b^en.  @r 
rtef  ber  $ri§fe  (name)  .  .  .  gu,  fie  fotte  nebenan  bem  SKdb^en  fagen,  eg  ntoge 
auffle^n,  er  ^abe  nac^^er  mit  i^m  gu  reben  (Telmann's  Wahrheit,  IX). 
5lnna  fa^  bte  Xante  gogernb  an  ;  ba  btefe  aber  nur  ein  rcentg  Iticfyelte,  fo  tat  bag 
SWa'bc^en,  rcag  i^m  geboten  war  (H.  Seidel's  Die  Augen  der  Erinnerung, 
II).  @ett  jenem  Sage  ^atte  id)  nicfytg  anbereg  nte^r  tm  .ftopf  alg  bag 
unb  feinen  ©arten  (Isolde  Kurz's  Nachbar  Werner). 


a.  In  the  expression  3fjr(e)  grdulein  Xofynyaur  (unmarried)  daughter^  31)r 
grdutetn  @o1)W3ejier,  &c.,  the  possessive  or  article  is  now  more  commonly  neut.  : 
»on  Sfyrem  grciuletn  ^raut  (Spielhagen's  Herrin,  p.  258),  ein  grcmlem  9itc^te 
(H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  p.  115).     The  fern.,  however,  is  not  infrequent, 
especially  earlier  in  the  period  :  mit  3fyrer  5«mtetn  Softer  (Schiller),  gegen 
beine    grdutetn    @dj»ejiet   (Raabe),  3^re    grdutcin    @^»ejler  (H.   Hoffmann). 
In  colloquial  language  we  often  find  the  fern,  article  here  before  a  name  :  bte 
(instead  of  the  choicer  bag)  jfrditletn  (Sfyrfyirb.     The  simple  word  Srauietn  was 
formerly  treated  as  a  fern.,  and  is  still  so  used  in  popular  language  :  9Wn,  bag 
tear  etne  alte  gtaul'n,  bte  fd)on  unmet  bet  tfynen  getr-ofynt  Ijat  (Mizi  in  Schnitzler's 
Liebelei,  Act  I). 

b.  The  synesis  of  the  relative   here  was   not  uncommon  earlier  in   the 
period,  and  is   still  found  in  popular  speech,  and  sometimes  even  in  the 
literary  language  :  3ene3  SDid  bdjen  ift'3,  bag  »ertrtebene,  bte  bit  gewdfjtt  fyaj}  (Goethe's 
H.  und  D.,  4,  210).     2Mtte,  griijjen  @te  bag  gndbtge  grdulctn,  bte  fo  gut  ifl  (Frau 
Hulen  in  Fontane's  Vor  dem  Sturm,  IV,  chap.  vii).     @r  nafym  9Rart)g  5trm  itnb 
fufjrte  bag  wetnmbe  SPJdb^en,  bte  tf)tn  tttittentog  ge^orc^te  (Samarow's  Honni  soit 
qui  malypense).    ^Jetrea  ifl  ein  ettleg,  du§ertt(^eg  ©efd^cpf,  bie  ftc^  mtt  bem  SSer* 
mcgen  tl}rcg  Dnfetg  aufpu^t  (Jensen's  Das  Bild  im  Wasser,  p.  37).     Synesis 
is  more  common  in  case  of  a  second  relative,  as  the  pronoun  does  not  imme- 
diately follow  the  antecedent,  and  the  speaker  or  writer  has  the  natural  sex 
in  mind  rather  than  the  grammatical  gender  of  the  antecedent  :  £)enn  ber  3Ute 
fcatte  ein  (Snfeltcd?terd)en  bet  ftdj,  511  bem  fte  $ate  gcftanben  itnb  bcren  fte  ftdj  auf  atlerlet 
5lrt  anjunefymen  ^flegte  (Storm's  In  St.Jiirgeri).    We  now  usually  find  strict 

grammatical  concordance  here  in  choice  language  :  2Btc  tyaben  ba  ein  fe^r  jarteg 
raudjen,  bag  etne  SBeile  gepfiegt  icerben  mufi  (H.  Bdhlau). 

2.  Diminutives  of  masc.  common  nouns  representing  males 
usually  require  grammatical  concordance.  They  take  the  neut. 
article  :  bag  2ftannletn,  bag  @df)nlein,  &c.  Pronouns  referring  to  such 
nouns  are  as  a  rule  neut.,  although  synesis  often  occurs  :  ©obalb 
ifyn  bag  Heine  2ftannd?en  ganj  fcerftanb,  fu^r  eg  nne  befeffen  in  bie  «&66e 
(G.  Keller).  Sin  fletneg  fcfycarjeg  SWdnnlein,  roeld^eg  auf  ber  SBanf  an  ber 
anberen  @eite  ber  $ur  faf^  (Raabe's  Schudderump,  chap.  i).  The 


263.  1. 4.  SYNESIS  OF  GENDER  573 

synesis  of  the  personal  pronoun  becomes  more  common,  the 
further  it  is  removed  from  the  noun  to  which  it  refers.  The 
synesis  of  the  relative  occurs  only  in  older  literature  :  (Sin  Jterld?en, 
ben  5ran  5'ortuna  ^u  ifjrem  SHebling  gebredjfelt  ju  tyaben  fdjien  (Klinger). 

3.  If  a  feminine  or  a  neuter  other  than  a  diminutive  represents 
a   male,   the  same  rule   is   now   followed  as  is  given  in  2  for 
diminutives :    Qllg   <Seine  2Kajeflat,  |   ber  «f?aifer,  ifyren   (His)   mutigen 
5Irmeen  |  ein  rufjmgefronteg,  frteggerfafjrneg  «£>aupt  |  gefd?enft  in  ber  $erfon 
beg  ^erjogg  ^tieclanb  (Schiller's  Piccolomini,  2,  7).      ftaft  bretjte  ftd; 
int  faiferiid?en  Sager   |   .  .  .  unt  <§einrtd?g   3ager,  Qir^t,  0tof?,  £unb  imb 
fteberfyiel  |  mefyr  bag  ©efpradj   alg  unt  bie  2JJaieftat  |  beg  Jtaiferg  felbfl, 
bie  nie  jur  $afel  gtng,  |   «§etnrtc^   »on  Qlue  fdjritt  ifyr  benn  <;ur  <£eite 
(Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  2,  p.  57).     2)raitf5en  rtcf  er  eine 
Drbonnanj  iinb  fc^drfte  i^r  ein,  Seutnant  i)ou  ©belflet^  j^u  fcenadjric^ttgen,  baf 
er  gcgangen  fet  (Ompteda's  Sylvester  von  Geyer,  Iviii).     SRun  irarb  e§  cine 
unterfe§te,  trettrudige  SWannSperfon,  bereu  ^(eibung  ftd;  nic^t  beittlid;  iinter* 
fc^etben  lief  (Jensen's  Schatzsucher,  p.  164).    2)a§  SWitglteb  beg  JtongreffeS, 
bag,  &c. ;  bie  <2cfyUmrad?e,  bie  »or  ber  $ur  fte^t.     Except  in  case  of  the 
relative,  synesis  sometimes  occurs :  ©rjetteng  jaufcerten  unS  tyier  einen 
feiner  fct)6nen  ©drten  (Gutzkow). 

4.  The  article,  or  pronominal  or  qualifying  adjective,   before 
the  diminutive  form  of  a  proper  name  which  represents  a  person 
has  often  natural  gender  in  certain  dialects,  while  other  dialects 
are  not  unfriendly  to  the  neut.  gender :   bie  JMefel  (Anzengruber's 
Kreuzelschreiber,  3,  3),  bie  @ept)crl  (ib.,  2,  n),  ber  ionl  (ib.,  i,  3), 
arme    Stefet   (Anzengruber's    Ganseliescl),    bag    SBtirfcele    (Auerbach's 
Tonele,   chap,    i),  bag   arme  «£annele  (Hauptmann's   Hanneles  Him- 
melfahrt,  p.  75).     Likewise  common  nouns  when  used  as  names: 
bie  2Jcitttercfyen  mufi   i&ren   ilee  t)at>eu  (Schulze-Smidt's  Denk'  ich  an 
Deutschland  in  der  Nacht,  II).     2>er  ^>errd^en  barf  nid^t  fcfyeften  (ib.). 
The  neuter  form  of  the  article  or  pronominal  adjective  is  preferred 
in  the  literary  language,  more  decidedly,  however,  with  reference 
to  males  than  females:  £>a§  fletne  £a'ngcfyen,  bu  gitteS  «£an$cfyen,  '»«« 
fleineS  'Dortdjen,  and  not  infrequently  bie  ©ortd;en  in  colloquial  speech, 
but  not  ber  «§dn3d?en.     In  the  literary  language  as  well  as  in  dialect 
all  pronouns  and  possessives  referring  to  such  words  are  quite 
commonly  selected  according  to  the  natural  gender  except  relatives, 
which  usually  in  choice  language  follow  the  gender  of  the  antecedent: 
,,2)iutter,  fo  »tel  @elb  fyafl  bu  befommen!"   rief  Sie&fyen,  alS  fte   onf  bem 
^enjlerbrett  eine  3Rei^e  8ilbermunjcn  liegen  fa^.     SieSdjen  itnb  i^re  Gutter. 
Sometimes  the  pronoun  or  the  possessive  are  selected  according  to 
the  grammatical  gender :  <2d?rcetgenb  oerbeugte  fid;  (SlSlein,  reofur  i^m  ein 
^od)iniitigc3  SUtrfen  irurbe.     2Bag  auS  bem  Jtorberl  (Jtorbula  +  lein)  feiner 
(her)  2Nuttcr  nnb  bem  «§errn  3ngenie»r  geirorben,  ^atte  id;  nid;t  erfa^ren 
fonnen  (P.  Heyse's  Ein  Idealist).     If  there  is  an  inflected  adjective 
before  the  diminutive,  synesis  of  the  relative  is  not  now  common  in 
the  literary  language,  although  it  occasionally  occurs  in  case  of 
reference  to  females :   bag  Heine  «£dngd?en,  bag  unter  bent  2?aume  ft§t. 
iDag  imfcfdje  llifettd?en  »on  Qlmberg,  ber  (instead  of  the  more  common  bem) 
bag  Jtoftiun  beg  fcorigen  3a^r^unbertg  aOerltebft  ju  ®eftd;te  flefyt  (National- 


574  SYNTAX  263.  1. 4. 

Zeitung,28,  47).  Synesis  of  the  relative  is,  however,  quite  common 
even  in  case  of  masculines,  if  there  is  no  inflected  adjective  before 
the  diminutive :  9to3d)en,  bte  ber  Sautter  Sreube  trot ;  4?dn8cf?en,  ber  ein  fefyr 
guter  Jlnabe  if}.  But  also  here  we  sometimes  find  grammatical  con- 
cordance: 33rencfyen,  rcelcfyeg  nur  bag  eine  ju  ftti)len  fafyig  roar  (Keller's 
Romeo  und  Julie). 

5.  If  the  word  $rau  stands  before  the  title  of  the  husband,  the 
article  agrees  with  8rau  instead  of  with  the  title :  £>ie  geefyrte  5rau 
^rofeffor. 

6.  Aside  from  the  above  cases,  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  adjective- 
substantive  representing  a  person  usually  has  natural  gender,  but 
where  the  sex  is  a  matter  of  doubt  or  little  concern,  as  in  case 
of  children  or  the  young  of  animals,  the  substantive  is  often  neut, 
as  this  gender  gives  grammatical  expression  to  the  idea  of  vague- 
ness :  Der  Sreunb  (male)  friend,  bte  Sreitnbin  lady  friend,  ber  Jtrcmfe  or 
bie  Jtranfe,  but  bag  Sterne  the  young  child,  [ein  Jlletnfteg  his  smallest 
child,  bag  Sunge  eineg  <Sd)afeg.. 

a.  After  the  indefinite  pronouns  jemanb,  mentanb,  Ton,  the  following  adjective- 
substantive  is  in  the  neut.^  or  now  more  commonly  in  the  masc.,  to  indicate 
that  it  may  represent  either  a  male  or  female ;  see  145,  Notes  under  b, 
c,  and  e. 

b.  The  masc.,  less  frequently  the  neut.,  is  used  in  general  references, 
referring  to  either  males  or  females,  or  both,  and  also  in  cases  where  it  is 
desired  to  emphasize  the  abstract  idea  in  the  word  without  reference  to.  sex  : 
Xeuer  tft  nttr  ber  5«unb,  bod)  aud)  ben  getnb  fann  id)  nufcen ;  jetgt  mic  ber  gvewtb, 
toas  id)   fann,  lefyrt  mid)  ber  Seittb,  toa3  id)  fo((  (Schiller).     35 et  ®ered)te  totrb 
fetneS  ©(aubenS  leben  (Romans  i.  17).    35ie  Jputte  fdjetnt  ntir  etwaS  git  eng.    ftiit 
un3  beibe  bod)  gcraumtg  genug,  »erfc^te  (S^artotte.    9lun  freiltd),  fagte  ©bitarb,  fur 
etnen  35rttten  ijl  aud^  h>o^t  nod)  ?pla^.     SBarwn  ntd)t?   »crfe|te  (S^artotte,  unb 
aud)  fur  ein  93ierteg  (Goethe's  Die   Wahlverwandtschaften,  chap;  i).     @^  tft 
ja   fetn    Srfwtbe^,  baS   banad)   fragt,  tdj  bin  ja  bod)   bent  Jttnb  (Anzengruber's 
Schandfleck,   n).      For  an    example    of   the    use    of  the    masc.    for    an 
abstract  idea  see  253.  III.  2.  a.    The   neuter  is   also  used  to  denote   an 
abstract  idea,  but  its  use  differs  from  that  of  the  masculine  ;    see   253. 
III.  2.  «,  2nd  paragraph.      General    references    applying    to  either  males 
or  females  are  especially  common   in   case   of  pronouns  and   pronominal 
adjectives.     Here  the  masc.  form  is  now  usually  found,  but  the  neut.  forms 
eg,   bag,  bteg,  jebeg,  a((e£,  fetn£,  etn(e)3,  lt>a3,  &c.,  are  also  found,  especially 
in  the  cases  recorded  in  II.  4,  below:    @3  ijl  fetner  »oc  bent  icbe  glucfltd) 
gu  pretfen,  benn  jebcr  ijl  bent  2Bed?fel  bea  @d)irffalg  unterworfen.    9Sater  unb  2Jlutter 
finb  iebeg  ein  3Jlenfd)fur  (id)Aunb  bte  SWenfdjen  ftnb  »erfd)tcben  (Wildenbruch's  Neid). 
^naben,  Scanner  unb  Qftauen,  fetn^  blteb  unberu^rt  (Goethe).     SSenn  id)  nur  etned 
metner  etgenen  9lngef)6rtgen  ie^t  bet  nttr  Ijatte !  (Auerbach).     %rfy  ubt  fid),  h?aS  ein 
SKetjter  toerben  ir*t((  (Schiller).    For  fuller  description  of  the  use  of  »a3  see  157.  b. 
There  is  sometimes  a  shade  of  difference  between  the  neut.  and  masc.  of  some 
of  these  words,  the  former  having  collective,  the  latter  individualizing  force : 
Unb  i?bc3  (each  and  all  of  the  brothers  and  sisters)  qudtte  fcine  ^fjantafte  |  mtt 
etnem  neuen  Ohtje  bid)  ju  fdjmitcfen.  |  2)er  gab  btr  *paf(ag'  Slug',  ber  £ereg  9lrm,  | 
ber  9tyt)robtten3  retjburd)tt>trften  ©iirtet  (Grillparzer's  Sappho,  i,  3).    Instead  of  a 
masc.  or  neut.  sometimes  both  masc.  and  fern,  are  used  to  emphasize  espe- 
cially the  idea  that  both  sexes  are  included :   .Seiner  unb  fetne  btetbe  bafyetm 
(Rosegger).    35tefen  I)ter  mufte  tto^t  |eber  unb  jebe  fd)on  ftnben  (Spielhagen's  Fret 
geboren,  p.  148). 


263.  II.  2.  SYNESIS   OF  NUMBER  575 

c.  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  no  definite  noun,  but  to  a  general  or  indefinite 
idea,  the  neuter  is  used  :    ®r  nteint  eg  gut  mtt  bit.     (£t  fyat  tS  bequem.     „  !Die 
(frfuditng  tjl  on  cine  23ebtngung  gcfnuvft."     ,,2Beld)e  S3ebtna,ung?    fage  nut's" 
(Freytag).     The  e3  here  cannot  refer  to  the  fem.  SBebingung,  but  to  the  unknown 
purport  of  the  condition. 

d.  A  demonstrative  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb  and 
referring  to  a  preceding  individual  usually  agrees  in  the  literary  form  of 
speech  with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  but  colloquially  the  neuter  is  often 
used  without  reference  to  the  antecedent :    3d)  lenne  beinen  93ater  toofyl :  ber 
(colloquially  Dag)  ijt  etn  bra»er  SDiann. 

7.  The  relative  is  neuter  if  the  reference  is  to  a  fem.  noun 
denoting  an  indefinite  quantity:   Sraulein  Hermann  nwjjte  eine  2ftenge 
(=  fciel)  itber  ®oetf)e  gu  fagen,  baS  nid)t  ganj  bent  entfyracfy,  tra8  ^rofeffor 
»on  Olangentjofen   sorgetragen  tyatte    (Ompteda's   Cacilie  von   Sarryn, 
chap.  18). 

8.  Sometimes  the  predicate  noun  does  not  assume  a  grammatical 
form  in  accordance  with  the  natural  sex  of  the  person  represented 
by  the  subject;  see  253.  III.  2. a. 

9.  In  the  expression  fetnerjeit  in  his  (or  her,  their,  my,  our)  time 
the  possessive  may  remain  constant  without  reference  to  the  gender 
of  the  antecedent ;  see  138.  2.  a. 

II.  Synesis  of  Number.  The  number  of  a  word  may  be  regulated 
by  the  sense  instead  of  by  the  rules  of  grammatical  concordance  in 
the  following  categories : 

1.  The  cases  where  the  number  of  the  verb  is  regulated  by  the 
sense  are  described  in  253.  I.  i.  d,  ^and  2.  c,  d. 

2.  In  the  earlier  part  of  the  period  a  personal  pronoun  (er,  fie,  e$, 
berfelfce,  fold)*)  is  not  infrequently  in  the  pi.  if  it  refers  to  a  sing, 
noun  containing  a  collective  idea  :  2)en  £eufet  faitrt  bag  2>6lfcben  nie,  | 
unb  roenn  er  fte  fceim  Jtragen  fja'tte  \  (Goethe's  Faust,  Auerbachs  Keller). 
This  usage  continues  in  our  own  time,  but  the  trend  toward  strict 
grammatical  concordance  has  become  very  strong,  so  that  the  sing, 
here  is  now  more  common  in  the  literary  language.     Synesis  is, 
however,  still  quite  common  when  the  pronoun  refers  to  a  noun  in 
the  sing,  representing  not  an  individual  but  a  whole  class  :  3d)  tyatte 
mir . . .  cingebittet . . . ,  auf  bent  93ocf  fa jje  ber  Sob  in  einem  fdjrcarjen,  flatternben 
2WantcI,  auf  feinem  flappernben  @d)dbel  cinen  fclanfen,  ntebrigen  «§ut,  irie  id) 
fold)e   an   unferen  2)rofd)?enfutfd?ern  gu  fefcen  gerco^nt  «ar  (R.   Huch's 
Ludolf  Urslcu,  chap.  26). 

Synesis  of  the  possessive  was  common  earlier  in  the  period  : 
2)a  rip  atteS  SSoIE  feine  golbenen  D^rringe  »on  i^ren  D^ren  (Luther), 
©in  ed;ter  beutfd;er  9)iann  mag  feinen  Sraiijett  letben,  |  bod)  i^re  9Bcine 
trinft  cr  gern  (Goethe's  Faust,  Auerbachs  Keller).  This  usage  still 
continues :  9Benn  irtr  2)euti\te  nad;  8'ranfrei^  ge^en,  fo  lernen  n.nr  »ori)er 
bie  (Spradje  'i^rcS  £anbeS  (Riehl).  The  trend  to-day  is  decidedly 
toward  strict  grammatical  concordance  or  toward  the  avoidance 
of  a  conflict  by  changing  the  construction :  5)ie  Sreue  beS  33olfe3  ju 
feinem  Jtonig. 

Synesis  of  the  relative  occurs  earlier  in  the  period :  £enn  ber 
l;at  big  ©efcfytedjt  |  l^er  bie  er  jornig  ifl  |  oeworffen  »nb  fcerftoffen 


576  SYNTAX  263.  II.  2. 

(Jer.  vii.  29).  £)eg  £au(eg  ©gpinaty  — ,  bie  nidjrt  in  ben  Jtrieg  jogen,  urn 
reicfy  $u  rcerben  (Schiller).  To-day  the  synesis  of  the  relative  is  in 
the  strict  sense  almost  unknown.  For  an  instance  see  253.  I.  i.  g. 
It  is  usually  only  used  when  the  relative  stands  in  a  loose  relation 
to  its  antecedent,  introducing  a  free  and  independent  statement 
with  reference  to  either  a  preceding  collective  idea  contained  in 
a  sing,  noun  together  with  its  modifying  adjective,  or  with  reference 
to  a  noun  in  the  sing,  representing  not  an  individual  but  a  whole 
class :  -iKancfyeg  aufftrebenbe  talent,  beren  einige  nunmefyr  §11  Sftuf  unb  Oiufynt 
gelangt  ffnb.  Seber  SBtfc,  an  benen  er  eg  ntcfyt  fetyten  liefi,  tcurbe  jtarmifd? 
fcelacfyt.  Sfl'8  nid)t  ein  SKond?,  beren  bu  taufenbe  (afyft  ? 

3.  Sometimes  we  find  a  plural   pronoun   referring  to  a  noun 
which  is  sing,  in  form,  but  which  in  the  passage  in  question  by 
its  synecdochical  or  metonymic  use  represents  a  plural  idea :  £>ag 
eble  28eib  ifi  tyalb  ein  Sftann,  ja  gan^,  erfi  Ujjte  ftefyler  ntacfyen  fte  ju  SBei&ern 
(Grillparzer).    9htjjlanb  (itcfot  (ein  ©ebiet  in  5ljlen  ju  encettern ;  fte  ftnb 
abermalg  »ora,eriitft.     While  this  usage  continues  in  our  own  day 
the  trend   is  toward  strict  grammatical  concordance  or  toward 
avoidance  of  a  conflict  by  changing  the  construction. 

4.  The  neuter  sing,  of  a  pronoun  or  adjective-substantive  is 
often  used  without  reference  to  the  sex  or  the  number  of  the 
persons  or  things  referred  to : 

a.  5KUeg  is  used  to  give  the  general  idea  of  universality,  including 
males  and  females,  young  and  old :  QlCieS  freut  ftd)  ber  S'lii^ling^eit 
Everybody  rejoices  in  spring.     9lfle3  (everybody)  war  entjitcft.    QltteS 
tat  ifym  ein  mtlbereS  $Itma  ju  fudjen.     >§eute  ift  ^amiltentag  unb  ba^u  mu§ 
atteS  ba  (ein,  icag  un(eren  0lanien  trcigt  (Ompteda's  Eyseri). 

b.  3ebe§  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  statement  applies  to  all  the 
members  of  a  certain  group,  both  males  and  females  :  @titt(tf?rceigenb 
gotten  fie  ju,  inbem  jebeS  in  fid?  (elfcfi  juriicEfe^rte.    The  masc.  sing,  is  also 
used  here. 

c.  Also  ba§,  bie8,  and  sometimes  eg  are  used  collectively,  embracing 
a  number  of  things  previously  mentioned  or  pointed  out  by  gesture  : 
@olb  unb  @d?d'§e,  2ttad?t  unb  «§ol)ett,  bag  begefjre  id;  nid^t.     ©cfyonfyett,  @^re, 
0letd^tum,  bieg  atteg  ift  fcerganglid?. 

d.  5)ag  is  often  used  referring  to  individuals,  not  as  such,  but 
as  members  of  one  class :    <Sd}on  (o  grojje  Jod^ter  ^ajl  bu  ?     QBie  bag 
^eranirdd)(t!  Are  your  daughters  so  large  already?   Well,  how  girls 
do  grow ! 

e.  The  neut.  sing,  fceibeg  is  used  in  a  collective  sense,  including 
both  of  two  things :  3d?  fya&e  beibeg  39rief  unb  $arfet  rid^ttg  er^altett. 
@ommer  unb  QBinter  trug  (le  ein  (d^mierigeg,  (djrcar^eibeneg  5ran(entiid)Iein 
um  ben  Jlopf  unb  einen  tte^odenen,  turfi(d?en  <Sd?al  um  bie  <Sd)uItern,  beibeg 
forgfaltig  nad?  ^inten  ing  5)reiecf  gelegt  (Isolde  Kurz's  Das  Vermachtnis 
der  Tante  Susanne). 

f.  The  neut.  indefinite  eing  (or  the  masc.  form  einer)  often  stands 
after  the  gen.  pi.  of  a  personal  pronoun  to  indicate  that  the  different 
persons  of  the  class  referred  to  in  the  personal  pronoun,  whether 
they  be  males  or  females,  are  included  in  the  statement,  and  that 
not  a  mere  reference  to  one  is  intended :  SBenn  un(ewng  (or  very 


265.  INDEPENDENT   ELEMENTS  577 

commonly  unfereiner)  am  ©pinnen  war,  |  . .  .  flanb  fte  6ci  ifjrem  2?uf)fen 
fup  (Goethe's  Faust,  Am  Brunnen)  When  we  (here  :  hard-working 
girls  like  you  and  me)  used  to  be,  &c.  Sometimes  the  fern,  form 
is  used  to  make  a  distinct  reference  to  females :  SBafyrfcfyeinlidj 
311  alt,  ju  erfyaben  iifrer  ein  armeS  £>ing  rcie  id),  inn  tternunftig  inal  iiBer 
eine  @ad?e  mit  unfercincr  .  .  .  311  reben  (Raabe's  Gutmanns  Reisen, 
chap.  17). 

g.  An  adjective-substantive  is  often  used  in  the  neut.  sing,  to 
indicate  in  a  general  way  the  idea  of  a  collection  or  indefinite 
number  of  things :  2)Jan  fyort  ttiel  ®ute§  unb  fciel  5)umme6  We  hear 
many  good  and  foolish  things.  Gr  fyat  mir  fciel  JMefceS  unb  ®ute3 
ernjiefen.  See  also  109.  a.  (2). 

h.  2)a§,  bte§,  c§,  jeneS,  are  often  used  as  subjects  referring  to  one  or 
several,  to  a  masc.,  fern.,  or  neut.,  whenever  they  represent  the 
thing  or  things  pointed  out  by  a  gesture  or  the  context  as  identical 
with  the  thing  or  things  indicated  by  the  predicate :  £)a3  ifl  mein 
29ud).  S)a8  fhtb  ineine  ^Biid^er.  2)ie  unbefannte  iBofyltdterin,  con  ber  ifyr 
fpracfyet,  bag  ifl  bicfe  5rau.  C?6  fmb  ineine  SBriiltr  They  are  my  brothers. 
Here  the  gesture  or  preceding  words  always  make  the  reference  so 
clear  that  close  grammatical  concordance  does  not  seem  necessary. 

;'.  The  neut.  pronominal  forms  e3,  ba3,  icaS,  often  stand  as  a 
predicate,  referring  to  a  masc.,  fern.,  or  neut.,  a  sing,  or  pi.  :  (Sic 
tydlt  fid)  fur  eine  grope  Jtiinjrlerin,  ofyne  eg  511  fcin  She  thinks  she  is  a 
great  artist,  although  she  is  not.  SSir  l;offtm  nnflfomnune  ©cijte  ju 
fein,  unb  icir  rvaren  eS  icirflid)  We  hoped  to  be  welcome  guests  and 
we  were  indeed  so.  (?r  ifl  eiu  ©eleijrter;  bag  ifl  fcin  23ruter  nid^t. 
9i?a8  ifl  ffine  ©dwefler?  Sine  (Sdjanfpielcrin.  Here  these  pronouns 
do  not  refer  to  the  sex  of  the  persons  denoted  by  their  antecedents, 
but  rather  to  the  general  abstract  idea  contained  within  these  ante- 
cedents, hence  the  lack  of  literal  grammatical  concordance  with 
the  words  to  which  they  refer  and  the  selection  of  the  neuter  form. 

5.  In  the  expression  feiner^eit  in  his  (or  her,  their,  my,  our)  time 
the  possessive  may  remain  constant  without  reference  to  the  number 
of  the  antecedent ;  see  138.  2.  a. 

Adverbial  Modifiers. 

264.  Adverbial  modifiers  assume  the  form  of  simple  uninflected 
adverbs,  nouns  in  an  oblique  case,  a  prepositional  phrase,  or  a 
clause :    ©rope  (Seeten  bulben  flift.     frrotyen  Whites  trat  er  therein.     <8ie 
white  t»or  8'renbe.     SBdfyreiiD  rcir  fdiliefen,  t»rad>  ber  <2turm  log.     This 
subject  is  treated  at  considerable  length  under  the  head  of  Adverbs 
in  Part  II,  beginning  at  223.     The  adverbial  clause  is  treated  in 
273-283. 

INDEPENDENT  ELEMENTS. 

265.  Independent  elements  are  words,   phrases,   or  clauses, 
which  are  not  related  grammatically  to  other  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence, or  which  stand  all  alone  without  filling  any  grammatical 
office.     In  some  cases  these  elements  are  in  fact  grammatically 
independent,  while  in  others  they  are  only  seemingly  so,  as  they  in 

pp 


578  SYNTAX  265. 

reality  belong  to  some  word  understood.     The  following  are  the 
most  important  classes  of  such  elements: 

A.  The  name  of  a  person  who  is  called  or  spoken  to  is  often 
inserted  in  a  sentence  without  any  grammatical  connection  with 
the  rest  of  the  proposition.     Such  words  now  stand  in  the  nom., 
in  an  earlier  period,  however,  they  stood  in  a  distinct  case,  called 
the  vocative :  Jtinber,  id)  tyabe  end)  alien  etrea3  mttgeBradjt. 

B.  Absolute  Construction.    Words  are  often  used  absolutely,  that 
is,  without  a  grammatical  connection  with  any  other  word  in  the 
sentence.     This  construction  may  assume  different  forms  : 

a.  An  uninflected  participle  may  be  used  absolutely,  with  the 
force  of  a  subordinate  clause  which  has  a  subject  of  a  general 
meaning  such  as  man  one,  they,  traS  what,  &c. :  £>tefen  -DJangel  ab= 
gered?net  (=  irenn  man  biefen  SWangel  abredjnet),  ifl  bie  28o£)nung  gut  Not 
taking  note  of  this  defect,  the  house  is  a  good  one.  2)te  <8ad)e  fo 
angefefyen  (=  rcenn  man  bie  <2ad)e  (o  anfiefyt),  fdjetnt  itur  btefer  SSeg  jum 
3iete  ju  fii^ren.  2)ie  <£ad)e  felbfl  betreffenb  (=  icag  bie  <Sad?e  felbfl  betrtfft), 
fo  ifl  3itnad)fl  ju  bemerfen  Concerning  the  point  itself,  it  is  necessary 
first  to  remark.  2)tc  alte  @prad)e  antangenb  .  . .  f o  benfe  id)  gan$  trie  (£ie 
(T.  Storm  an  G.  Keller,  25.  Juni  1878).  9Jfeine  bummen  <2pa'§e  betreffenb, 
Jjoffe  id)  immer  nod),  mid)  berfelben  nod)  sor  £orfd)Iufj  gu  entlebigen  (G.  Keller 
an  T.  Sturm,  25.  Juni  1878).  3n  etner  anbern  5lbtetlung  irerben  <Sd?tff3s 
fanonen  atter  Caliber  unb  V2lrten  ju  fe^en  (etn,  nut  benen  beS  15.  3a^unbert§ 
fcegtnnenb.  The  ace.  in  this  construction  is  the  object  of  the  verbal 
idea  in  the  participle.  Instead  of  the  ace.  of  a  noun  we  very  often 
find  a  clause :  ©efe£t,  bafj  cr  feinen  <§ap  gegen  mid)  aufgtbt,  (o  irerte  id) 
il)m  gem  oergei^en.  ©efe^t,  $roje(fe  iraren  nid)t  auf  @rben,  trie  fonnt'  al§« 
bann  ba3  3Ketn  unb  5)etn  beftimmt  ent(d)ieben  trerfcen?  (Gellert).  There  is 
often  no  object  at  all :  Qlbgefetyen  Don  biefem  £drm,  an  ben  man  ftd)  balb 
gerco^nte,  fonnte  man  in  93erfaideS  gtauben,  im  ttefen  Srieben  j^u  leben 
(Moltke).  £>te  3!ertc  (d}Ite§en  ftd),  _»on  icenigen  5Iu§na^men  abgefe^en, 
moglid^fi  genan  an  bie  t)anbfd;riftltd)e  itberlteferung  an  (Braune's  Aithoch- 
deutsches  Lesebuch,  Vorwort,  i.  AufL). 

The  absolute  use  of  the  perfect  participle  here  has  resulted  from 
a  confounding  of  the  original  syntactical  relations.  The  next  to  the 
last  sentence  in  the  preceding  paragraph  gives  us  an  insight  into 
these  original  relations.  The  participle  afcgefefjen  was,  perhaps,  used 
with  active  force  =  abgefefyen  ^abenb  and  was  felt  as  belonging  to  the 
subject  man,  and  hence  was  in  reality  not  used  absolutely.  As 
the  perfect  participle  is  not  now  commonly  found  with  a  noun 
or  pronoun  in  an  active  sense  to  denote  an  act,  it  became  detached 
from  its  governing  word  when  it  was  employed  in  this  sense  and 
was  thus  left  without  definite  syntactical  relations,  and  hence  the 
reference  was  construed  as  an  indefinite  or  general  one.  The 
construction  has  become  very  productive  and  can  now  be  used 
where  the  participle  cannot  be  brought  into  relation  with  any  word 
in  the  principal  proposition,  as  in  the  last  sentence  in  the  preceding 
paragraph,  provided,  however,  the  reference  is  a  general  one.  In 
the  same  manner  the  present  participle  became  detached  from  its 
governing  word  and  was  employed  absolutely.  It  is,  however,  not 


265.  B.  b.  (i).       INDEPENDENT   ELEMENTS  579 

so  commonly  found  in  this  use  as  the  perfect  participle,  and  is 
largely  confined  to  a  few  such  expressions  as  those  given  above. 

b.  Absolute  Accusative  and  Nominative, 

(i)  Absolute  Accusative.  An  absolute  ace.,  analogous  to  the 
ablative  absolute  in  Latin,  often  forms,  in  connection  with  an 
uninflected  adjective,  a  participle,  an  adverb,  or  prepositional 
phrase,  a  construction  that  is  equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause 
of  which  the  ace.  is  the  logical  subject,  and  the  adj.,  part.,  adverb, 
or  phrase,  the  predicate:  SBilfyelm  fyatte,  ben  Jlopf  in  bte  <§anb 
nefttt^t  (=  inbcm  ber  Jlopf  in  bie  «£anb  geftu^t  tear),  nacfybenfltd)  jugefyort. 
2>er  2>iann  ndfjerte  fid)  ifjm  langfam,  bte  $Irme  tjerunterfydngenb,  bie  5tugen 
ftarr.  Unb  (o  fefyrte  id;  benn  in  bie  ^eimat  guriirf,  nid?t3  mein  a!6  einen 
leeren  SBeutel.  <So  ftanb  cr  ba,  bie  &ii§e  au3irdrt3,  ben  Jtopf  empor,  bie  Qtrme 
itbereinanber.  ^riebrid;  ging,  bie  v§dnbe  auf  bem  Oiucfen,  tin  SiwiNfr  auf  unfc 
06.  3)ie3  getan,  entfernte  er  ftd;  After  this  was  done  he  withdrew. 
Unfer  ©epdrf  auf  ein  faultier  getaben,  gogen  nnr  attS  (Goethe),  ©oetfje  ifl 
ber  Jtonicj  fcineS  23olf8  ;  it)n  geftiirjt  imb  icie  Ieid;t  bann  ntit  bem  23oife  fertig 
tverben  (Borne).  6in  tyaw  Xage  yergangen,  Jtu§te  id?  tricber  ntd;t,  06  eS  fd^on 
3ett  fei,  bie  9loten  abgiti)olen  ober  nid;t  (Grillparzer's  Dcr  arine  Spiel- 
mann\  'Biefe  (i.e.  bie  $ut)  ^u,  ging  ba§  8'eucr  auf  bem  «£erb  au6  (Hans 
Hopfen's  Verdorben  zu  Paris,  I,  265).  2)ie3  gefdjefyen,  na^nt  ber  Stitbent 
Jlonrab  an  ber  ^anb  unb  fitljrte  i^n  ufu\  (ib.,  II,  155).  9^un  ba8  georbnet, 
fdmtt  er  t>er^dltni3mdpig  fceru^igt  (ciner  2Bofymtng  ju  (Ernst  Heilborn's 
Der  goldene  Ring,  viii).  (Stnmal  ben  SSorteil  in  t^rer  »§anb,  t)aben  bie 
3apatter  feinen  Qlugenblitf  gefdumt,  Hjn  auf§  auf  erpe  augjunu^en  (Neue  Ziir- 
chcrZeitung,  20.  Mai  1904).  The  accusative  is  sometimes  omitted  : 
£>a  fagt'  id; :  fleine  >§erletn,  gru§'  eudj  @ott !  |  SBag  braut  unb  frarft  unb  fodjt 
t^r  i)ier  hit  2)unflen  ?  |  2)od)  faum  gefagt —  t)tti!  flo6  ber  <£d^tarm  baoon 
(Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  I,  p.  19).  This  construction  is 
used  to  give  the  time  or  some  circumstance  of  an  action.  Sometimes 
it  can  be  construed  as  having  temporal,  conditional,  or  concessive 
force. 

The  accusative  here  was  originally  the  object  of  some  verb,  and 
sometimes  we  find  a  present  participle  expressed :  2>cn  $ert  ber 
9iibelungen  uor  mir  l;afcenb,  fonnte  id;  etne  Ufrerfe^ung  sorlcfen  (Goethe). 
The  perfect  participle  is  still  usually  expressed  :  „  S'ran^fa,"  rief  fte, 
bie  S2lugen  auf  mid;  geridjtct,  ,,bin  id;  nun  glitrfltd)?"  (Lessing's  Minna, 
3,  3).  The  ace.  bie  Qlugen  is  in  reality  the  object  of  the  participle 
flerid;tet  (fyafrenb),  so  that  the  clause  has  the  meaning  having  turned 
her  eyes  upon  me.  Thus  the  participle  is  in  fact  not  used  absolutely, 
but  limits  the  subject  fte.  All  feeling  for  the  original  construction, 
however,  has  disappeared.  The  participle  is  now  felt  as  having 
passive  meaning  in  accordance  with  its  usual  force,  and  thus  has 
become  detached  from  its  governing  word  and  has  been  brought 
into  relation  to  a  new  subject,  namely  the  accusative,  its  former 
object.  This  accusative  is  now  associated  with  the  adverbial 
accusative  which  is  so  commonly  employed  to  express  the  same 
ideas.  It  differs  from  the  adverbial  accusative  found  elsewhere  in 
that  it  can  never  be  used  alone  without  an  accompanying  word. 
The  accompanying  word  is  construed  as  the  logical  predicate  to 

p  p  2 


580  SYNTAX  265.  B.  b.  (i). 

the  logical  subject  which  is  contained  in  the  accusative.  Thus 
these  words  have  the  force  of  an  adverbial  clause.  The  relation 
of  this  clause  to  the  verb  of  the  principal  proposition  is  not  indi- 
cated by  a  conjunction,  but  by  the  accusative  form  of  its  subject. 
That  the  relation  of  this  construction  to  the  principal  verb  is  that 
of  an  adverb  to  its  governing  word  is  plainly  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  an  adverbial  genitive  or  prepositional  phrase  is  often  used 
instead  of  the  absolute  construction :  QBanfenben  ©dmtteg,  mit  kronen 
in  ben  Qlugen,  erfcfyemt  ber  nlte  SMann  auf  ber  ©cfytrefte  (Raabe).  So  mit 
bent  ftefleifen  auf  bem  dtiicfen  unb  ein  £aar  ®rofd)en  in  ber  Safcfye  glaubte  man 
«§err  ber  2Mt  $u  fein  (Baumbach's  Der  Schwiegcrsohn,  VIII).  In 
these  prepositional  clauses  the  predicate  sometimes  assumes  the 
form  of  an  attributive  participle  instead  of  a  predicate  participle : 
£Rad)  getaner  2lrbett  ift  gut  ruf)en.  The  attributive  form  is  quite 
common  in  a  few  expressions :  nad)  gefdjloffenem  ftrieben,  nadj  fceenfcetem 
^riege,  nad?  aufgefyobener  £afel,  M  einbrecfyenber  9iac^)t,  tei  brofyenbem  Otegen, 
&c.  The  attributive  form  is  the  rule  in  the  adverbial  genitive : 
imserttcfyteter  €>ad)e  without  having  attained  one's  end,  without  accom- 
plishing anything,  ftefjenten  8rujje8  immediately,  trdneuben  5UtgeS  or  nttt 
trd'uenben  -.Hugen,  £c. 

The  absolute  accusative  construction  was  little  used  in  earlier 
periods,  but  it  has  become  very  common.  It  is  growing  at  the 
expense  of  the  older  prepositional  construction,  which,  however,  is 
still  quite  frequently  employed.  Compare  :  Mit  wdngon  tho  bifiltcn 
(cjefcftlagen)  bigdn  cr  dntwurten  (Otfrid's  Evangelienbuch,  IV,  XIX,  17) 
with  5)ie§  fcoraugflefdjicft,  fai;re  id?  in  meiner  ©r$al)lung  fort  (F.  Lewald's 
Lebensg.,  Ill,  II,  195).  We  have  both  of  these  constructions  in 
English  :  He  went  off  gun  or  with  gun  in  hand.  In  English,  how- 
ever, the  older  absolute  ace.  has  been  replaced  by  the  nom. 

The  nom.  absolute  sometimes  replaces  the  ace.  absolute ;  see  (2), 
2nd  paragraph. 

(2)  Absolute  Nominative.  The  absolute  nominative  is  not  infre- 
quent. It  does  not  seem  to  be  as  closely  related  to  the  principal 
proposition  as  the  accusative  absolute.  It  limits  the  main  verb  by 
adding  the  time  or  some  circumstance  of  the  action,  but  it  has 
the  force  of  an  additional  contracted  proposition  of  which 
the  verb  is  fein  understood  rather  than  that  of  a  subordinate 
clause.  It  is  most  common  in  descriptive  style  and  usually 
adds  some  additional  detail  to  render  more  complete  the  pic- 
ture :  (Snblid;  fo  fommt  ber  ®raf  I;ergefabren;  ber  $Bagen  fcfyrcer  bereft, 
ttoraug  ein  9tteiter  (Schiller).  3d)  gel)  in§  £orf  ^tnauS,  aflein  unb  nirf)t 
einmal  metn  4?unb  bei  mir  (Auerbach).  3Kein  Sreunb !  Qlm  Sifcfye  ft£en  unr 
flufammen,  nid)t6  gwtfc^en  unS  alS  reiner,  golbner  2Bein  (Freytag).  2)ie 
Ibeiben  4?erren  tt>aren  jugefprungen  unb  ^ielten  ben  jungen  iDJann  am  3(rm, 
jeber  t>on  i^nen  auf  einer  <Sette  (Raabe). 

We  sometimes  find  it  in  case  of  a  close  relation  with  the  pre- 
ceding proposition,  where  the  ace.  is  more  common :  5)nfur  fonntc 
feiner,  unfer  (usually  ace.)  <§err  ©ott  abgered^net  (Raabe's  Odfeld,  chap.ai). 

The  absolute  nominative  is  also  used  in  subject  clauses  in 
connection  with  an  appositive  participle  or  adjective  which  serves 


265.  c.  b.  INDEPENDENT  ELEMENTS  581 

as  a  logical  predicate.  Such  a  clause,  even  though  it  may  have 
a  plural  subject  or  several  subjects,  directs  the  attention  only  to 
a  single  act,  a  single  scene  or  picture,  or  a  condition  of  things,  so 
that  the  verb  of  the  main  proposition  is  invariably  in  the  singular : 
2)a§  <8d;nu£ftud;  fcorgetjalten  fyalf  nid;t3  (J.  H.  Voss)  the  placing  of  the,  &c. 
«§elm  unb  ftafyne  burd;  3Mlbfrf;ni|jer  unb  23ergulber  fcefyaglid;  iioer  bie  @tra§en 
getragen,  tyatte  grofiieS  9luffetjen  crregt  (Goethe)  The  carrying  of . . .  created 
a  great  stir.  9Kartf)e  unb  SKargarete  freubtg  unb  fcerwunbert  ben  @d;ntucf 
betrad;tenb,  unb  9J?epf)tfto^eIe8,  ber,  ttefe  Oteoerenjen  jie^enb,  ju  t^nen  Ijeretn* 
tritt,  witrbe,  gefyortg  au^gefitfjrt,  gewifj  em  fetyr  nieblid;e3  SBtlb  gefcen  (id.). 
5)er  Srctefyalt  eitrer  «§erjen,  erfl  neultcfy  etngertc^tet  unb  gefugt,  mu§  fanft 
fcewaljrt,  gepflegt,  gefiiitet  werben  (Shakespeare)  The  peace  established 
between  you  must,  &c.  £>iefe  fed;3  $unfte  erfiiflt  irar  ntd;t3  0eringereg  al3 
ber  <3teg  beg  Jlonftitiitionaltgmu^  itber  bie  fcnigltcfye  $rdrogati»e  (Brachvoget) 
The  carrying  out  of  these  six  points  meant  nothing  less  than,  &c. 
(Sintge  (£cl)itrfen  iceniger  im  £anbe  Jritrbe  ber  5BeIt  tuc^tS  fcfyaben. 

c.  Uninflected  participles  are  often  used  absolutely,  referring  to 
persons  or  things  not  mentioned  at  all  in  the  principal  proposition, 
but  implied  in  the  context :  3n  bie  (Stabt  guritrfgefefyrt,  bcenbigte  ein  2?att 
baS  &eft  Having  returned  to  the  city,  they  closed  up  the  festival  with 
a  ball.     Here  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is  93att,  which  would 
regularly  be  the  subject  of  the  participle,  but  the  context  implies 
that  it  was  the  people,   not  the  ball,  that  returned  to  the  city. 
This  construction  is  generally  condemned  by  grammarians.     In 
spite  of  their  frequent  protests   it   is   sometimes   used   by  good 
authors  :  Sufltg  basonfabrenb,  nnirben  bie  ©tnbrucfe  beg  QifcenbS  nod;  einmat 
auSgetaufd)t  (Kiel's  N.  Nov.,  154). 

d.  The  infinitive  with  or  without  ju  is  often  used  absolutely; 
see  185.  A.  I.  5,  II.  z.  c.     Also  the  infinitive  with  urn  jit  is  used 
absolutely :   9Bie  sriele  interejjante  ©ntbecf ungen  tyafcen  in  ber  neueften  3«it 
atlein  (Sweet  unb  3efperfen  gemacfyt,  urn  nur  jwet  SRamen  ju  nennen  (W.  Franz 
in  Englische  Studien,  32.  Band,  p.  232). 

C.  Interjections  are  often  inserted  in  a  proposition  without 
having  any  grammatical  connection  with  it,  and  exclamations  often 
stand  alone,  filling  no  grammatical  office.  Such  utterances  assume 
the  following  forms : 

a.  They  are  uninflected  words,  or  have  the  form  of  a  sentence  or 
a  phrase  :  «£>itfcfy !  bin  id;  wteber  fyter  I'll  be  back  in  a  minute.     ,,©r  foil 
etnunbfunfjig  3al)re  alt  fein!"  ,,S6itte  (for  id?  btttc)  fefyr,  erfl  funfunboitrjig" 
He  is  said  to  be  fifty-one  years  old.     I  beg  your  pardon  though,  he 
is  only  forty-five.     (Sdjroamm  baritfrer !  Let's  forget  it.     See  also  241. 

b.  Exclamations  may  be  nouns,   the  person   or  thing  which 
causes  the  feeling  being  (i)  very  often  in  the  nom. :  O  id;  Ungefyeuer 
yon  cinem  Xoren  O  what  a  monstrous  fool  I  am !    D  metn  t>erlorne8 
©liid5!    (2)  In  the  gen.  of  cause:  Qld;,  ber  ttielen,  ttelen  (5flat6d;ter,  bie, 
erwad)cnb,  innewerben,  baft  ifyr  ^arabteS  nid;t8  war  al§  ein  furjer  fd;6ner 
3;ra»m!  (Spielhagen's  Frcigeboren,  p.  n).     D,  beg  ©litrfs!     D,  ber 
SBonnc!   (id.,  Was  will  das  werden,  IX,  chap.  xiii).     D,  ber  fonnigen 
Sage,  nut  fcincr  SSoIfe,  webcr  ant  >§tmntel  nod;  in  i^rem  ©emiit  (Roden- 
berg's  K/ostermann's  Grundstuck,  II).     O  ber  <£d;lemmerei  ant  frii^en 


582  SYNTAX  265.  c.b. 

SKorgeu !  (H.  Hoffmann's  Rittmeister,  II,  p.  40).  This  construc- 
tion was  very  common  earlier  in  the  period  and  even  still  frequent 
in  the  classics,  and,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  sentences  quoted 
above,  not  yet  entirely  extinct.  It  is  usually  replaced  to-day  by 
the  nom.,  as  in  (i),  or  the  prepositional  constructions  in  (5)  below. 
The  genitive  is  much  more  common  than  the  nominative  in  ex- 
clamations as  a  word  to  strengthen  the  force  of  leiber  alas :  5re ilid? 
ftarb  er  leibetbeffen  (Storm  in  Westm.,  259,  lob).  More  frequently 
with  ©otteg :  £eiber  ©otteg  t)aben  nnr  fetne  2Barmmg  serfcfymaljt  (M.  Heyne's 
Worterbuch  under  leiber).  23iel  ift  nid?t  gercorben,  leiber  ©ott'g  (Haupt- 
mann's  Michael  Kramer,  2).  (3)  Sometimes  in  the  dat. :  DJj  mir ! 
(Schiller)  Woe  is  me !  D  ben  mfflid?en  2ftenfd?en !  (Goethe)  O,  the 
excellent  people  !  $Pfui  allem  £ob !  j  (Si,  id?  ttrifl  teben,  id? !  (Grillparzer's 
Ein  treuer  Diener,  4).  $fui  bir>  or  more  commonly  $fut  itber  bid? 
Shame  on  you  !  We  sometimes  find  the  ace.  after  pfui :  $JJfui  bid) ! 
(Lienhard's  Eulenspiegels  Heimkehr,  i).  The  dative  of  @eele  is  quite 
common  in  the  expression  nteiner  <5eele,  or  nietner  <3eeP  (Fulda's  Die 
Zwillingsschwester,  3,  n)  upon  my  soul!  This  is  short  for  feet  meiner 
<£eele !  The  preposition  is  also  found  :  bet  metner  armen  @eele  (Les- 
sing's  Minna,  3,  7).  The  dative,  too,  is  common  after  n;e^(e)  to  denote 
the  person  affected  :  rcefje  mir  !  woe  is  me  !,  iretye  mir  5Irmem !,  or  rcetye 
itber  mtc^  Qlrmen  !,  or  o  tte^) !  id?  firmer !  The  dative  is  also  often  used  to 
denote  the  person  threatened  :  2Betye  tt)m,  rcenn  er  jit  fommen  iragt !  In 
early  N.H.G.  the  genitive  was  used  to  denote  the  cause  of  the  feeling : 
O  rre§  beg  tageg  |  3)enn  ber  3^ai]  be§  ^©JR3fi9t  ifl  na^e  |  tmb  fom^t  reie  etti 
SerberBen  ttont  Qlttmedjttcjen  (Joel  i.  15).  The  dative  is  also  common 
after  <§etl  and  tro^t :  <§etl  bent  ^onig  !  Long  live  the  King  !  God  save 
the  King !  9Bo^l  t^m,  baf  er  bag  nod?  erlebt  fyat !  How  fortunate  for 
him  that  he  has  lived  to  see  that  I  (4)  Only  rarely  in  the  ace. : 
D  mid?  23er$etJKd?en  (Lessing)  Plague  on  my  forgetfulness,  lit.  on 
me  forgetful  one.  (5)  Very  often  in  the  dat.  after  the  prep,  mit  or 
the  ace.  after  itber :  2tttt  bir  feigem  ^ert !  (Goethe's  Gotz,  5,  5)  O,  you 
cowardly  fellow  !  -Kit  (Surem  ©olbe !  (Schiller's  Tell,  i,  3)  Go  away 
with  your  money !  -Kit  biefent  SKenfdjen !  Plague  on  this  fellow ! 
Johannes  :  Qlber  bu  trirfl  bod?  nod?  'n  9tefi  ^ietdt  fitr  'ne  Seter  anfbrtngen, 
bie  nod?  »or  .  .  .  Braun :  5)u  mit  betner  $ietdt  (Hauptmann's  Einsame 
Menschen,  i).  D  iiber  fie !  D !  D,  f!e  |!nb  nid?t  gefommcn. 

CLASSES  OF  SENTENCES. 

266.  Sentences  are  divided  according  to  their  structure  into 
three  classes — simple,  compound,  and  complex.    A  simple  sentence 
contains  but  one  independent  proposition.     A  compound  sentence 
contains  two  or  more  independent  propositions.    A  complex  sen- 
tence contains  one  independent  proposition  and  one  or  more  subor- 
dinate clauses.    As  the  simple  sentence  has  already  been  discussed, 
there  remain  only  the  compound  and  complex  sentences  to  be  treated. 

The  Compound  Sentence. 

267.  The  compound  sentence  consists  of  different  independent 
propositions  or  members.     These  members  may  be  two  or  more 


268.  i.  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE  583 

simple  sentences,  or  one  member  may  be  a  simple  sentence  and 
the  others  complex  sentences,  or  there  may  be  any  combination 
of  simple  and  complex  sentences.  These  members  are  usually 
connected  in  the  following  ways  : 

1.  The  members   are  connected   by  co-ordinate   conjunctions. 
This  manner  of  joining  sentences  is  treated  at  considerable  length 
under  the  head  of  Conjunctions,  articles  233-230.     It  should  be 
noticed  in  these  articles  that  different  conjunctions  have  different 
influence  over  the  word-order  in  the  members. 

a.  When  several  members  have  in  common  an  element  which  has  the 
same  construction  in  each  member  this  element  need  only  be  expressed  once  : 
JDie  (Stntracfyt  baut,  bte  Siwetradjt  jerftcrt  bag  £au<3.  The  most  important  case 
of  such  contraction  is  when  several  subjects  have  one  verb  in  common.  The 
question  of  the  number  and  person  of  the  verb  in  such  cases  is  treated  in 
articles  253.  1.2  and  II. 

Note.  Sometimes  a  pronoun,  such  as  bag,  biefeg,  ipag,  or  a  noun  without  an  article, 
need  only  be  expressed  once,  even  if  it  has  a  different  construction  in  the  two 
members,  providing,  however,  that  the  pronoun  or  noun  have  the  same  form  for  the 
different  cases  :  9htt  bag  (eine)  Jjielt  cr  tnit  fetnem  ganjen  ^etjen  fejt,  unb  fonnte 
tf)tn  me  auggcrebet  iwben.  SSag  fyetfjt  unb  ju  n>eld)em  Snbe  jtubiett  man  Uniserfat; 
Qefcijtdjte  ?  (title  of  one  of  Schiller's  productions).  See  also  271.  II.  3.  a  ;  272.  C.  c. 

2.  The  connection  between  the  members  may  be  made  by  means 
cf  demonstrative  pronouns,  or  adverbs,  which  point  to  a  preceding 
sentence,  and  thus   bind  the  thought  of  the  several  propositions 
together  :  Q(n3  93aterlanb,  ang  teure,  fd)Iic{?  bid;  an  ;   ba3  fjalte  fe|l  nut 
bcinem  (janjcn  ^erjen  ;  f)ier  finb  bte  ftarfen  QBur^eln  beiner  Jtraft. 

3.  One  member  may  have  an  adverb  or  conjunction  which  refers 
to  a  corresponding  element  in  the  other,  and  the  several  members 
may  thus  be  bound  firmly  together  :  (Srfi  benfe,  batm  rebe  !    IBalb  (now) 
rceint  er,  fcalb  (now)  lacfyt  er. 

4.  Sometimes  there  is  no  formal  link  binding  the  members  to- 
gether, the  logical  connection,  however,  forms  a  sufficient  tie  :  .fttnber 
jfnb  ttie  bte  2Mumen,  fte  fonnen  nicfyt  ju  unS  fcerauf,  ivir  tmtffcn  un8  jit  ifjnen 
nieberfieugen,  ivenn  nnr  fte  erfennen  tvoltcn  (Wildenbruch's  Dcr  Letzte). 

Upon  close  investigation  it  will  become  clear  that  such  appa- 
rently independent  propositions  are  not  always  absolutely  indepen- 
dent. One  of  the  propositions  often  stands  logically  in  some 
adverbial  relation  to  the  other,  such  as  that  of  place,  time,  manner, 
degree,  cause,  condition,  concession,  means  :  (Cause)  £u  nuijjt  gleid) 
gel;cn  ;  e3  ifl  [vat.  (Condition)  3?alb,  e3  fcnne  nur  jebcr  ben  etcjenen,  gonne 
bem  anbern  |  feineu  Ported,  fo  ifl  eungcr  5'ttebe  gentad?t  (Goethe's  Vier 
Jahreszeiten,  74).  (Concession)  5)cr  3?erg  fei  anc^  fo  ^oc^,  or  Set  ber 
jBerg  aud;  fo  tjocfy,  or  3fl  ber  SScrg  and;  fo  fyofy  id;  erfieige  U)n. 


The  Complex  Sentence. 
Subordinate  Clauses. 

268.  i.  A  complex  sentence  consists  of  an  independent  proposition 
and  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses.  These  subordinate  clauses 
are  simply  essential  or  subordinate  elements  of  the  independent 


684  SYNTAX  268.  i. 

proposition  that  have  been  expanded  into  the  full  form  of  a  clause. 
They  thus  stand  in  definite  grammatical  relation  to  the  principal 
sentence  and  can  according  to  their  grammatical  office  be  divided 
into  :  subject,  predicate,  adjective,  object,  adverbial  clauses. 

a.  These  clauses  might  be  reduced  to  three  if  we  divide  them  according 
to  the  part  of  speech  they  represent :  (i)  substantive  clauses  which  represent 
a  substantive,  including  subject,  predicate,  object  clauses,  and  such  adjective 
(271. 1)  clauses  as  represent  a  noun  in  the  attributive  gen.,  or  a  prep,  phrase  ; 
(2)  adjective  clauses  ;  (3)  adverbial  clauses.  The  former  classification,  how- 
ever, is  for  practical  reasons  usually  employed  in  the  following  articles,  while 
for  the  same  reasons  the  latter  classification  is  also  at  times  used. 

2.  These  subordinate  clauses  differ  in  form  from  the  principal 
proposition  in  that  they  often  have  the  transposed  word-order  and 
often  have  also  different  moods  and  tenses  from  those  of  the  principal 
sentence,  and  hence  will  be  treated  more  or  less  at  length  according 
to  the  difficulties  they  present.  The  discussion  of  the  subjunctive 
which  is  given  in  articles  167-171  should  be  carefully  studied  before 
the  subject  of  these  subordinate  clauses  be  taken  up,  as  the  sub- 
junctive plays  here  quite  a  role.  Subordinate  conjunctions  are 
given  in  238. 

a.  Just  as  the  pronoun  eg  may  anticipate  the  logical  subject,  so  may  also 
some  pronoun  or  adverb  anticipate  a  subordinate  clause,  or  the  pronoun  or 
adverb  may  follow  the  subordinate  clause,  summing  up  in  a  word  its  con- 
tents :  Seffm  ertnnere  id)  mid)  md)t,  bafj  @te  mir  bag  gefagt  fyaben.  Saju  (for 
that  purpose)  fyafi  bu  ntd)t  bag  ©clb,  ba§  bu  eg  fo  »erfcfyu>enbefi.  2Ber  einmat 
liigt,  bem  glaubt  man  md;t,  unb  tt>emt  et  aud)  bte  SSafyrfydt  fpridjt. 

Subject  Clause. 

269.  i.  The  subject  clause  is  the  expansion  of  a  noun  used 
as  the  subject  of  the  sentence:  2Ber  letcbt  glaufct  (=£>er Setcfytglaulnge) 
ictrb  letcfyt  betrogen. 

The  subject  clause  is  introduced  by  the  conjunctions  baf?  that, 
06  whether,  reenn  if,  when,  rcetl  because,  by  the  relatives  roer,  icag  (153. 
i.  (2) ),  ber,  bie,  bag,  rote,  iporiifcer,  irorauf,  &c.,  and  in  indirect  questions 
by  some  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb :  S)af?  ber  2Konb  auf  bie 
SBitterung  dtnflufji  itfct,  ifl  eine  tterbrettete  Qlnftcfyt.  Db  jte  fommen  irerben, 
bafytu  (remains  to  be  seen).  @S  ifl  erfreulid),  roenn  man  rcofyler^ogene 
flefyt  (=  £>er  Qlnfcltcf  rco^Ierjogener  Jltnber  ifl  erfreultcfy).  5)ie  £tcfyten= 
ftetn  tut  fcornefym  unb  ernfl ;  bag  ntacfyt  a6er,  roctl  ber  geflrenge  «§err  93ater  ba 
ifl  (Riehl).  QBer  <Sc^Iij[fer  in  bie  £uft  er6aut,  reirb  BtHtg  alg  etn  Sor  »erlac^t. 
^ein  Sarm,  feine  (Srfcfyutterung  rear  eg,  n?ag  (153.  i.  (2))  mid;  a,eroecft  l;atte, 
fonbern  cin  Ciuattn  unertraglicf)  fcerpefleter  iJuft  (Suttner's  Die  Waffcn 
nieder!,  iv).  (Sine  Sufi  tft'g,  nne  er  atteg  roecft  unb  flarft  unb  neufcelebt  unt 
ftc^  fcerunt.  2Boru6er  ber  eine  ftcf^  argert,  bag  freut  ben  anberen.  SSorin  er 
ft^  ang^etc^ne,  ifl  fcfyrcer  gu  (agen.  @g  ifl  nicbt  Mannt,  rcofier  biefe  Jlranf^ett 
gu  un§  gefommen. 

a.  There  often  stands  in  the  principal  proposition  when  it  is  preceded  by 
the  subject  clause  a  demonstrative,  which  points  to  the  preceding  subordinate 
clause,  and  in  a  word  sums  up  its  contents,  thus  binding  the  two  propositions 
more  firmly  together:  S&cruber  ber  etne  ftd?  argert,  bag  freut  ben  anbern.^  Sikn  bet 


269.  2.  c.  SUBJECT  CLAUSE  685 

5Jieib  ju  ftuqen  benft,  bet  tottb  etft  »on  tfjm  etfyoben.  This  demon,  is  usually 
necessary  if  its  correlative  in  the  subordinate  clause  is  an  adverb  or  a 
pronoun  in  a  different  case,  as  in  the  two  sentences  just  given. 

b.  Often  the  sentence  is  introduced  by  the  anticipative  subject  eg,  bog,  or 
eincg,  which  points  to  a  following  subject  clause,  which  is  the  real  subject  of 
the  sentence :   (§3  ifi  jtoetfttydft,  cb  cr  ncd)  lebt.     @g  fann  nidjt  fefylen,  bajj  et  barau 
gcbadjt  He  must  have  thought  of  it.     Unb  bag  ifl  bag  <£djtecfUdj)fle,  bafj  etnem  bic 
2Bc(t  fo  ju  tfl  (Fontane's  Ejfi,  XXXII).    2flag  au$  (Snhticfetung  wnb  Sluggang  be<3 
Jltiegeg  in  Dflajtcn  nod)  ganoid)  unabfefybat  fein  —  eincg  tft  fyeute  fdjon  jtdjer:  Set 
erfte  J?anonenfd)ufj  in  Djkjun  Ijat  in  bet  gan$en  2Belt ...  bag  fiatffte  (Sd)o  erroerft 
(7W?^  Ziircher  Zeitung,  22.  P'eb.  1904).    If  the  subject  clause  here  is  a  relative 
clause  the  main  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  instead  of  the  subject.     See 
251. 1  I.E.  a.  aa. 

c.  The  connective  bap  is  often  omitted  in  subject  clauses  and  the  normal  or 
the  inverted  word-order  employed,  especially  when  eg  is  used  in  the  main  pro- 
position as  an  anticipative  subject :  (f  3  ijl  befiet,  bn  geljft,  or  bap  bu  gcfjft.    £)enn 
ifl  etf  ju  leugncn?     £)er  Ubevmnt  ber  fremben  fieljrcr  f)at  ftd)  tagtid)  crljcfyt  (Goethe's 
Egmont,  i).     Sometimes  when  the  anticipative  e<5  is  omitted  in  accordance 
with  older  usage :  3m  ©egenteif,  tji  ntir  »iel  Ueber,  @ie  bleibcn  (Wildenbruch's 
Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  3,  6). 

The  bap  should  not,  however,  be  omitted  if  it  is  needed  to  make  the  thought 
clear,  i.e.  to  indicate  the  oneness  of  the  words  in  the  subject  clause  and 
maintain  the  integrity  of  the  group  as  a  distinct  grammatical  element  in 
contradistinction  to  other  elements  in  the  sentence :  (£<3  ill  cm  SJoutrteU,  bafj  in 
ber  aKgemetnen  SSerbmtung  bee  elementaren  Jtcnntnifie  bag  SUtertinn  Ijintcr  unferer  3cit 
itiefentltd)  jururfgeflanben  I^abe  (Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte,  III,  chap.  14). 
The  omission  of  bap  in  this  sentence  would  bring  a  prep,  phrase  next  to  the 
noun  93oruvteil,  which  at  the  first  glance  might  lead  us  to  seek  for  a  connection 
between  these  two  elements  instead  of  connecting  the  phrase  with  the  words 
that  follow,  where  it  properly  belongs.  The  bafj  here  points  out  the  oneness 
of  the  following  group  of  words.  The  remark  in  272.  C.  /  (toward  end) 
concerning  the  dropping  of  bajj  also  applies  here. 

•2.  Mood.  The  mood  of  the  subject  clause  is  : 

a.  Indicative  when  it  is  desired  to  represent  the  statement  as  a  fact:  (§8 
tft  ntcl)t  a(g  BjafyrfdjeinUdj,  bajj  ber  £orf  aug  abgcftorbencn  ^jlanjenteilen  entjhfyt. 

b.  The  mood  is  the  potential (168.  II.G.a;  169.2.G.«(l)),hortatory(168.1. 2. 
E.a),  or  optative  (168. 1.  2.  E.  b  ;  169.  i.  A)  subjunctive,  or  the  subjunctive 
of  indirect  discourse  (17O  and  171)  or  indirect  question,  if  it  is  desired  to 
represent  the  statement  as  questionable,  possible,  impossible,  contrary  to  fact, 
or  as  the  substance  of  the  wish,  thought,  utterance,  or  question  of  another, 
or  of  one's  self:  ($3  Idjjt  ftd)  ntd)t  bc^vetfeln,  bap  er  eg  tun  fcnnte  (potential  subj.) 
There  is  no  doubt  that  he  could  do  it.     (§g  gcjtcmt  bent  Statute,  bap  ct  aud)  basJ 
<Sd)»xrfic  unllig  tuc  (hortatory  subj. ;  hence  the  will  of  the  speaker).     S)ajj  bu 
an  unferer  greube   tctlncfymejl  (optative  subj.),  tfl  unfer  tnniger  3Bunfd).     SKir 
Irate  beffer,  id)  unite  (unreal  optative  ;  169.  i.  A)  nic  gcbcren  !     ($$  \\i  nod)  nngetoip, 
cb  btefe  9lad?ttd>t  fid;  bcjlatige  (subj.  of  indirect  question).     2Bet  ben  93rief  ab; 
gefanbt  fyabe,  ijl  nod)  ntd)t  ermittclt  ivotben. 

c.  Also  the  imperative  mood  is  found  :  ,,Jlef)re  nm  !"  fdjaflte  eg  t^m  entgegen. 
Also  imperatives  with  the  form  of  the  perfect  participle :  &nfd)  mitten  burdj* 
gegrijfen,  bag  ijl  bejTer  (Schiller).    3nng  gcfrcit  fyat  niemanb  gcrcut.     Srifd)  gctt>agt  iji 
i)alb  geironncn.     As  such  imperatives  are  used  here  as  a  grammatical  element 
in  a  sentence  and  not  as  an  independent  utterance,  the  original  thought  has 
become  dim  and  they  are  often  not  felt  as  imperatives.     Such  participles 
often  have  to-day  the  force  of  an  abstract  substantive  indicating  a  condition 
of  things  rather  than  that  of  an  imperative ;  see  111.  7.  h.  (2).  a.     Thus  by  its 
present  meaning  this  construction  approaches  closely  to  the  absolute  con- 
struction described  in  265.  B.  b.  (2),  3rd  paragraph.    There  is  often  no  formal 


586  SYNTAX  269.  2.  c. 

or  other  distinction  between  them :  Setter  auf ben  £erb  getna<$t  ifl  gut  fur  ©emitter. 
Here  %eun  may  be  the  object  of  the  imperative  gemacfyt,  or  it  may  be  construed 
as  the  absolute  nominative  according  to  265.  B.  b.  (2),  3rd  paragraph. 

3.  Abridged  Form.     Clauses  introduced  by  baft  can  be  abridged  by  sub- 
stituting the  infin.  construction,  or  a  simple  noun  for  the  clause  form  if  its 
subject  is  man,  or  is  identical  with  some  dependent  word  of  the  principal 
proposition :  £>ajj  man  »orftd?ttg  fet,  tfl  ratfam ;  or  SSorftdjttg  ju  fetn  tjl  ratfam ;  or 
5Borfid)t  tfl  ratfant.     ©id)  abfinben,  Sautter,  ifl  SKenfdienloiJ  (Hauptmann's  Michael 
Kramer,  I).    (£$  tfl  bte  $fu'd)t  treuer  llntertanen,  bajj  fie"  ba3  SSaterlanb  fd)ufcen ;  or 
£)a3  33aterlanb  ju  fdjiifcen,  tfl  treuer  llntertanen  $fttd)t. 

4.  Word-order.    As  can  be  seen  by  the  illustrative  sentences,  the  word- 
Order  is  usually  the  normal  or  the  inverted,  or,  in  case  there  is  a  connective, 
the  transposed.    The  question  order  is  also  found ;   3ft  eg  moglid) :   liebt  jie 
mid)  ?  (C.  F.  Meyer). 

5.  For  the  case  where  several  subject  clauses  have  the  same  relative  in 
common,  see  272.  C.  c. 

Predicate  Clause. 

270.  i.  The  predicate  clause  is  the  expansion  of  a  predicate 
noun  :  SBibenrartigfetten  ftnb  fiir  Die  (geele,  tcaSber  (Sturm  fit  r  bie  Sit  ft 
ifl  (=  gduterungSmittel). 

The  predicate  clause  is  introduced  by  the  relative  n?er,  rc>a§,  ber,  bie, 
bag  (never  tcetcfyer),  the  relative  adverbs  rcoju,  &c.,and  the  conjunctions 
trie  and  bafj.  SBir  flnb  felten,  tt>ag  njir  fetn  fottten.  3c^  tin  nidtt,  ber  icfy  jit 
fetn  fd)etne.  @eib,  n:ojtt  bie  ^errltc^e  0Iatur  eucfy  mac^te.  @r  iji,  »rie  er  ift 
QttteS  [tfl],  trie  @ie  gercitnfc^t  ^)aBen.  $Kein  etn^iger  £rofl  tfl,  bap  eS  ben 
anbern  aucfy  ni(^t  ieffer  ge^t.  @etn  erjleS  SBort  rear :  „  (£inb  ©te  mil  mir 
gufrieben?" 

2.  The  mood  is  usually  as  in  the  preceding  sentences  the  indicative,  but 
sometimes  the  subjunctive,  especially  the  potential  subjunctive  (168.  II.  F. 
b\  169.  2.  F.  £;  168.  II.  G.  a.  (i);  169.  2.  G.  a.  (i)),  is  found:  SSer  ber  3>td^ 
funft  €timme  ntt^t  sernitnmt,  tfl  etn  S3arbar,  er  fet,  toer  er  fet.     The  potential 
subjunctive  is  quite  common  in  indirect  discourse :  S)ie  Slntwort  tear  :  ba£  man, 
loenn  Sdfar  fogtei^  in  feine  freeing  jurficEfe^re,  ftcfy  an^eift^ig  mad)e,  bie  (Snrroaffnung 
Stalien^  .  .  .  fyerbetjufiifyrett  (Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichtc,  V,  chap.  x). 

3.  Predicate  clauses  cannot  usually  be  abridged  except  as  in  the  first 
sentence  in  I,  by  substituting  some  noun  for  the  clause. 

Adjective  Clause. 

271.  Adjective  clauses  fall  into  two  classes — attributive  substan- 
tive clauses  and  attributive  adjective  clauses  : 

I.  Attributive  substantive  clauses  are  the  expansion  of  a  noun  in 
the  attributive  gen.,  or  of  a  prep,  phrase:  5)te  ©eunjjljctt,  bap  rcir 
etrig  le&en  rcerben  (=  etneS  ercigen  Sefcene),  troftet  unS.  2>ie  <£>offniing, 
bap  nnr  unS  tcieberfe^en  reerben  (=  auf  9Bieberfe6en),  erletdjtert  bie 
Srennung.  In  clauses  of  result  introduced  by  baj?  the  grammatical 
relation  cannot  be  explained  as  that  of  a  gen.  or  a  prepositional 
construction,  and  hence  such  clauses  are  not  real  attribute  clauses. 
Originally  such  a  clause  stood  in  apposition  with  a  post-positive 
article  of  the  governing  noun.  Thus  Gr  tyat  bag  filter,  bap"  er  fiir  fid) 
felbfl  reben  fann  was  originally :  ©r  l)at  Qltter,  ba§ :  er  fann  fiir  ftd?  felBjl 
reben.  In  course  of  time  baS  (now  bap)  became  a  stereotyped  form, 


271.  II.  ADJECTIVE   CLAUSE  587 

so  that  it  can  now  be  used  even  if  the  governing  noun  is  masc.  or 
fern.,  and  also  when  an  indefinite  article,  demonstrative,  or  adverb 
is  used  :  @ie  fjaben  ja  tjier  einen  Ciualm,  baft  man  erfticfm  incite.  Such 
clauses  may  now  be  classed  as  adverbial  clauses  of  quality  or  degree. 
For  further  examples  see  276.  C  ;  277. 2. 

Attributive  substantive  clauses  are  usually  introduced  by  baft  (see 
238.  2.  d),  or  the  interrogative  pronouns  or  particles,  such  as  rca3, 
leer,  06,  ico,  rote,  roann,  &c. :  Die  Setyauptiing,  baft  bie  (5'rbe  ftd)  brefye,  fefcte 
©alilei  mancfyen  93erfolgungen  auS.  2Bem  fin  offener  €>tnn  fur  bie  <Sd)6n= 
fyeiten  ber  9tatuf  tterliefyen  ijl,  beffen  (268. 2.  a)  £eben  rctrb  reid?  an  &reuben 
fein.  3mmet  ftieber.  fca^rcifcfyen  rcaren  ifyre  ©ebanfen  afcgeirrt,  benn  fte  fyatte 
Qlngfr,  rca3  ba  fommen  mocfyte.  £>ie  Ungerctftfyett,  06  fein  <2ofyn  glitrfltcfy  au3 
bem  Jtrtege  fjeimrefjren  roerte,  lieft  iljm  feine  Oiutye.  ^onnen  <Sie  mtr 
ticfyt  geben,  TOO  er  ftc^  aitff)aU  ?  @r|l  im  Ungliicf  gelangt  man  gn  ber 
ttrie  farcer  etn  Sreunb  in  ber  3Rot  n;tegt.  2)ie  ^offnung,  bap  nrir  i^m  ^elfen 
merben,  fcerleifjt  i^m  SWut.  (Setn  33erjtc^t  barauf,  baft  er  jiterfl  rebe,  tyat  a£U 
gemetn  befrtebigt. 

«.  The  mood  is  usually  indicative,  but  the  subjunctive,  especially  that  of 
indirect  discourse  (see  sentence  above  beginning  Sic  SBefjauptuncj),  or  indirect 
question  (see  sentences  above  beginning  with  Smmer  and  Sic  llugennpfyett), 
often  occurs.  See  also  168.  II.  G.  b  ;  169.  2.  G.  b\  168.  I.  2.  B.  (i).  The 
subjunctive  is  also  often  found  in  clauses  which  are  the  object  of  a  preposition, 
as  in  the  last  sentence  of  the  examples  given  above.  Also  the  imperative 
mood  or  a  simple  infinitive  with  the  force  of  an  imperative  may  be  used : 
JTtcfcc  ^>.  ty.  fyat  nut  eincn  ©ebanfen :  jung  fein!  2JJitmad)m  wit  ber  3ua,mb! 
(Wildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  I,  5). 

b.  When  the  thought  or  feeling  of  some  one  is  reported  indirectly,  ba^  is 
often  dropped,  and  the  subordinate  clause  has  the  order  of  a  principal  pro- 
position :  3m  SUtertum  n?ar  bie  2lnftcfyt  be3  £fya(c(5,  bie  (Srbe  jet  eine  grcjje,  auf  bem 
aBaffct  fcfcnnmmcnbe  @cf/ei6e,  cine  roett  cerbrcttete. 

c.  Abridgment.    Clauses  introduced  by  bafi  may,  when  no  ambiguity  would 
arise,  be  replaced  by  the  infin.  construction :  3c£t  tjlberBcttyitnft  ba,  »on  btefcn 
spapteren  cffenttt(^en  ©ebrauci^  jit  madden  (  =  ba§  tnan  »on  btcfcu  ^aptcreii 
cffentlic^en  ©ebraucfj  mac^e).    A  predicate  nom.  remains  in  the  nom.  in  the 
contracted  clause :  @t  fyatte  ba3  icb,  etn  fcfycncr  2)?ann  ju  fein  (Freytag's  Ritt- 
meister,  chap.  vi). 

II.  The  attributive  adjective  clause  is  the  expansion  of  an  attri- 
butive adjective:  Der  SMenfcfy,  icelcfyer  ernfltid}  flrebt  (=2)er  ernfl* 
ltd;  firebenre  3Jfenfc^);  getangt  ju  ^o^en  S'ultn.  It  is  usually  introduced 
by  the  relatives  ber,  roelcfyer,  rcaS  (153.  i.  (i),  (3) ),  beSgletdjen,  or  berglet^en 
(161.  2),  or  by  a  relative  adverb,  such  as  fo  (153. 4),  nne  (153. 3.  B),  aI-3 
(153.  3.  C.a),  rco,  roortn,  n^orunter,  &c.,  which  are  sometimes  separated 
when  compound  (see  153.  2,  toward  end) :  £>ie  @tdtte,  bie  ein  gnter 
SDtonn  ktrat,  ifl  eingetrei^t.  2)Zan  rear  fe^r  unf^Iufftg  fiber  bie  Q(rt,  irie 
ber  Jtrteg  gefit^rt  roerben  fottte.  For  the  use  of  different  relatives  see 
articles  150-154,  where  this  subject,  so  difficult  for  foreigners,  is 
treated  at  considerable  length  and  many  illustrative  sentences  are 
given.  The  conjunction  baft  is  also  used  relatively:  @3  ftnb  brei 
(stunben,  baft  er  fort  ifl.  (S3  ftnb  jreolf  Safcre,  baft  id)  tyer  rcotyne.  (S3 
ftnb  brct  SHadjte,  baft  ict;  nid;t  gefd;lafen  fyabe.  For  use  of  baft  here 
see  also  153.  3.  C.  e. 


588  SYNTAX  271.  II.  i. 

1.  As  in  English,  the  relative  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  ante- 
cedent in  gender  and  number,  while  its  case  is  determined  by  the 
office  it  performs  in  the  clause. 

a.  Synesis  of  gender.     If  the  antecedent  is  a  common  neut.,  fern.,  or  masc. 
noun  representing  a  male  or  female  the  relative  is  usually  neut.,  fern.,  or 
masc.  according  to  grammatical  gender,  but  if  the  antecedent  is  the  diminu- 
tive of  a  prooer  name  the  relative  has,  as  a  rule,  natural  gender.     For  fuller 
explanation  see  263.  1. 1,  2, 3, 4,  5, 6. 

Synesis  of  number.     For  usage  here  see  263.  II.  2,  last  paragraph. 

b.  The  relatives  bag  and  iwelcfyeg  were  earlier  in  the  period  employed  like 
bag  (129.  2.  C.  (i) )  as  the  subject  of  the  clause,  remaining  unchanged  for  all 
genders  and  numbers  ;  see  151. 2.  b. 

c.  The  relative  is  in  the  pi.,  although  its  antecedent  is  in  the  sing.,  if  it 
refers  to  the  antecedent,  not  as  to  an  individual,  but  as  to  a  class  or  genus  : 
Sag  gcbraucfylicfyfte  ®en?anb  tft  cut  blauet  ©amtrocf,  »on  bencn  20  auf  einen  son  Sttcfy 
fcmmeu  The  most  common  garment  is  a  blue  satin  coat,  of  which  there  are  20 
to  one  of  cloth. 

d.  In  both  English  and  German  the  relative  often  agrees  incorrectly  with 
some  word  closely  connected  with  the  antecedent  instead  of  agreeing  with 
the  antecedent  itself,  as  this  word  lies  nearer  the  thought  and  feeling  of  the 
speaker  or  writer  than  the  grammatical  antecedent :   7'hat  is  one  of  the  most 
•valuable  books  that  has  appeared  in  any  langitage.     £)ag  ©letdjmg  tft  etneg  »on 
bcncn,  nxlcfyeg  ber  Sifter  ntefyr  a(g  citraat  braitdjt  (Lessing).    (Sine  ber  penibelften 
Slitfgaben,  bte  meiner  Satigfett  attferlegt  toerben  fonnte  (Goethe).    <£o  »tei  ftefyt  feft, 
bafi  unfere  fyetmifcfyen  JtavtoffelHofje  etneg  ber  luunberbarften  ©eridjte  vcrfteden,  bag  bie 
SBelt  fennt  (H.  Seidel's  Thiiringische  Kartoffelklofse}.    German  grammarians 
usually  condemn  this  usage. 

e.  A  peculiar  kind  of  attraction  called  trajection  often  takes  place  in 
relative  clauses.     This  consists  in  conforming  the  relative  pronoun  or  adverb 
to  the  construction  required  in  the  following  dependent  clause  instead  of  to 
that  required  in  its  own  clause  :    (8r  beftfct  bag  83ucfy,  aug  iDeldjem  bit  metnft, 
bajj  er  viet  lernen  fann  instead  of  Crr  beft|t  bag  Sud),  son  n?e(d?em  bu  tnetnft,  ba§ 
et  baraug  inet  terncn  fann.    This  construction  is  very  common  with  Luther  and 
Lessing,  and  is  still  sometimes  used  especially  in  clauses  introduced  by  h?o 
or  nne  to  avoid  a  clumsy  circumlocution :    @r  gtng  in  etne  {Reftauratton,  n>o  et 
imifjte,  baf  er  fetnen  greunb  treffen  toerbe  instead  of:  (Sr  gtng  in  etne  (Hetlauration, 
son  ber  er  irttpte,  baf  er  fetnen  Stmnb  bort  treffen  ttjerbe.    JDenn  etn  Getfl  Ijat  ntd)t 
fletf^  »nb  betn  j  hue  jr  (t()r)  fe^et  bag  (bafs)  |  t^  ^abe  (Luke  xxiv.  39)  instead  of 
@in  ®eift  Jjat  ntc^t  gletf^  unb  93ein,  »on  benen  i^r  fef)t,  bap  id)  fie  fyabe. 

2.  If  the  relative  has  the  same  case  in  a  number  of  successive 
clauses  dependent  upon  the  same  word,  it  may  be  expressed  in  the 
first  clause  and  understood  in  the  others,  or  for  rhetorical  effect  it 
may  be  retained  in  all :  3d;  fanbte  tljm  einen  9Kann,  rcelcfyer  in  bie  <8ad?e 
eingeiretfyt  icar,  bie  ©egenb  genau  fannte,  unb  ftcfy  6et  enter  frttfjeren  ©elegen^ett 
jutterlafftg  gejeigt  fyatte.     If  the  relative  be  in  the  gen.  it  is  usually 
repeated  with  each  clause:  2lf>er  etnem  romantifcJjett  ^Colfe  rear  eine  Oieligton 
ongemeffen,  beren  ^rdd^ttger  $omp  bie  @inne  gefangen  nimutt,  beren  ge^eint* 
ni§»otte  Dtdtfel  ber  $tyantafte  einen  unenbltc^en  9Raum  eroffnen,  beren  fcornefymfte 
i*e^ren  ftd;  burc^  malertfc^e  ^ornien  in  bie  @ee(e  etnfdjmetcfyeln.     For  the 
rhetorical  repetition  of  the  relative  see  152. 2. 

3.  If  the  relative  in  adjective  clauses  has  a  different  case  in  a 
number  of  successive  clauses  dependent  upon  the  same  word,  it  is 
now  usually  repeated  each  time  with  its  proper  case  form,  though 
many  exceptions  can  be  found  in  a  careless  style  and  in  earlier 


271.  II. 4.  ADJECTIVE   CLAUSE  589 

I 

periods  where  the  influence  of  the  grammarian  was  not  so  strong 
as  to-day :  2)a§  <gd?Iofj  rear  fcfyon  mtt  mefyreren  llncjlitcf  lichen  Megt,  benen 
man  nid;t  fcdfen,  bte  man  nicfyt  erquicfen  fonnte.  Either  ber  or  icelcfyer  can 
here  be  used,  but  they  do  not  usually  alternate  with  each  other. 
See  152.  2. 

a.  Violations  of  this  rule  are  not  infrequent  even  in  the  best  authors  when 
the  relative  has  the  same  form  for  different  cases :  !Dtefe$  Slnerbtcten,  bag  id) 
fur  fcin  leereg  Jtompliment  Ijaltcn  burfte  unb  fur  mid)  fjo^ft  retjenb  tear  (Goethe). 
To-day  when  the  grammatical  conscience  is  so  aroused  such  violations  are 
becoming  less  frequent  in  choice  language,  but  in  one  case,  namely,  to 
emphasize  the  idea  of  oneness  and  identity,  the  relative  tt>ag  is  used  but  once 
even  by  good  writers :  3d)  ntufj  511  bent  ttbergcfyen,  »ag  fytertmt  $ufammcnf)dna,t 
unb  id)  btr  soqutcgen  tyabe  (G.  Keller).     The  repetition  of  wag  emphasizes  the 
idea  of  separation. 

b.  Very  frequently  we  find  in  the  best  authors  and  in  the  language  of  the 
common  people  a  personal,  possessive,  or  demonstrative  pronoun,  or  demon- 
strative adverb  in  the  second  of  two  relative  clauses  instead  of  the  gram- 
matically correct  relative  pronoun  or  adverb  :  Goethe  :  !S>te  (Slemente  jinb  alg 
folejTale  ©egner  flu  betradjten,  mtt  benen  toir  ctmg  ju  fdntpfen  fyaben  unb  fie  nur 
burd)  bie  fyod)fle  Jtraft   beg  ©cifteg   bett»dltta,en  (instead  of  bte  nnr  nut 
burd)  bte  fyedjfle  Jfaoft  beg  ©etfieg  bewdlttgen).     Schiller  :  <£prfidje,  bie  ber  ©anberg* 
ntann  tterwetlenb  ttefl  unb  ifyren  ©inn  beumnbert  (instead  of  beren  ©inn  er 
bcnwnbert).     Mommsen :    eine  fdjcmbUdje  ©enjalttat,  »or  bcr  jebcrmann  fdjauerte 
unb  fid)  babet  ber  furdjtbaren  Jg>errfd)aft  beg  @d>recfen<J  ertnnert.    Sir 
befteflen  bet  unfercm  SDJetftet  ©tlberfd)mtcb  einen  neuen  Sed)er,  an  bem  er  fcinen  ©etuinn 
jilt  nc{)men  »erfprid)t,  fonbern  t^n  fo  ivert»o(l  a  13  ntcglid)  tiefert  (Keller's  Zuricher 
Novellen,  II.  28).     The  attitude  of  the  literary  language  is  at  present  not 
as  favorable  to  this  construction  as  formerly. 

c.  Often  we  find  a  relative  in  one  clause,  but  do  not  discover  in  the 
following  clause,  which  is  coordinate  with  it,  a  relative  expressed  or  under- 
stood :  Marianne  fd}aute  nut  eutcm  traurtgcn  Slid  nad)  Ujm  auf,  ten  SBtlfyelm  nid?t 
bemerfte,  unb  in  fetner  Gqcifylitna,  fortfu^r  (Goethe).    2)arauf  jpagte  Slntcn  ben  Jpaisj 
beg  (Erfwaqm  i^u  firetdicln,  tuag  ber  $cm)  nu^lirollcnb  aufnaljin  unb  fetnerfctts  fcem 
gremblincj  bte  9?ccftafd)m  berod)  (Freytag).     In  such  sentences  which  cannot  be 
translated  literally  the  second  clause  has  the  word-order  of  a  subordinate 
clause  and  a  subject  in  common  with  .the  first  clause,  but  there  is  no  relative 
pronoun  or  conjunction  that  connects  it  to  the  main  proposition,  and  it  is  in 
fact  logically  an  independent  statement.     This  construction,  common  alike 
in  the  classics  and  in  the  language  of  the  common  people,  but  at  present  not 
so  frequent  in  the  literary  language,  is  an  ungrammatical  but  convenient  way 
of  adding  to  a  preceding  clause  an  additional  proposition  containing  the 
same  subject,  without  formally  constructing  a  new  sentence  or  a  grammatical 
subordinate  clause. 

4.-  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  the  indicative,  but  also  the  subjunctive  is 
found,  especially  the  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse,  the  optative  subjunc- 
tive (for  examples  see  108.  I.  2.  D.  a  and  £),  the  potential  subjunctive  in  all 
its  uses,  especially,  however,  that  one  known  as  the  subjunctive  of  modest 
or  cautious  statement,  which  softens  the  broad,  sweeping  negative  statement 
of  the  principal  proposition :  Sie  Of  evucritmj  ber  4kmnia,tcn  Staaten  befd?tt?erte 
fid)  fiber  bte  i'anbung  femclcr  Slrmcn,  tt»old>e  mandje  europdtfdje  OJegterung  fortfdjtrfe 
(subj.  of  indirect  discourse).  @tc  grfibelte  fiber  bte  il'orte,  bte  er  ju  tljr  fpredjen 
fonnte  (potential  subj.),  unb  fiber  ifyre  Slntircrten.  9lod)  me  ijl  eine  Unftafyrfyett 
gefprod)en  worben.  bie  ntd)t  fritter  cber  fpater  nad?tetlta,e  Sola,?n  gefyabt  fyatte  (subj. 
of  cautious  statement).  For  other  illustrative  examples  of  the  potential  sub- 
junctive see  168.  II.  C,  D,  F.  a;  169.  2.  C,  D,  F.a.  In  elevated  diction  the 
sanguine  subjunctive  of  purpose  (see  168.  1. 2.  B.  (3))  is  sometimes  found : 


590  SYNTAX  271.  II.  4. 

3ljr  yr>unfd?t  eud?  etnen  tugenbljaften  @of»n,  bet  cures  .£>aupte3  fjeil'ge  Sccfcn  efjre 
(Schiller).    The  unreal  subjunctive  of  purpose  is  quite  common  ;  see  169.  I. 

C.(3). 

5.  For  the  person  of  the  verb  in  relative  clauses,  see  151.  3  B.  a,  b,  c. 

6.  Abridgment.      A  relative  clause  can  only  be  abridged  when  the  relative 
is  the  subject  of  the  clause.     Its  contracted  form  is  that  of  an  appositive 
noun,  adj.,  or  part.  :  !Dte  {Renter,  [meld?e]  em  tat>fere<3  uub  ntacf?ttgc3  23olf  [waren], 
Ijaben  etnft  bte  £ertfdtaft  fiber  ben  Jjalben  (SrbfretS  befeffen.    @in  2JJorgen,  [ber]  rot 
unb  golben  [war],  fyat  uns  ben  2#at  gebrad?t.    ®ott  lofynt  ©ute3,  [bag]  fyter  getan 
[nnrb],  aud?  fyter  nod).     Sine  ©adje,  [bte]  ju  oft  gefagt  [tmrb],  tttt  ben  Dfjren  welj. 

7.  Spurious  Adjective  Clauses.     Propositions  which  are  in  form  dependent 
adjective  clauses,  being  introduced  by  wag  (referring  to  the  thought  as  a 
whole),  a  relative  pronoun  (ber  or  wefdjer),  or  a  relative  adverb  (wofur,  &c.),  are 
often  in  fact  independent  propositions,  as  they  do  not  limit  the  antecedent, 
but  add  an  independent  thought,  and  may  even  contain  a  coordinate  con- 
junction :    @te  »erfprad?en,  tfym  in  alien  9leten  bet$ui}ef)ett,  wag  fte  aud)  getreultd? 
augfiifyrten.     spJit  bem  notwenbtgen  ©etbumtaufc^e  fam  ber  3Bec^fel^anbel  auf,  ber 
ben  9Heberldnbern  eine  neue  frucfitbare  Cueffe  beg  9let(^tum3  ercffnete.    SBtr  najjmen 
ben  2Beg  iiber  ben  33erg,  iBobiiri^  ictr  eine  ©tunbe  erfparten. 

8.  Word-order.   The  attributive  adjective  clause  usually  has  the  transposed 
word-order,  but  explanatory  clauses  which  are  not  introduced  by  a  connective 
have  normal  word-order  :  2)er  Ungliicfltcfye  —  c3  ftar  (Sfjattdon  —  flammerte  \\3) 
einen  Slitgenbltcf  nttt  J&dnben  unb  Siifjen  an  bag  ©eftntg  (C.  F.  Meyer). 

Object  Clause. 

272.  Object  clauses  are  divided  into  genitive,  dative,  accusative, 
and  prepositional  phrase  (representing  a  noun  governed  by  a  prep.) 
clauses  : 

A.  Genitive  clause.  The  genitive  clause  is  usually  introduced 
by  bo§  (see  240.  a],  and  the  interrogatives  ira§,  06,  njie,  &c.,  and 
can  be  used  to  replace  any  gen.,  whether  it  be  the  object  of  a 
verb  or  an  adjective  :  3d?  crinnere  mid?  nidjt,  bafj  id?  bteS  gefagt  fyafce 
(=  btefer  2Borte).  S)er  Srcige  ifl  ntd)t  tfert,  bap  man  i^n  tinterftu^e.  3d) 
erinnere  mid?  ntd?t  me§r  genau,  06  er  fid?  biefeg  fd?arfeu  Qtu§brucE^  fcebtente. 


a.  Mood.     The  mood  is  usually  indie.,  but,  as  in  the  following  sentences, 
the  subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse  or  indirect  question,  and  the  potential 
subjunctive,  may  be  used  :  Jtart  V.  »on  <Er>anien  fonnte  ftd?  rufymen,  bte  Sonne 
gefye  (subj.  of  indirect  discourse)  in  fetnem  n?etten  9?eid?e  ut(^t  uttter.      (5r  n?ar 
ungeioifj,  wo  er  tne^r  9ltifeJ|en  fyatte  (unreal  potential  form  of  the  subj.  of  indirect 
question),  cb  in  bem  Srlb,  ob  in  bent  Jtabtnette.     @r  war  ntcfyt  gewi^,  ob  er  e5  tun 
fonnte  (same  kind  of  subj.  as  in  the  preceding  sentence).      3d?  crinnere  mid? 
ntdjt,  bafj  id)  ttjm  ctnen  Sefud?  gemadjt  tjdtte  (unreal  potential  ;  very  common  after 
a  negative  proposition). 

b.  Tense.     The  idiomatic  use  of  tenses  in  indirect   discourse  demands 
especial  care,  and  hence  this  subject  has  been  described  at  length  in  article 
171.  2. 

c.  When  the  thought  or  feeling  of  some  one  is  reported  indirectly  ba^  is 
often  dropped,  and  the  subordinate  clause  has  the  order  of  a  principal  pro- 
position, as  in  the  first  sentence  in  a,  above.     The  use  of  bajj  is  regulated  by 
the  principle  described  in  C.f,  below. 

d.  Abridgment.        Those  clauses  which  are  introduced  by  bajj  may  be 
replaced  by  the  infinitive  construction,  provided  the  subject  of  the  clause  is 
identical  with  the  subject  cr  object  of  the  principal  proposition:   3d?  bin 


272.  C.  b.  OBJECT  CLAUSE  591 

nid)t  ftert,  bafi  id)  bir  bie  ©djuljriemen  auffcfe;  or  3dj  Bin  nidjt  irert,  bit  bic 
<Sd)uf)rictnen  aufjulefcn.  3d)  ertnnere  mid)  nid)t,  bag  id)  ifym  einen  93cfud)  gemadjt 
Ijabe  or  fyatte  (see  a,  above,  last  sentence)  ;  or  3d)  erinnere  mid)  nid)t,  ifym  cinm 
gcmadjt  ju  Ijaben. 


B.  Dative  Clause.     This  dative  clause  is  the  expansion  of  a  noun 
or  adjective-substantive,  which  is  the  dat.  object  of  a  verb  or  ad- 
jective :  9®er  fetnen  Otat  anntmmt  (=  bent  G?igenflnntgen),  bem  fanu  nidjt 
gefjolfen  ircrben.     They  are  usually  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun 
or  adverb  :  SSer  fid)  nid)t  nnd)  ber  £ecfe  ftrerft,  bent  fcleifceu  bte  ft'iipe  un* 
teberft. 

a.  There  are  few  dat.  clauses  which  do  not  have  in  the  principal  propo- 
sition a  demonstrative  or  other  pronominal  adjective  in  the  dat.  referring  to 
the  contents  of  the  subordinate  clause.  Only  when  the  relative  itself  is  in 
the  dat.,  can  the  demon,  be  dropped  :  2)er  2lqt  fjilft,  ftem  cr  fjclfen  fann. 

If.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  indie.,  but  sometimes  the  subjunctive, 
especially  the  concessive  (168.  I.  2.  A)  subjunctive,  is  used  :  9Ummermef)r 
entfyiiUe  bag  ©eljeimmS,  went  e<?  and)  fei. 

c.  Abridgment.  Such  clauses  may  often  be  clumsily  abridged  by  substi- 
tuting an  adjective  or  participial  substantive  with  its  modifiers  for  the  clause 
form.  Thus  the  sentence  in  B,  above,  becomes  Sent  fid)  nid)t  nad)  bcr  £>ecfe 
Gtrecfcnbcn  bUibcn  bie  gii§e  unbebecft. 

C.  Accusative  Clause.     The  accusative  clause  is  the  expansion  of 
a  noun  in  the  ace.,  object  of  some  verb  or  adjective  :  3d)  itetp  md)t, 
ivo  er  fid)  fcefinbet  (=  ben  Drt  fetncS.gccjemr  driven  -Hufentfyalte).     After 
verbs  which  govern  two  accusatives,  one  of  the  person  and  one  of 
the  thing,  either  the  object  of  the  person  or  the  object  of  the  thing 
maybe  replaced  by  a  clause:  £etyre,  bie  bir  fotgen  ivollen  (=beine 

),  beine  iBeije.  £eljre  mid),  rcatf  bu  t>on  ii?m  gelernt  fyaft  (=  bie 
if)m  empfangene  SEBiflenfdjaft).  Accusative  clauses  are  usually  intro- 
duced by  bafj,  sometimes  after  verbs  of  perceiving  and  relating  by 
une  =  bat?,  often  by  relative  pronouns  and  adverbs,  and  in  indirect 
questions  by  the  interrogative  particles  oft,  rcann,  wo,  irte,  rcarum, 
Jccg^alb,  &c.,  or  the  interrogative  pronouns  :  Sir  ttcrftcfyerten  i^m,  ba^ 
irir  fccreit  feien,  il;nt  ju  l;elfen.  3d;  faty,  Jcie  (=  baf?)  er  auf  unb  atging. 
SBa§  ^cinbe  fcauten,  fijnneit  <§anbe  ftitrjcn.  3dj  luitt  bod)  fci)en,  ivie  (here 
interrog.  particle  used  to  introduce  an  indirect  question)  e3  ablaufen 
itirb.  (i~r  fragte,  ireSl;al6  id)  nid;t  gefommeu  fci  (direct  :  QBegfjalb  ftnb  <Ste 
nid)t  gefommcn). 

a.  Often  the  neut.  c<?,  ctnc<5,  or  a  demonstrative  pronoun  in  the  principal 
proposition  serves  as  an  anticipative  object  pointing  to  the  following  sub- 
ordinate clause,  which  as  an  appositive  explains  it,  and  is  in  fact  the  real 
object  :  3d)  mao,'<3  unb  txnlt'tf  ntdjt  fjlaitbcn,  bap  imd)  bcr  War  ttcdaffen  fann  (Schiller). 
3*  ttjcip  ctf,  ba|  cr  nid^t  9Scrt  jjialt.  (2aijt  ntir  nut  cind  :  ob  cr  im  33ann  ift 
(Hauptmann's  Der  arme  Hcinrich,  2,  i).  6inc(5  nur  cntbcfir'  id)  ntit  Jiummcr  : 
bap  id)  nid>t  mc()r  vein  friibcftcn  TOcr^cn  |  fur  tfyn  fd^affcn  barf  (Fulda's  Der  Talis- 
man, 2,  4).  Sen  fdircrft  bcr  53cro,  ntd)t,  unr  auf  ifym  gcborcn. 

/'.  Attraction.  Here  and  elsewhere  in  substantive  clauses  a  relative  is 
sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  preceding  demonstrative,  which  is 
then,  however,  always  understood  and  never  formally  expressed  :  Sic  ctlt 
buvd)  ben  £ef  jum  Xovctfcjana,,  bent  SBanbcrcr  jn  bictcn  @dntfc  unb  OZaft,  nnb  [ben,] 
nxn'tf  (for  ivcr  ct^)  audi  fci,  jn  itarmcn  unb  ju  labcn  (Redwitz's  Amaranth}. 

Sometimes,  especially  in  early  N.H.G.,  and  still  in  the  language  of  the 


592  SYNTAX  272.  C.  b. 

common  people,  the  opposite  construction  is  found,  namely,  a  noun  or 
pronoun  is  attracted  into  the  case  of  a  following  relative :  (Sin  Jtcnig  |  ber 
tic  Slrmcn  trettUd)  (treulid))  rid)tet  |  beg  tljron  ttrirb  ettnglidj  beflefyen  (Proverbs 
xxix.  14). 

c.  If  several  consecutive   subject  or  accusative  clauses  have   the  same 
relative  in  common  it  need  only  be  used  once,  when  the  relative  is  in  the 
same  case  in  the  different  clauses.     If  the  relative  is  in  different  cases  in  the 
different  clauses  it  should  be  repeated.     If,  however,  the  relative  should 
happen  to  have  the  same  form  for  two  different  cases,  usage  differs  some- 
what according  to  the  meaning.     The  relative  is  used  but  once  when  it  is 
desired  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  oneness  and  identity,  and  is  repeated  to 
make  prominent  the  idea  of  separation  :  2Bag  gei~d)icf)t  unb  id?  nid)t  Ijinbern  fann 
(Lessing).     Sefct  Met1  id)  bir  allcg  an,  toaS  id)  bin  itnb  tt>a3  id)  Ijabe  (Hebbel's 
Maria  Magdalena,  2,  5).     The  latter  sentence  represents  the  offering  as  a 
double  one,  but  if  we  should  desire  to  represent  here  life  and  material  wealth 
as  one  single  offering  we  could  say :  3e£t  Met1  id)  bir  alfeg  an,  toaS  id)  bin  unb 
fyabe.    Unb  »ag  unt  finb  unb  fyaben,  fyat  in  tfjm  (i.  e.  bent  (Sfyrijtentum)  feme  JSurjel 
unb  Jtraft  (Spielhagen's  Was  will  das  tverden,  I,  chap.  ix). 

d.  Mood.     The  mood  is  usually  indicative,  but  the  subjunctive  of  indirect 
discourse  and  indirect  question  is  frequently  found. 

e.  Tense.      The  idiomatic  use  of  tenses  in  indirect  discourse  demands 
especial  care,  and  hence  this  subject  has  been  discussed  at  length  in  171.  2. 

f.  When  the  thought  or  feeling  of  some  one  is  reported  indirectly  bap  is 
often  dropped,  and  the  subordinate  clause  has  the  order  of  the  principal 
proposition :  8id)te  befyauptet,  ber  2J?enfd)  fonne,  u>a3  er  rt>c(le,  unb  irenn  er  fage,  ct 
fonne  nid)t,  fo  wode  er  nid)t.    Sen  Sradfcnburg  follteft  bu  in  (Sfyren  fatten,  fag1  id)  bir 
(Goethe's  Egmont,  3).    3d)  furcate,  id)  fade.    As  in  269.  i.c  the  bap  should  not 
be  omitted  if  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  thought  clear,  i.e.  to  indicate  the 
oneness  of  the  words  in  the  object  clause  and  maintain  its  integrity  as 
a  distinct  grammatical  element  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  elements  in 
the  sentence  :  55ie  ©vfafyrung  beuncg,bap  bie  rcmifdie  @\)mntad)te  trojj  tfyrer  fcfrcinfcar 
lofercn  juigung  gegen  ^tyrrfyoS  jufantmenlneU  we  eine  5Kauer  au3  ge(fenftucfcn  (Momm- 
sen's  Rbmische  Geschichte,  III,  chap.  i).     If  the  bap  were  omitted  in  this 
sentence  it  would  bring  bie  rcnufdje  <g^mmad)te  next  to  the  verb,  which  might 
at  the  first  glance  lead  us  to  seek  for  a  grammatical  relation  between  these 
two  elements  instead  of  connecting  the  noun  with  the  words  that  follow. 
The  same  principle  is  also  observed  in  English.    Where  ambiguity  would  not 
arise  the  bap  is  naturally  dropped  in  German  in  forceful  language  or  a  lively 
style.     According  to  284. 1.  3.  a  the  transposed  word-order  presents  the  idea 
dispassionately  as  a  compact  unit  and  hence  is  less  suited  to  a  lively  style 
than  is  the  word-order  of  the  principal  proposition  which  admits  of  greater 
freedom  in  directing  the  attention  to  particular  words  and  placing  them 
according  to  their  logical  importance  or  emotional  value. 

The  connective  is  always  omitted  in  direct  quotations:  2)a3  SSotf  rief :  ©3 
lebe  ber  .f  aifer. 

g.  Abridgment.     An  ace.  clause  can  be  abridged  only  when  its  subject  is 
identical  with  the  subject  or  object  (expressed  or  understood)  of  the  principal 
proposition.    The  clause  may  then  be  abridged  to  a  single  noun  or  to  an  infin. 
with  $u :  3d)  rate  3()nen,  baf?  <£te  sorftd)tig  feicn ;  or  3d)  rate  3I;nen  33orfld)t ;  or 
3d)  rate  3l)nen,  »orjtd)tig  ju  fein. 

h.  The  principal  proposition  is  often  suppressed  so  that  the  subordinate 
clause  becomes  the  bearer  of  the  thought:  Slaura  —  bap  bag  j?tnb  nur  red)t,  red)t 
h>ag  ©ute3  befcmmt  (Wildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  3,  7)  Laura,  see  to 
it  that,  or  I  desire  that,  &c.  See  also  169.  LA. 

D.  Prepositional  Phrase  Clause.  This  clause  is  the  expansion  of 
a  prepositional  object:  Die  ©item  erfreuen  flcfy  t>aruber,  bap  ityre 


273.  i.  0.  ADVERBIAL  CLAUSE  693 

JUnber  ffortfdjrttte  modjen  (=  u&et  bie  Sortfdjritte  il)rer  tftnber).  This 
clause  is  introduced  by  bafj  (see  240.  a),  ofc,  and  the  relative  and 
interrogative  pronouns,  or  the  relative  or  interrogative  adverbs 
icomit,  &c.  @g  Heibt  babei,  bafji  unr  reifen.  (53  fetylt  fciel  baron,  bap  id? 
jufriefcen  fetn  fwtnte.  @3  if*  bafur  geforgt,  ba§  bie  Saume  nidjt  in  ben 
t&immel  icadjfen.  Db  bu  ber  ftugfh  feift,  baran  ijl  roenig  gelcgen.  63  fefylte 
iljm  baju,  bafj  er  eitt  <2taat3mann  fydtte  fein  fonnen,  ber  fcfyarfe,  flare  Slid5  in 
bie  3ufunft.  This  clause  is  in  colloquial  language  also  introduced 
by  rceil :  2)a3  fommt  ba'oon,  £err  frorfter,  reetl  id?  fritter  Sotengraber  gereefen 
bin  (Baumbach's  Das  Habichtsfraulein,  III). 

a.  In  the  principal  proposition  there  is  usually  a  demon,  adverb,  baruber, 
bafur,  &c.,  pointing  to  the  following  clause.  If  the  subordinate  clause  pre- 
cedes, either  a  demon,  adverb  or  pronoun  can  stand  in  the  principal  clause : 
2Ba$  biefer  3euge  beim  etften  25erl)6r  gan§  Ungtaubttc^f^  angcgeben  Ijatte,  auf  bent  (or 
ba'rauf)  beftanb  cr  jc^t. 

d.  Mood.  The  mood  is  usually  indie.,  but  various  forms  of  the  optative 
and  the  potential  subjunctive  are  also  used :  9U(e  rictcn  il)m  ba$u,  bafj  ft  batf 
?lmt  tro^  ber  bamit  uerbunbenen  ©djicterigfeitm  anne^me.  (St  benft  batuber  nac^,  trie 
cr  fortfommc. 

c.  If  the  clause  is  introduced  by  bafj,  it  is  more  often  abridged  to  an  infin. 
with  }it  when  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  and  that  of  the  sub- 
ordinate clause  are  identical,  and  sometimes  when  the  subjects  are  not 
identical,  provided  no  ambiguity  may  arise :  (Sr  fyit  bie  cjrofjte  8u)i  baju,  un3  auf 
mtferer  OJetfe  gu  beajeiten.  In  the  literature  of  the  latter  half  of  the  present 
period  uni  ju  is  preferred  here  to  the  simple  jit  when  it  is  desired  to  emphasize 
the  idea  of  a  purpose,  end,  result :  Um  bag  fertig  ju  ntadjen,  baju  gefycrt  nod) 
Vlrbeit.  ®3  fefjlt  nttr  nur  an  ntir,  urn  rcd)t  beglucft  jit  fcin  (Goethe),  ^ompejud 
fet>Ue  fcine  93ebingung  nnt  nad;  ber  Jlrone  \v.  gretfen  al^  btc  erfte  »on  alien :  ber  eigene 
fcniglid)e  2J?ut  (Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  3).  @d  ge^crte  bie 
ganje  Unab^angigfeit  unb  (Snergte ...  ber  £er$ogtn  ba^u,  urn  nid)t  an  bent  Hitters 
nefymen  \\\  fd^eitcrn  (Rodenberg).  (Set  fe^Ite  if»nt,  um  @taat$mann  nu  fetn,  ber  fd^arfe, 
flare  93Urf  in  bie  3ufunft  (Durckheim).  Sa3  SWintftertimt  befa^  nid)t  bie  nctige 
.^u(jnT)eit,  um  ben  Jfcntg  »on  fetnent  ©igcnftun  ab^uwenbeu  (id.).  35er  folgenbe  Sag 
nntrbe  benu^t,  um  bie  @tabt  fcnnen  ju  (crnett  (id.).  The  um  }u  here  is_  used 
instead  of  the  older  construction  with  simple  $u,  as  the  infinitive  with  jit 
is  employed  so  often  as  a  nominative,  genitive,  or  accusative  that  it  no 
longer  conveys  vividly  the  idea  of  a  prepositional  object  indicating  the  direc- 
tion of  the  activity,  or  the  idea  of  a  purpose,  end.  The  history  of  this 
construction  is  given  more  fully  in  281.  b.  Note.  Grammarians  do  not 
endorse  unreservedly  this  use  of  urn  jtt  instead  of  ju. 

Adverbial  Clause. 

273.  i.  An  adverbial  clause  is  the  expansion  of  an  adverbial 
element  into  the  full  form  of  a  proposition  with  its  own  subject  and 
predicate:  SMege  ben  9Baum,  fo  lange  er  nod;  Jung  tfl  (=  friu),  or  in 
feiner  Siujenb). 

a.  The  adverbial  clause  is  introduced  by  a  subordinate  conjunc- 
tion (full  list  of  them  in  238.  3).  In  the  principal  proposition  a 
demon,  adverb  often  points  to  the  adverbial  clause :  2Bo  fciel  2id;t 
[ifi],  ba  ift  Otel  fatten. 

0.  The  mood  and  tense  of  the  adverbial  clause  are  subject  to  the 
general  rules  for  mood  and  tense. 


594  SYNTAX  273.  i.  c. 

c.  Adverbial  clauses  may  often  be  abridged,  especially  when  the 
subject  of  the  principal  proposition  and  that  of  the  subordinate 
clause  are  identical.  The  abridged  form  is  either  that  of  an  infin. 
phrase,  or  an  appositive  noun,  adj.  or  participle :  S)er  Jlnafre  fcefucfyt 
bte  (Seville,  banttt  er  fid)  nu§lid)e  ^enntniffe  erroerfce;  or  urn  ftd? 
m"tfclid)e  Jlenntniffe  311  errcerfcen.  Dfcgleid?  er  @ieger  rear;  or 
D&gleid)  (Sieger,  ntupte  er  bod)  bag  @d?lad?tfelb  rdumen.  2Bett  er  franf 
unb  elenb  rear;  or  Jlranf  unb  etenb,  fefynte  er  ftd)  nacfy  bent  £obe. 
9Benn  fie  $tt  icett  getrie&en  rcirb,  or  3"  rcett  getriefcen,  ijerfetylt 
bte  (Strenge  U)re3  ireifen  3rce^8.  SBdfyrenb  id)  bag  bei  mtr  badjte; 
or  2)ieS  fcet  mtr  benfenb,  fd)Iief  id)  etn. 

Note.  This  adverbial  apposition  is  especially  frequent  in  case  of  a  substantive 
preceded  by  the  conjunction  alg.  Such  a  noun  may  be  used  instead  of  a  clause  to 
express  the  following  adverbial  relations:  i.  Time  :  (Sicetp  entbedfte  a(3  Jtonfulbte  SSers 
fd}t»6rung  beg  (Satililta.  2.  Manner:  @t  lebte  alg  S^tifl.  3.  Degree  (containing  a 
restriction) :  Sltg  (in  so  far  as)  £ier.  gehort  bet  5Kenf^  ber  Grbe  an,  ats  ®eifl  einer 
^oljeven  SBett.  4.  Cause  or  reason :  SU0  treuer  2)ienet  icollte  vms  3ofe>?^  nid)t  »er^ 
laffen.  5.  Condition :  3Ber  bit  a(g  ^reunb  nidjt  nu^en  fann,  fann  alg  Seinb  bit 
f(^aben.  6.  Concession :  5llg  Slnfdnget  bdjanbelt  et  bte  @ad^e  bcc^  nut  3Keijietfdjaft. 
7.  Purpose  or  end :  (§t  jog  fetnen  5r«mtb  a(g  aKitarbettet  ^etan.  Willomitzer  in  his 
Deutsche  Grammatik,  p.  163,  from  which  the  preceding  has  been  taken  almost 
literally,  adds  one  more  relation,  that  of  attendant  circumstance,  which  might  be 
included  under  the  head  of  manner :  @t  flanb  ttttt  aid  tteuet  (Ratgebet  jut  ©cite. 

2.  Adverbial  clauses  are  subdivided  into  classes  corresponding 
to  those  of  adverbial  elements — clauses  of  place,  time,  manner, 
degree,  cause,  condition,  concession,  purpose  or  end,  means,  material. 

Clause  of  Place. 

274.  A  clause  of  place  indicates  the  place  where  the  action  of  the 
principal  verb  occurs  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  A) :  Sfticfyt  itberatt, 
reo  Staffer  tfl,  ftnb  Srofdje ;  after  iro  man  frrofd?e  Ijort,  ifl  SBaffer.    SGBo^er  ber 
fcefrudjtenbe  9ftegen  firomt,  (t>afyer)  fiur^t  audj  ber  tier^eerenbe  33lt|jlraf)I. 

bag  S^riflentunt  brang,  ba  ertofdjen  t>or  t|m  atte  £etd)en6ranbe. 
irenbet  end;,  iion  roannen  atle  *§ilfe  fommt  (Uhland).  SBol  bent  |  ber  ntdjt 
reanbelt  int  9flat  ber  ©otlofen  |  9Rod)  trttt  auff  ben  2Beg  ber  ©iinber  |  0Iod; 
ftfct  ba  bie  ©potter  fl§en  (Ps.  i.  i). 

a.  The  demonstratives  ba,  bort,  ba^et,  bort^et,  bafitn,  bottfiin  often  stand  in  the 
principal  proposition,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  above  examples. 

b.  The  mood  in  these  clauses  is  usually  the  indicative,  but  the  subjunctive 
of  a  historical  tense  is  not  infrequent ;  see  169.  z.  I. 

c.  Abridgment.      These  clauses  cannot  usually  be  abridged,  except  some- 
times by  substituting  a  simple  adverb :  SBoIjin  id)  bltcfe,  (or  iibeta(l)  rebeji  bit 
mit  SSBchltat  mtr  unb  ®ute  jit  (Seume). 

Clause  of  Time. 

275.  A  temporal  clause  limits  the  time  of  the  action  of  the 
principal  verb,  which  is  thus  represented  as  taking  place  simul- 
taneously with,  or  before,  or  after  that  of  the  temporal  clause  (for 
conjunctions  see  238.  3.  B) :   3d;  erfcfyraf,  al§  id)  ttyn  faf).     (S3  fdjliefjt 


275.  b.  CLAUSE  OF  TIME  595 

(historical  present)  ftd;  fitter  if)m  unb  alg  er  fid;  umrcenbet,  urn  bon  bent 
©d;liefjer  Qhigfunft  $u  er^alten,  n?eifl  ifm  biefer  mit  $6$mfd)en  3Bortcn  l;tmreg 
(E.  Martin's  Wolframs  von  Eschenbach  Parzival,  II,  p.  xxiiij.  2Ba3 
ttir  gemeinl;in  <£f)re  nennen,  bag  iftjvofyl  nid;t3  wetter  alS  ber  ©gotten,  ben 
unr  rcerfen,  wenn  bie  <£onne  bcr  ofjentlid;en  Qldjtung  unS  befd?eint  (Suder- 
mann's  Die  Ehre,  2,  n).  SCBenn  ftd;  ber  OBinter  ndtyert,  Uerlafjen  unS  bie 
Sugsogel.  SBJenn  @te  ferttg  fmb,  mocfyte  id;  gern  ntit  3ljncn  foremen.  Qld;, 
ba  id;  irrte,  fcatt'  id?  Jnel  ©efyielen,  ba  id;  bid;  (bie  Sffia^rljett)  fenne,  bin  id? 
fafl  afletn  (Goethe).  S)aS  difen  muf)  gefdjmiebet  irerben,  ireit  (now 
wafycenb  or  inbem)  eS  gtitfyt  (Schiller).  @olange  bie  97ationeu  ein  gefon* 
berteS  2)afein  fit^ren,  icirb  eg  €tvettigfetten  geOen,  ireld;e  nut  mit  ben  SBaffen 
gefd;Iid^tet  werben  fdnncn  (Moltke).  3)Jan  fann  metjl  fo  lange  nid;t  geniigenb 
itfcer  eine  2at  urteilen,  a!3  man  bie  SBetreggrunbe  ba^u  nid;t  fennt.  3^r 

5(n^ang rctrb  nidjt  e^e  (now  usually  e^er)  git  bdnbigen  fein,  6ig  n?ir  jle 

»or  ben  -5lugen  ber  SBelt  gu  nidjte  gemad;t  ....  fyaben  (Goethe's  Gotz,  3,  i). 
0}td;t  e^er,  nl§  bi§  (after  nid;t  e^er  more  common  than  simple  tie)  er  fie 
Son  SSeinbitnfien  taumeln  fat),  gab  er  i^nen  bie  @d;rift  gur  Untergetdjnung 
(Schiller).  2Ran  inup  nid;t  e^er  fltegen  woUen,  alS  fciS  einent  bie  &IitgeI 
geroad;fen  ftnb.  (£t  fam  bent  ^lonig  mit  3tner6ietungen  be8  ^riebeng  entgegen, 
reeld;e  aber  6lo|l  bagu  bienen  foflten,  ben  £auf  feiner  ffiaffcn  fo  Iaiti]e,  HS  «§ulfe 
^er6ei  fame,  gu  ixrgogern  (Schiller).  @ie  gelobten  einanber,  fid;  nid;t  gu 
imtertcerfen,  big  nid;t  (see  223.  XI.  B.  a.  (3))  ber  ttnterfle  @tein  gu  oberfi 
gefommen  icdre  (Ranke's  D.  Gesch.  itn  Z.  d.  R.t  IV,  538).  3d;  bin  n?ie 
ber  Sealing  beint  Jlonbitor  gcrcefen,  ben  man  Buderjeug  nafdjen  Ia§t,  6i8  baf 
er  ftd;  ben  2J?agen  baran  t>erbirbt  (Wildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix, 
3,  5).  '8  nnrb  feiner  boS,  ber  nidjt,  be»or  er'6  trarb,  erfl  gut  geivefeu  (Grill- 
parzer).  3Wan  ^flegt  in  einem  »uid;tigeu  SBerfe  gu  Hattern,  e^e  man  e8 
ernjtlid;  gu  lefen  anfdngt  (Lessing).  <8ie  ifl  fo  befd;eiben  unb  fo  banfbar,  fte 
$at  gefagt,  fte  fonnte  feinen  33iffen  gu  ftd;  nefjmen,  et)e  fie  nid;t  (223.  XI.  B. 
a.  (3))  bent  «£au3l)errn,  ber  fte  fo  giitig  aufgenomnten,  gebanft  ^dtte  (Wilden- 
bruch's Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  3,  6). 

a.  Sometimes  the  clause  which  defines  the  time  of  the  principal  action 
assumes  the  form  of  the  principal  proposition,  while  the  principal  proposition 
takes  on  the  form  of  the  temporal  clause :  9Jtd;t  fobalb  fyatte  er  3fit  gflronncn, 
ftd;  $u  »erfd;an$en,  a(3  ft  »on  fpanifdjcn  OJcttcrn  ubcrfaKcn  n?urbe  No  sooner  had  he 
found  time  to  intrench  himself  than  he  was  attacked  by  Spanish  cavalry. 
.ftattm  Ijatte  cr  mid)  crbltrft,  al«  cr  taut  auffd;w.      (S<3  fdjliuj  cbtu  ^pclf  Ufjr,  ale 
man  pfcfcltd;  ctncn  @d;u^  f;crtc.    Such  temporal  clauses  as  in  English  announce 
some  unexpected  or  important  event. 

b.  The  indicative  and  subjunctive  are  employed  according  to  the  rules 
generally  observed  for  their  use;    sec  169.2.  I.     After  the  conj.  bid  notice 
that  the  verb  depending  upon  a  verb  in  a  historical  tense  is  in  the  subjunc- 
tive, to  indicate  the  continuance  of  an  action  up  to  a  certain  point  in  the 
future  with  doubtful  result :  <£ic  ujolltcn  audfyamn,  big  bet  (£ntfa$  fame  They 
desired  to  wait  till  relief  might  come.      The  subjunctive  is  usually  in  a 
historical  tense,  but  occasionally  the  subjunctive  of  a  principal  tense  is  found 
in  accordance  with  older  usage  ;  see  168. 1.  2.  B.  (3) ).    If  the  governing  verb 
is  in  a  principal  tense  the  dependent  verb  is  in  the  indicative,  although  the 
subjunctive  was  common  here  in  early  N.H.G. :    <£ie  ivollen  ivarten,  biiJ  ber 
GJntfajj  fomntt.    3d;  will  batf  @d)tuert  fyutber  (fyinter)  fte  fdjicfeu  |  bt«  ba>3  (bafj)  au$ 
mit  jneu  (ifjncn)  fei;  (fei)  —  Jeremiah  ix.  16.    The  use  of  the  indie,  after  a 

Q  q  2 


596  SYNTAX  275.  b. 

principal  tense  here  shows  that  the  tendency  at  present  is  to  look  at  the 
action  as  actually  completed,  while  in  earlier  periods  it  was  regarded  as 
only  contemplated  or  desired. 

c.  Abridgment.  These  clauses  can  usually  be  abridged  only  when  their 
subject  is  identical  with  that  of  the  principal  proposition.  The  clause  then 
may  become  a  participle,  adjective,  or  substantive  appositive  :  SBenn  er 
faum  ciner  ©efatjr  entronnen  ift,  or  J?autn  einer  ©efafyr  entronnen, 
fturjt  er  fid)  in  bie  anbere.  3)ap  er  in  ben  ©ifcungen,  toenn  bef?uf$  ber  Slbfttmmung 
au3  bem  {eid)ten  ©drummer  gewecft,  jit  fagen  Vflegte  (Bismarck).  2113  er  arm  l»ar, 
or  2lrm,  l?att'  er  fid)  nod)  fatt  gegeffen  ;  feitbem  er  reid?  getworben,  or  (Reid), 
fyungert  er  bet  fyalbem  (Sjfen.  Itnb  fo  fap  er  (,  nad)bem  er)  eine  £eid)e  (getoorben),  eine$ 
3#orgen3  ba  (Schiller). 

Sometimes  when  the  temporal  clause  has  a  different  subject  from  that  of 
the  principal  proposition  it  can  be  abridged,  but  only  by  substituting  a  prep. 
phrase  for  the  clause  :  2Benn  bie  9lot  am  grofjten  tjt,  fo  ifl  ®otte$  $ilfe  am  ndd)flen, 
or  3n  ber  gropten  9iot  ifl  ©ottes  £ilfe  am  nddjflen. 

Clause  of  Manner. 

276.  A  clause  of  manner  describes  the  manner  of  the  action  of 
the  principal  verb.  This  clause  may  define  the  action  in  each  of 
the  three  following  ways  : 

A.  The  action  of  the  principal  verb  is  compared  with  that  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause.     The  clause  is  introduced  by  the  conjunctions  enumerated 
in  238.  3.  C.  a.     In  239  these  conjunctions  are  treated  at  length,  where  also 
illustrative  sentences  are  given  which  show  the  use  of  the  moods.     For  moods 
see  also  168.  II.  B.  a,  b  and  169.  2.  B.  a,  b. 

B.  The  action  of  the  principal  verb  is  accompanied  by  some  attendant 
circumstance  which  is  contained  in  the  subordinate  clause.     The  clause  is 
then  introduced  by  inbem  :   3nbem  cr  fid?  mit  bem  9?itcfen  an  ben  $aum  lefynte, 
verteibigte  er  fid)  ta^fer  gegen  bie  an  3al?l  ubertegenen  §dnbe.     $)a$  £iet  jog  fid) 
jurucf,  inbem  e3  mid)  forncafyrenb  iint>erftanbt  anblicfte.     Instead  of  a  clause  intro- 
duced by  inbem  we  often  find  the  accusative  absolute  construction  here  ;  see 


a.  The  clause  may  be  abridged  by  substituting  a  participle  for  the  clause 
form,  provided  the  subject  of  the  clause  and  that  of  the  principal  proposition 
are  identical  :  (Sr  grufjte,  inbem  er  fid)  tief  serbeugte,  or  fid;  tief  serbeitgenb. 
A  prepositional  phrase  may  often  take  the  place  of  the  clause  :  (Sin  grojjerer 
Jpaufe  marfdjierte  in  ber  9Hd)tung  ber  Jlloflettwefe,  urn,  mit  3$ermcibung  einea 
©efed)te3  (=  inbem  er  etn  ©efecfyt  wermieb),  bie  bort  fid?  verfammelnben  anbern  (Hitter 
$ur  @eite  jn  lorfen  (Riehl's  Der  Dachs  auf  Lichtmess).  llnter  fyeftigem  SBeinen 
(or  fyeftig  toeinenb)  brucfte  er  mtr  bie  -!panb. 

C.  The  action  of  the  principal  verb  is  followed  by  a  result  which  is  con- 
tained in  the  subordinate  clause  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  C.  c  ;  for  the 
origin  of  the  bafj  clause  see  271.  1).  Exs.  :  Bauble  aud)  im  3?erborgenen  fo,  ba£  e3 
jebermann  fefien  fonnte.  @r  fyrad)  mit  fold)en  ©eberben,  bap  ade^  (everybody)  (ad)te. 
3)ie  ^einbe  Ijaben  berartige  9)?apregeln  gctroffen,  ba^  jeber  SRucfjng  unmoglid)  iwirb. 
2)a«  93erf)dttni^  u>ar  nid^t  berart  or  ber  (see  271.  1)  Slrt,  ba^  e3  3o^anna  grope  93er; 
legen^eit  »erurfad)t  ^dtte.  (Sr  ^at  einen  (see  271.  1)  @f)arafter,  bap  man  fid?  Bon  if)m 
nidjt^  ©utee  »erfc^en  fann.  3Bie  »ie(e  ©Item  gefyen  bem  aSergniigen  nad),  anfiatt  bag 
fie  fiir  bie  (Sr^ieljnng  if?rer  ^inber  forgen  !  (St  erfod^t  einen  glanjenben  @ieg,  ofyne  bap 
cr  inei  9Kenfd?enleben  geopfert  fidtte.  3d)  I)abe  fcttcn  gefd?(afen,  bag  idj  nic^t  getrdumt 
ftatte.  3d?  benfe  an  ben  93ertufl  nidjt  met;r,  gefd^iueige  bap  id?  benfclben  gegen  beinen 
Sruber  enoaljncn  fodte. 

Instead  of  fo,  fold),  berartig,  ein,  ber  in  the  principal  proposition  corresponding 
to  the  bap  of  the  subordinate  clause  we  may  have  a  question  ;  see  238.  3.  C.  c. 
We  sometimes  find  a  simple  bap  clause  without  any  corresponding  word  or 


277.  i.  A.C.  CLAUSE  OF  DEGREE  597 

question  in  the  principal  proposition :  Unb  nun  erttingt  win  SBunberglocfenfinet  | 
in  fiifjen,  brunfiig  fufcen  Socfelanten,  |  bafj  jebe  93ntft  frfd)lud)jt  vor  »ct)er  Sufi 
(Hauptmann's  Versunkene  Glocke,  Act  iii,  11.  1573-5). 

a.  The   mood   of  the   clause   is  indie,  if  it  is  desired   to   represent   the 
statement  as  a  result  that  has  been  actually  attained,  but  the  subjunctive 
to  indicate  that  the  statement  is  merely  conceived  of  as  possible,  improb- 
able, doubtful,  or  impossible. 

b.  Abridgment.      Clauses  introduced  by  anftatt  bag  and  otjne  bajj  may  be 
abridged  to  the  infin.  construction  if  the  subject  of  the  clause  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  principal  proposition  :  <Ste  fdjwcigcu,  anftatt  bag  fie  fid)  beflagen, 
or  anftatt  fid)  ju  beflagcn.   £itu<3  begegnete  feinem  {Renter,  cfnic  ba§  er  ifjn  juerft  gegrufjt 
Ijattf,  or  cfyne  U)ti  juerfl  jn  gru^eit.     Clauses  introduced  by  simple  bafj  (with  a 
preceding  fo  cin,  fein,  fold),  bcrartig  in  the  principal  proposition)  are  in  recent 
literature  very  often  abridged  to  an  infinitive  with  urn  ju  :  2lriftetele3  fagr,  baj; 
cine  ©tabt  fo  gebaut  fein  muff?/  "it  bit  SKcnfdicn  jugleid)  fid)cr  unb  gliuf  lid)  $u  madien. 
(£3  trate  fin  Slnblirf,  urn  (Sngcl  u>etnen  \\\  mad)cn  (Goethe's  Goiz,  4,  i).    (5s  ifi, 
um  fid)  bie  £aare  auSjnraufen  (Raabe's  Frau  Salome,  chap,  vi)  =  £>ie  SSerfyalt; 
niffe  ftnb  bevart,  bafj  man  fid)  bie  ^>aave  antfraufen  mcd)te.     @S  ift  fein  SSetter,  nm  nod) 
langer  I)iec  in  ber  9Jad)t  bariibec  gu  bevatfd)lagen  (id.,  Der  Drd 'umling,  xxviii).     @3 
lt>ar  red}t  cin  ftlccf djcn  @vbe,  nm  fid)  allein  mit  feincn  ®ebanfen  bavin  ju  befinben,  unb 
wicberum  bod)  and),  nm  fid)  ntd)t  a((ein  fyier  auf^nfjaUen,  fonbcrn  fonft  jemanbem  cinen 
3JJttgenu§  baran  ^u  vcvgonncn  (Jensen's  Die  Schatzsucher,  p.  80).    2)od)  ivarnm 
mcinten  @ie  Bovhin,  bag  fei  fein  £f)ema,  um  eg  mit  utir  }u  crcrtern?    (id.,  Die 
Katze,  p.  99).     See  also  281.  b.  Note. 

Clause  of  Degree. 

277.  Clauses  of  degree  define  the  degree  or  intensity  of  that 
which  is  predicated  in  the  principal  proposition.  The  degree  can 
be  expressed  in  the  following  ways : — 

I.  It  is  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  comparison  : 

A.  Signifying  a  degree  equal  to  that  of  the  principal  proposition  : 

a.  Expressing  a  simple  comparison  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  D.  I.  A.  a) : 
<5t  ift  ebenfo  getclirt  als  [er]  befd)ciben  [ift].     When  the  verb  of  the  clause  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  principal  proposition  it  is  usually,  as  in  the  preceding 
sentence,  understood.     See  also  239. 3.     Concerning  the  subjunctive  mood 
here  see  169.  2.  H.  a. 

b.  Expressing  a  proportion  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  D.  I.  A.  b) :    3f 
mcfyr  bag  3llter  njad)ft,  je  (now  more  commonly  befto  or  um  fo)  fdnrcver  ivivb  batf 
(Sorgcn  (Giinther).     3e  cfycr,  jc  (still  more  common  than  befto  or  nm  fo  in  short, 
pithy  sayings)  lieber  the  sooner,  the  better.     3e  mef)t  bit  bid)  drgcrft,  befto  (or  nm 
fo,  or  less  commonly  um  befto)  mcfjr  fveuen  fid)  beine  geinbe.     2Bir  fonnen  abet  and) 
im  SUkjcmeincn  befyauvtcn,  um  fo  (instead  of  the  more  common  jc)  mcfyr  Sorgfalt 
ttnrb  auf  bie  (Mcvnung  ber  funfttid)en  Svvad^c  verwenbet,  um  fo  na()er  fommt  man 
barin  ber  5Tlorm,  namentlid)  in  alien  bfitjcnigcn  iUtnften,  bie  fid)  fd^riftltd)  firieren  laffen 
(H.  Paul's  Prinzipicn  der  Sprachgeschichtc,  chap,  xxiii).     £anad)  finer  tut, 
banad)  f(J  ifjnt  gel)t  (proverb  ;   for  word-order  see  288.  B.  d).     3f  nad)bem  ber 
Wcifter  ift,  unvb  ait(5  bcm  93locf  cin  £voa,  ober  cinf  Siilbfanlc.    3f  nad)bcm  bie  3lrbcit 
ift,  uad)  bcm  unrb  ber  Sofjit  fein. 

c.  Expressing  a  restriction  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  D.  I.  A.  c} :  SWandjf 
bcfe  £at  ifi  infofern  jit  cntfcbnlbigen,  al«  fie  nid)t  in  bofer  9lbfid)t  getan  n?;rt.    3)cr  ®a 
lefyrte  ift  nur  iiifcfcrn  cin  ©dcljrter.inuncfcvn  er  in  ber  ®efe(lfd)aft  beacfctet  ixnrb  (Fichte). 
Sebcr  Wcnfd)  gilt  in  ber  2Bclt  nttv  fo  »ie(,  al«  cr  fid)  felbft  gelten  mad)t.    <£o  twcit  id) 
fiber  fetne  §anbtung«toeife  nrteileu  fann,  I)altc  id)  fie  fur  gered)t.    The  clause  can  also 
be  introduced  by  u>a<3 :  £)cr  SDJanu  arbeitete,  >tag  er  fonnte.    ©a^  mid)  (ben  l^orfall, 
&c.)  anbclaugt  or  bctnfft,  fo  irrjl  bu  bid).     Instead  of  a  clause  containing  the 
verbs  (an)betveffen  or  anbelangeu  we  often  find  a  prepositional  phrase,  and 


598  SYNTAX  277.  i.  A.  c. 

sometimes  the  absolute  present  participle:  S03ad  fein  9l(ter  anbetrifft,  or  in 
SetrcJT  or  bctreffd  feined  9llterd,  or  fein  9Uter  betreffenb.  Concerning  the  sub- 
junctive mood  here  see  169.  2.  H.  b. 

B.  Following  a  comparative,  anber,  or  a  negative  pronoun  (for  conjunctions 
see  238.  3-D.  I.B)  :  (3d  ijl  fd)icflid)er,  bap  ein  gartlidjer  Sfyarafter  Slugettblicfe  bed 
©toljed  Ijat,  aid  bag  ein  ftol^er  »on  ber  3attltd)feit  fid)  fortreigeu  lagt  (Lessing). 
2Bad  fann  id)  aber  von  ©astgmjd  SSorlefungen  anberd  fagen,  ale  bag  fte  mid)  aufd 
genmltigfte  ergriffcn  unb  auf  nteiu  ganged  Seben  itnb  ©tubieren  entfd)iebenen  (Stnfhtg 
erlangten  (Jakob  Grimm).  JDenfe  id)  natftrlid)  uid)t  anbcrd,  ale  31)nen  ift  etivad 
pafftert  (Wildenbruch's  Zter  unsterbliche  Felix,  4,  i).  J?ein  Iftatumeignid  unrb 
von  ber  Sugenb  freubiger  begrugt  aid  ber  @d)nee  [bcgriigt  toirb].  When  the  clause 
has  the  same  verb  as  the  principal  proposition  the  verb  of  the  clause,  as  in 
the  preceding  example,  can  be  understood.  See  also  239.  i. 

a.  In  early  N.H.G.  fein  (see  139. 3. e. Note  2)  =  irgenb  ein  any  was  used: 
Denn  bad  U?ort  ©otteS  tfi  lebenbtg  »nb  frefftig  »nb  fdjerffer  |  benn  fetn  j»etfd)Hfibig 
Sdjtoert  (Hebrews  iv.  12).  This  usage  remained  after  a  comparative  up  to  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  later,  but  it  must  have  soon  become 
identified  with  the  negative  fein,  as  it  became  the  custom  quite  early  in 
the  period  under  French  influence  to  use  a  pleonastic  negative  after  a 
comparative.  In  the  classic  period  this  usage  is  still  common,  not  only  in 
case  of  fein,  but  of  the  other  negatives  also:  @3  ging  befier,  aid  ixnr  iiid)t  bad)ten 
(Goethe).  The  negative  was  here  added  to  strengthen  the  statement.  The 
present  century  has  lost  all  feeling  for  this  once  common  construction. 

2.  Expressing  a  result  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  D.  2  ;  for  the  origin  of 
the  ba§  clause  see  271. 1) :  5>te  2uft  tfl  fo  flill,  baft  bad  9?aufd)en  bed  fernen 
93ad}ed  Ijeruberbringt.  £>ein  Sktev  ifl  nod;  nidjt  fo  rnljig,  bajj  er  bie  tagltcfye  9ln^ 
teefenfjeit  eined  greunbed  ertragen  fonnte.  @r  tt»ar  fo  uxid)  geftimmt,  ba§  er  faft 
getreint  ^dtte  (169.  2.  H.  c).  2)ein  Sremerfiaven  (city)  —  liegt  bad  auf  bent  3Jlonb, 
baf  bit  bad  ailed  mdjt  l»ei^t?  (Wildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  i,  5).  3n 
ben  nad)ften  gtwei  Sitd^ern,  bent  vii.  unb  viii.,  cerlieren  unr  ^arjival  faft  vcflig  aud  ben 
Slugen,  faum  ba§  er  gelegentlid)  im  ^intevgrunb  auftaud)t  (E.  Martin's  Wolframs 
•von  Eschenbach  Parzi-val,  II,  p.  xxiv).  (fr  ^at  bie  (see  271. 1)  ©etoanbtljett  im 
9Jeben,  ba§  niemanb  ed  ntit  t^m  aufneljmen  fann.  6r  ^at  eine  (see  271.  i)  ©timnte, 
ba^  man  il)n  uberafl  im  @aat  beutlidj  ^oren  fann.  @r  ijl  ju  ftolg,  aid  bag  cr  biefe 
SBeleibtgung  »erjeif)en  fonnte.  2)te  SRadpdjten  laitteten  ju  fdjon,  aid  bag  irir  ite 
fatten  glauben  fonnen.  SWeine  @unbe  tfl  groger,  aid  bag  fte  mtr  fonnte  sergeben 
hjerben.  Notice  that  the  force  of  the  subordinate  clause  introduced  by  aid 
bag  is  negative.  If  the  clause  is  to  have  affirmative  force  the  negative 
ntdjt  must  be  used  :  (Sr  benft  ju  ebet,  old  bag  er  nidjt  bie  SQSafyrljeit  fagte.  A  nega- 
tive clause  following  a  negative  proposition  has  affirmative  force.  Sometimes 
the  subordinate  clause  has  affirmative  instead  of  the  usual  negative  form : 
@o  fdjau  bir  beine  @pringebad)lein  an  :  |  ba  ijl  fein  2Bafferlcin  fo  binni  unb  fletn,  |  ed 
>wf(  unb  mug  ind  SDJenfdjenlanb  ^inein  (Hauptmann's  Die  versunkene  Clocks,  i). 

We  often  find  a  simple  bag  or  fo  bag  in  the  subordinate  clause  without  any 
corresponding  fo,  ber,  or  ein  in  the  principal  proposition,  so  that  the  result 
is  represented  as  a  result  pure  and  simple  without  the  modal  idea  of  degree  : 
35er  Jtattjletvat  lieg  bie  5?ber  fallen,  bag  auf  bem  »ov  ifym  liegenben  93ogen  ein  grogeu 
.ftlecfd  entjlanb  (Baumbach's  Der  Schwiegersohn,  vii).  35ad  §aud  bvanitte  nteber, 
fo  bag  fein  £aud  ubrig  bltcb.  (Sr  fd}»anfte,  fo  ba'g  id?  ifjn  nidjt  me^r  fallen  fonnte. 
@r  fd}iranfte  fo',  bag,  &c.,  gives  the  modal  idea.  On  the  other  hand,  simple 
bag  may  contain  the  idea  of  degree  :  9iid)t  bag  id)  inugte.  (Sv  fdjreit,  bag  man  ed 
auf  ber  ©tvage  f)6rt. 

a.  Mood.  The  mood  of  the  clause  is  indie,  if  it  is  desired  to  represent 
the  statement  as  a  result  that  has  been  actually  attained,  but  the  potential 
subjunctive  to  indicate  that  the  statement  is  possible,  or  to  make  a  statement 
modestly  or  cautiously;  see  169.  2.  H.  c.  See  also  168.  II.  C.  D;  169. 
2.C.D. 


278.  b.  CLAUSE  OF  CAUSE  599 

b.  Abridgment.  The  subordinate  clause  can  be  abridged  to  the  infin. 
with  um  $u  or  ju  :  £)et  fjanfige  nnb  rcrtvaute  SSetfefyt  mit  eitiem  SDtanne  son  bet 
unnnberjWjlidjen  Sie&entoiitbigffit  (Safari  tat  bag  iibtige,  um  ben  SBunb  ber  Sntereffeu 
in  etnen  SrennbfdjaftSbunb  umjugeftalten  (Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte,  V, 
chap.  vi).  £>ie  SBenwdjung  bee  ©efangenen  nwtbe  betart  »etfd)drft,  nm  iljm  jeben 
tteiterm  ftSerfudj  jnm  (fntfemmen  al$  $tt>ecf(o3  etfdjcinen  §u  lafieu.  3>t  allgemetne 
2Bof)lftanb  fyat  fid)  fo  gefyoben,  nm  and?  eine  ?lufbejferung  bet  SJeamtenjWlungen  ju 
fotbern.  3)er  Oiat  roat  jit  bringenb  unb  etnlend;tenb,  um  m'djt  befolgt  jit  uxtben. 
See  also  281.  b.  Note. 

Clause  of  Cause. 

278.  The  subordinate  clause  contains  the  cause  or  reason,  the 
principal  proposition  the  result  or  conclusion  (for  conjunctions  see 
238.  3.  E)  :  £er  SSalftfd?  fann  nur  Heine  Stcre  tferfcfyltngen,  iceif  fein 
@djliint>  fe^r  eng  ifl.  ^^ili^  H.  jttterte  fne^ttfc^  tor  ©ott,  weil  @ott  ba3 
ehtjiije  rear,  icosjor  er  ju  Bittern  ^atte.  QJZancfycr  itnlerldft  nur  be§^aI6  eine 
tcfe  ^anfchtng,  iteit  er  bie  8'olgen  fitrd)tet.  2)er  SKii^iggang  »erfiirjt  not* 
roenbig  itnfer  X'e(ien,  inbem  er  un3  fd;readKr  madjt.  2)a  aUe  Sfuge"  i«  i^«» 
5lugfagen  iifcercinfttmmen,  fo  icirb  bie  @ad;e  trofjl  fid;  fo  t>er^alten.  2)u 
foUtefl  fo  fd;n:ere  ©ebanfen  ntd)t  in  bir  auffommen  laffen,  ba  bit  bod)  mit  mefcr 
©enugtuung  alS  Utele  anbere  auf  bein  ixrgangeneS  Seben  unb  auf  bie  ©egemrart 
Mirfeu  fannjl  (R.  Huch's  K//a  somnium  breve,  I,  p.  56).  (Sfymuirbiger, 
id;  tttte  bid;,  nttr  jit  fcetjeiljen  itnb_  mid?  nid;t  gu  fenben,  anemogen  idj,  ivie  bit 
jueipt,  ber  einfdlttgfie  unb  unwiffenbefte  6tu  won  aUen  (Ertl's  Die  Stadt 
der  Heiligeri).  9Bo  icaren  metne  €tnne,  ba§  id;  btefen  Son  ntdjt  foglcid; 
»erjlanb?  Gh:  t)dtte  e3  nid;t  fagen  fatten,  junta!  er  icufte,  bap  e3  inir  nad;* 
tettig  fein  fann.  9Run  er  retd;  ijl,  t;at  er  8'reunbe.  S)iefeS  Utet  tft  befio 
(or  nm  fo,  sometimes  nm  beflo)  taftiger,  atS  (also  ba)  eS  nur  burd;  eine 
fd;merjUd;e  Operation  gel;eilt  iterten  fann.  S)a'oon  Bifl  bu  franf  geitorben, 
ba^  bu  nad;  bent  fdjneflen  iJaufe  fatteS  SBaffer  getntnfen.  3)?an  erfennt 
einen  feid;ten  2Kenfd;en  leid;t  ba'ran,  bay  er  tnel  Unnufceg  fd;ird^t.  As  the 
genitive  or  a  prepositional  phrase  may  denote  a  cause,  the  genitive 
and  prepositional  phrase  clauses  treated  in  272.  A  and  D  often 
belong  also  here  :  (genitive  clause)  3d)  freue  mid),  baf?  e8  Stynen  u-ofcl 
ge^)t.  For  examples  of  such  a  prepositional  phrase  clause  see  sen- 
tence above  beginning  with  2)a'oon,  and  also  the  last  sentence  in 
272.  D.  The  subordinate  clause  above  introduced  by  ba'ran  bajj  may 
also  be  regarded  as  a  clause  of  means  (282). 

a.  Mood.    We  usually  find  here  the  indie.     For  the  subjunctive  here  see 
169.  2.  J. 

b.  Abridgment.     A  causal  clause  introduced  by  irctlor  ba  can  be  abridged 
to  a  participle,  adjective,  noun,  or  prepositional  phrase,  when  the  subject  of 
the  principal  proposition  and  that  of  the  subordinate  clause  are  identical:  Qt 
ijt,  nxtl  burcf)  Xapferfeit  I)en?efraa,enb,  or  weil  tapfft  (=  iveit  et  buvd)  Sapferfeit  fycnjcr? 
raa,t,  or  wil  et  tayfet  tft),  bes  <£ica,e$  gejrip.   3)te  getnbe  batett,  burd)  bie  9hebedaa,e 
gfbeugt  (=  h>ei(  fte  bnrd)  bie  9iteberlage  gcbcngt  ivaten),  um  Stieben.    Gin  geborener 

regicrtc  et  (Safar)  bie  ©enmtct  ber  9}Jenfd)cn,  ttie  bet  ©tub  bie  SBolfen 


(Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  ii).  3m  23eft$  »ou  Jaltemvan  unb 
£alm)  fonnett  tie  ^avanet  i()te  aSetjiarfungen  unb  ben  s-Belagernng«ttain  tanben,  ber  fut 
ben  ^Ingriff  auf  $crt  5ltt[)ut  ucttg  loirb  (Neue  Ziircher  Zeitung,  9.  Juni  1904) 
Since  the  Japanese  are  in  possession  of,  &c. 


600  SYNTAX  279. 

Conditional  Clause. 

279.  The  conditional  clause  states  the  condition  upon  which  the 
action  of  the  principal  proposition  hinges  (for  conjunctions  see  238. 
3.  F.):  SCBenn  bag  ftleifd;  etngefat^en  unb  gertiutfjert  tfr,  gef)t  eg  ntdjt  in 
$dulntg  ii&er.  SSenn  afle  2ftenfd;en  gut  rcaren,  fo  fcebitrfte  eg  feiner  (Straf* 
gefefce.  23nb  rciltu  alfo  mit  mtr.  tfyun  |  fo  criritrgc  mid;  Iteoer  |  tyabe  id) 
attber$  (now  usually  irenn  id;  anberg  —  tyafce)  gnabe  fur  beinen  5(ugcn 
fimben  |  bag  id?  nid;t  mein  tmglucf  fo  fefyen  miiffe  (Numbers  xi.  15).  3a 
biefer  SBiberroiUe,  rcenn  id?  anberg  mem  ®efu|l  forgfaltig  unterfudjt  fya6e,  ifi 
ganoid;  son  ber  -Dtatitr  beg  @Wg  (Lessing).  2Benn  anberg  eg  moglid;  ift,  fo 
fd?rei6e  mit.  SBofern  er  fleipig  fein  rcoUte,  rcitrbe  er  Sebeutenbeg  leiflen.  (Jr 
fofl  eg  l)6ren,  bod?  bafj  er  nidjt  baoon  fyricfyt.  3d;  Bitttge  atteg,  auper  ba§  cr 
nidjt  felfcji  fommen  reiH.  3d;  fann  nid;t  ^inein  fommen,  auper  wenn  <2ie 
bag  $or  ofnen.  2)ag  0tetten  ttidre  IjuSfd),  nur  baf  man  Ieid;t  «§alg  unb 
SBeitt  ktd;t.  3d;  tue  eg  nid;t,  o^ne  baf  id;  fetne  ©rlautnig  ^a6e.  @r  fprad; 
nie,  o^ne  ba^  er  gefragt  ttsorben  njd're.  @g  fet  benn  baf  id;  aug  ©riinben  ber 
f)etltgen  @d;rtft  ober  mit  ftaren  unb  ^)etten  ©riinben  iifceraiefen  rcerbe,  fonft 
fann  imb  Jritl  id;  nid;t  njiberrufen  (Luther). 

a.  The  adverb  fo  is  in  these  sentences  very  often  found  in  the  principal 
proposition,  as  in  the  second  example  above. 

b.  The  conditional  clause  may  assume  other  forms  :  (1)  Instead  of  the  trans- 
posed word-order  the  question  order  is  often  used  if  the  conjunction  tt»enn  is 
omitted  ;  see  237.  i.  A.'£,  and  also  Note  2,  thereunder.    (2)  The  clause  may  for 
especial  emphasis  be  replaced  by  an  imperative,  in  which  case  fo  is  usually  found 
in  the  principal  proposition  :  @ei  tm  33ejt£e  unb  bit  toofynfi  im  3led)t  Possession  is 
nine  points  of  the  law.     @l>nc^  ja  ober  netn,  fo  bin  ii)  gufrtcbcn.     The  hortatory 
subjunctive  can  also  be  used  like  the  imperative;  see  168. 1.  2.  C.  a.    These 
imperative  and  hortatory  forms  are  independent  co-ordinate  propositions  as 
far  as  the  word-order  is  concerned,  the  logical  relation  of  the  thought  to  that 
of  the  main  proposition  alone  indicating  their  dependence.      Originally  in 
these  sentences  logical  subordination  did  not  find  grammatical  expression. 
The  dependent  word-order  is  a  later  development,  and  not  yet  by  any  means 
always  used  even  when  the  logical  subordination  is  evident.     (3)  Earlier  in 
the  period  there  was  in  use  a  conditional  clause  with  normal  word-order 
which  was  affirmative  in  form  and  negative  in  meaning.     Only  a  few  remnants 
are  left  of  this  construction  ;  see  168. 1.  2.  C.  b  and  II.  E.  b.     (4)  The  perfect 
participle  in  the  absolute  construction  is  often  used  here  instead  of  a  sub- 
ordinate clause.    For  examples,  see  265.  B.  a. 

c.  Mood.    When  the  supposition  is  real  the  verb  of  the  conditional  clause 
is  in  the  indie. :    SEenn  id)  fluntm  fcltefc,  gefdjaf)  c3  nut,  toeil  id)  uber  cin  9iatfcl 
nad)grube(te  If  I  remained  silent  (and  I  actually  did  so)  it  was  because  I  was 
pondering  over  an  enigma.      If  the  case  is  only  a  supposed  one,  but  one 
that  can  easily  happen,  the  indie,  is  now  used,  or  to  indicate  a  little  more 
uncertainty  the  past  subjunctive  of  foUen  with  the  infin.  of  the  verb  :  3d;  gefyc 
fort,  iccnn  cr  fomtnt  I  shall  go  away  if  he  comes,  or  3d;  gefye  fort,  n>cnn  ft  fommen 
foflte  /  shall  go  away  if  he  should  come.     The  present  subjunctive  could  be 
used  instead  of  the  indicative  in  earlier  periods,  but  it  is  now  only  found 
after  e<3  fet  benn  bafj  unless,  fa((3  in  case  that:  IDtreft  etnjugretfen  fyat  e3  fatim 
cine  93  crania  filing,  e3  fet  benn,  bajj  e3  fid;  barum  tyanble,  bie  mit  Sejng  auf  Jlcrea 
ttorbanbencn  £anbetS;  unb  @d)iffaf)rt3vcd)te  ju  toafjren  (Deutsche  Rundschau  *  2, 
1894,  p.  273)  It  (Germany)  has  scarcely  any  occasion  to  interfere  (in  the  war 
between  China  and  Japan  in  1894),  unless  the  question  should  arise  of  pre- 


280.  CONCESSIVE  CLAUSE  601 

serving  its  present  commercial  and  navigation  privileges  in  Corea.  The 
indie,  might  also  be  used  here,  but  would  suggest  a  greater  probability  of  the 
question  arising.  In  early  N.H.G.  such  a  conditional  clause  did  not  need 
an  introductory  conjunction,  as  the  present  subjunctive  of  itself  indicated  the 
subordination  sufficiently.  A  remnant  of  this  construction  still  survives  in 
the  expression  eS  fei  benn,  which  passes  for  a  conjunction,  but  is  in  reality  a 
conditional  clause;  see  168.  I.  2.  C. b  and  II.  Y..b.  Subjunctive  after  falls: 
Drbnm  @ie  an  —  falls  jetnanb  fortune  —  bafj  er  nidjt  uovgetaffen  iwerbe  (Suttner's  1m 
Berghause,  p.  47).  For  another  example  of  the  subjunctive  with  falls  see 
168.  II.  E. 

The  historical  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  may  be  used  here  to  denote  un- 
reality or  possibility.  This  unreal  potential  subjunctive  is  very  common  in 
toenn  clauses  if  the  condition  is  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind,  or  is  re- 
presented as  a  mere  possibility  or  impossibility,  or  as  in  conflict  with  fact. 
The  use  of  the  moods  and  tenses  in  such  unreal  conditional  sentences  is 
explained  at  length  in  169.  2.  E.  The  historical  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are 
often  used  after  efyne  bafj,  as  in  the  next  to  the  last  sentence  of  the  examples 
given  above,  to  make  a  statement  modestly  or  cautiously. 

In  logical  reasoning  after  the  absolute  participles  jugegcben,  gngefknben, 
angenontmcn,  etngeraumt,  which  have  the  force  of  conjunctions,  the  present 
subjunctive  is  the  usual  construction,  as  the  statement  is  only  assumed  as 
true  for  the  sake  of  argument :  3ugegcben,  aber  ntd)t  jugefknben,  ba§  bent  fo  fei, 
fo  redjtfertigt  cS  bent  33enef)tnen  bod)  nicfyt.  After  the  absolute  participle  gefefct 
the  past  or  past  perfect  subjunctive  is  the  usual  construction,  as  the  state- 
ment is  merely  a  hypothetical  one,  and  is  represented  as  probably  untrue,  or 
as  unlikely  to  be  realized,  or  as  merely  belonging  to  the  realm  of  fancy 
and  conjecture :  ©efefct  aber,  W\$,  <Sie  u?aren  bie  einjig  ©lucflidje ;  gefejjt,  @ie 
btdd)ten  if)it  bafjin,  bafj  er  fehten  Slbfdjeu  ubemnnben  ntiijjte :  glanben  @ie  trotyl 
bacnrd)  feineS  £erjenS  uerfid;ert  ju  fctn?  The  present  subjunctive  is  used  when 
it  is  desired  to  admit  that  the  statement  may  be  true,  or  may  possibly  be 
realized :  ($efe(3t,  er  ttoKe  and)  jcne  alte  @d)mad)  »ergefien,tourbe  er  ebeufo  tfyre  jiingjk 
Unbid  mgeffen  fonnen?  The  indie,  is  also  used  in  lively  language,  vividly 
representing  the  statement  as  true :  3d)  (Maria  Stuart)  tyab'  eS  nidjt  getan  — 
3ebedj  gcfe£t,  id)  that's  !  SJtylorb,  man  fyalt  mid)  I)ter  gefangen  unbcr  alle  a>6lferred)te. 

d.  Abridgment,  When  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  and  that  of 
the  subordinate  clause  are  identical  the  conditional  clause  introduced  by  jpcnn 
can  be  abridged  to  a  participle  :  3Utd)  bie  (Sdnradicn  nxrfccn  ntdditig,  jpenu  fie  vcrj 
bitnben  ftnb,  or  93erbunbcn,  iwevben  and)  bie  @d)wad)cn  inad)tig.  Db  jtc  (i.  e.  bie 
Slebe)  miv,  getycrt  (=  wenit  ftc  »on  nttr  geljort  worben  ware),  ebcufo  intvonievt  tyatte  ? 
(Spielhagen's  Fret  geboren,  p.  170).  The  subordinate  clause  is  sometimes 
contracted  to  the  infinitive  with  $n  when  the  subject  of  the  clause  is  identical 
with  the  subject  or  an  object  of  the  principal  verb  :  Du  tdtcfl  beficr,  nad)  ftvanf* 
reid)  51:  gcfyen  (Goethe).  ©S  fann  nn3  UKttig  6eil  erblu()it,  urn  etnc  Sett  jn  flreiten 
(Uhland).  This  construction  is  common  after  o()ne :  3di  tne  eS  nid^t,  ot;ne  feine 
CSrlaubniS  ju  tyaben.  Also  the  absolute  infinitive  is  used:  Set  v<lomebienbid)trr 
fd)ien,  nad)  fetnent  fd)ltd)ten  Slnjug  \\\  nrtetlcn,  fctn  ©unftling  beS  »4>(utud  jit  fetn. 
Also  other  contractions  occur :  eiltifle  ^d^tittc  tpcitcr  nnb  ©ie  fatten  ben 
2Kann  bemerfen  muffen.  C^iic  i^tt  ( =  juenn  er  ntd)t  getrefcn  ware)  war  id;  verlorcn. 

Concessive  Clause. 

280.  The  concessive  clause  contains  a  conceded  statement,  which, 
though  it  is  naturally  in  contrast  or  opposition  to  that  of  the  principal 
proposition,  is  nevertheless  unable  to  destroy  the  validity  of  the 
latter  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  G):  £)f>  man  gleici?  iiber  ben  cr* 
fod)tenen  ©leg  ba§  Scbeum  anftimmte,  fo  geftanb  bod)  2Baaen|lein  fclbft  feine 


602  SYNTAX  280. 

SRieberlage.  Dfcgteid)  bie  5IIpen  fcofyer  ftnb  al8  bte  $tyrenden,  fo  laffen  fte  fid) 
bod;  Ietd;ter  itfcerfd;reiten.  @o  tt>id;tige  ©runbe  ber  SKinifter  and;  fcorfcringen 
mod;te,  ber  Jtonig  ad)tete  nid;t  auf  feine  $8orte.  SOBeld;  tapfer  ^aupt  and; 
biefer  >§elm  fceberft  (fyat),  er  fann  fein  rcitrbigere6  jieren  (Schiller).  $ro£bem 
er  fd;on  feit  Idngcrer  %tit  fefcr  untro^I  rear,  erfiiflte  er  bod;  nod;  immer  bie 
$fltd;ten  feine§  QlmteS  nut  ber  grb'fjten  $itnftlid;feit.  -§ter  fonnt'  id;  meine 
€>eete  t>on  mtr  fyaud;en,  fo  ntitb  unb  leife  trie  ba3  5Biegenftnb . . .  ,  ba  (now 
ba  bod;)  fern  son  bir  id;  rafenb  tofcen  nwrbe  (A.  W.  Schlegel).  Jtonnen 
umfrifdje  <2d;dbel  er^alten  fein,  ba  bod;  bie  llmorer  if)re  £etd;en  tterfcrannten  ? 
(Beilage  zur  Allgemeinen  Zeilung,  Jahrgang  1904,  No.  32,  p.  250). 

a.  The  adversative  particle  bod)  is  frequently  used  for  emphasis  in  the 
principal  proposition,  as  in  the  first  two  sentences  above. 

b.  As  in  279.  b,  also  here  the  subordinate  clause  has  often  the  word-order 
and  form  of  principal  proposition:    (i)  The  clause  may  be  replaced  by  a 
proposition  with  normal  or  question  order  if  the  subjunctive  of  the  verb  be 
used;   237.  i.A.  d.     See  also  168. 1.  2.  A.     (2)  The  imperative  may  take  the 
place  of  the  clause :   @ei  nod;  fo  bimtm,  e3  gtbt  bod;  jemanb,  ber  bid;  fur  wife  I;alt. 
(3)  A  proposition  with  question  order  and  a  verb  in  the  indie,  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  subordinate  clause  :  Unb  braut  bet  SBtnter  nod;  fo  fffyr  ntit  trofcigen 
©ebavben,  unb  ftreitt  et  (Sis  unb  (Sd)nee  utnfyer :  eg  ntufi  bod;  grueling  ircrbcn  (Geibel). 
The  subjunctive  may  also  be  used  here  as  indicated  in  (i),  above,  but  the 
indie,  must  be  used  when  the  statement  is  represented  as  an  actual  fact :  <£tnb 
aud;  bie  alien  93iid;er  nid;t  jur  £anb,  fie  ftnb  in  unfre  «£>er§en  eingefd)rte6en.    See  also 
168.  I.  2.  A. 

c.  Mood.    The  indie,  is  usually  used  if  the  clause  is  introduced  by  a  conjunc- 
tion.    Sometimes,  however,  the  subjunctive  is  employed  ;  see  168.  1. 2.  A.  a, 
2nd  paragraph.     If  the  clause  is  introduced  by  an  interrogative  pronoun  or 
interrogative  adverb  the  subjunctive  is  also  still  quite  common,  though  the 
indie,  is  often  found,  and  always  when  describing  past  events  the  results  of 
which  are  now  definitely  known :  2Bie  bent  and;  fet  (or  fein  ntag),  c3  hntb  fid; 
allcS  $um  Seften  toenben.    2Bie  ftrafbar  and;  beS  gurften  Bftedt  ivarcn,  bie  <2d)ritte, 
bie  ec  offentlid)  getan,  verflatteten  nod;  etne  nttlbe  Seutung.     If  the  conceded  state- 
ment is  not  represented  as  an  actual  fact,  but  only  as  possible  or  impossible, 
or  contrary  to  fact,  the  unreal  potential  subjunctive  is  used,  see  169. 1.  B. 
If  the  conjunction  is  dropped  the  moods  are  used  as  described  in  b,  above. 
See  also  168. 1. 2.  A. 

d.  Abridgment.      If  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause  and  that  of  the 
principal  proposition  are  identical  the  clause  may  be  abridged  to  an  apposi- 
tional  participle,  adjective,  or  noun,  but,  contrary  to  the  general  rule,  retains 
here  the  conjunctions  (obgletd)  or  cbtt>ofy() :   Dbivofyt  er  »om  @d)irffat  gebeugt 
ijt,  or  -Dbttofyl  »om  <2d;icffal  gebeugt,  flrebt  ber  ©ute  empor. 

Sometimes  in  colloquial  language  when  the  subjects  are  not  identical 
abridgment  occurs :  Sen  2.  SDJdrj  befHeg  id)  ben  3Sefit»,  cbgteid;  bet  trubem  unb 
umttjclttcm  ®ipfel  (Goethe).  <2d;Iafcn  ttnrb  cr  ntd)t  ntefyr;  unb  reenn  [cr  and;  nod; 
fd)laft],  fo  icccf'  id;  i^n  (Hoffmann's  Wider  den  Kurfiirsten,  chap.  viii).  [9la, 
bu  ^aft  ja  ben  Sungen  ge^orig  bearbeitet.  (Sr  fyat  tro^ig  erftart,  et  irolle  fo  fdjnell  als 
ntcglid;  ins  SnfHtitt.  6t  hit's  tt>of;t  bir  gu  £tebe.]  „  Unb  n^enn,"  icarf  ^»cnrif  etn, 
„  ^»auftfad)e  mufj  bod;  n>ol?t  fur  bid;  fein,  bafj  bu  beinen  3»ed  erreid;t  I;ajl "  (Maria 
Janitschek's  Einer  Mutter  Sieg,  xiii). 

Clause  of  Purpose. 

281.  The  clause  of  purpose  or  final  clause,  as  it  is  often  called, 
states  the  purpose  or  direct  end  of  the  action  of  the  principal 
proposition  (for  conjunctions  see  238.  3.  H) :  2)er  Jtnabe  gefct  in  bie 


281.  b.  CLAUSE  OF  PURPOSE  603 

@d)ule,  ba§  er  ftd)  Jtenntmfje  erreerfce.  2>arum  bin  id?  eud)  entgegengeeilt, 
bafj  id;  end;  trarneu  fonnte.  2)afj  bie  £cmb  geftd?ert  fclet&e,  fafjt  man  Jtofylen 
cm  nut  Sangen.  2) a  itarf  J?onrabm  [einen  «§anbfd?u1)  »om  SBlutgerufie  fyerafc, 
banitt  er  bem  Jtonig  $eter  son  9(ragonien  gef>rad?t  icerbe. 


a.  Mood.    The  subjunctive  is  here  usually  found,  as  the  action  is  repre- 
sented only  as  planned  or  desired.     The  indie.,  however,  is  often  used,  as 
the  tendency  has  ever  become  stronger  to  look  forward  and  regard  the  com- 
pletion of  the  action  as  something  that  will  surely  take  place,  and  thus  in 
German  clauses  of  purpose  often  become  clauses  of  result :  93ejud?e  mtcfo  balb, 
bamit  id)  bit  ttoit  meiuer  Otetfe  eqafylcn  fann.     After  an  imperative  there  is  some- 
times a  shade  of  difference  in  the  meaning  between  indie,  and  subjunctive. 
The  subjunctive  implies  a  greater  deference  to  the  wishes  of  the  person 
addressed,  while  the  indie,  implies  authority  on  the  part  of  the  speaker : 
(Sileu  <Eie,  bamit  c<5  nid)t  gu  [pat  ivcrbe,  but  to  a  boy :  (Sile,  bamit  ctJ  nidjt  gu  fvat 
ttrirb.     The  indie,  of  a  past  tense  on  the  other  hand  can  be  used  when  the 
aim  is  to  represent  the  intention  or  desire  as  actually  realized,  and  then  the 
conjunction  bajj  must  be  used  :  3d)  ricf  ifyn,  bajj  ct  erfcfyien.     On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  now  often  used  instead  of  the  subjunctive.     For  example  see  168.  I. 
2.  B.  b. 

b.  Abridgment,     The  final  clause  is  in  common  prose  usually  contracted 
to  an  infin.  with  ju  or  urn  gu  wherever  no  ambiguity  can  arise :  ®r  tranf  citt 
©laei  2Bein,  urn  jtd)  gu  ertodrmen  (much  more  common  than  bajj  er  jtd)  erwarme). 

Note.  In  Luther's  time  um  gu  was  not  yet  used,  but  it  is  now  much  more  common 
than  the  simple  gu.  This  um  is  a  prep,  which  denotes  around,  and  usually  stands 
before  the  name  of  the  thing  around  which  the  interests  cluster,  and  which  is  the 
aim  and  the  object  of  the  action :  (£r  fd)icfte  bctt  Jlttccfyt  um  bn3  $ferb  He  sent  the 
groom  for  the  horse.  Hence  before  the  infin.  um  denotes  that  the  infin.  and  its 
modifiers  contain  the  aim  and  the  object  of  the  action  of  the  principal  verb  :  (Jr  fdjicfte 
belt  Jlne^t,  lint  bag  $ferb  JU  Ijclen.  The  increasing  use  of  um  JU  instead  of  gu  is 
quite  natural.  Although  gn  often  expresses  the  idea  of  purpose  when  used  with  nouns, 
as  described  in  229.  2  under  gu,  II.  1.  B./,  it  is  so  often  used  with  the  infinitive  as  the 
subject  or  object  of  a  verb  that  the  original  idea  of  purpose  is  no  longer  vividly  felt. 
The  prep,  um  brings  out  this  idea  clearly.  Though  lint  jit  originally  was  limited  to 
clauses  of  purpose,  it  has  also  spread  to  clauses  of  result,  as  mentioned  in  276.  C.  b 
and  277.2.3,  and  even  to  substantive  and  adjective  clauses,  as  mentioned  in  255. 
II,  G.  b  and  IV.  2.  a.  This  favorite  construction  has  to  the  alarm  of  the  grammarians 
spread  much  beyond  the  bounds  prescribed  for  it  by  strict  grammatical  laws,  and 
is  now  used  with  especial  frequency  to  add  to  a  statement  about  a  person  or  thing  some 
item  concerning  their  later  fate,  lot,  or  conduct :  <£iefc!)icbctt,  um  ftcf)  ntc  Unebfrjitfefjen 
They  parted  never  to  see  one  another  again.  J>cmn  lad)te  irefyl  bft  finMicfye  5rcl)ftnn 
auf,  um  balb  nneber  bcfto  fdjnxrcr  niebergebriirft  gu  trerbeu.  Jpier  hatte  jte  fcittjcc 
flctcbt,  flctiebt,  geljciratet,  Jltntet  geboren  unt>  bcgraben  uub  a(3  eiitgige  fcuorane  (Irbin 
ben  ftatt(id)en  ^Bejtfc  angctrctcn,  um  edictf  2"agc<5  n>ieber  MtS  bem  ein^igcn  ©ofine  jit 
[jinterlaffen  (Berlepsch's  Fortunats  A'oman,  p.  3).  Untcr  t^iieii  ba(5|clbe  <£cfa,  mit 
OJo§f)aar  uberjcgen,  in  bent  tcr  jet)n  3a()ven  ^an8  ?()orbeefen  flefeffen  l)atte,  um  am 
anberit  9J?ovgen  in  bie  8r<.'rnbe  gu  jlie{)cn  (Frenssen's  Die  Sandgrtifin,  chap.  xx).  This 
censured  construction  corresponds  closely  to  the  use  of  the  infinitive  with  to  in  similar 
expressions  in  English.  The  infinitive  with  to  in  English  and  um  gtl  in  German  are 
here  employed  to  denote  a  result  which  is  the  natural  outcome  of  events  or  plans 
independent  of  the  action  described  in  the  principal  proposition,  while  they  else- 
where denote  a  result  as  the  effect  of  the  activity  or  state  indicated  in  the  governing 
proposition.  While  the  use  of  to  and  um  gu  here  is  contrary  to  the  general  principle 
observed  in  clauses  of  result,  it  should  be  regarded  as  a  valuable  modification  and 
extension  of  this  principle  which  should  be  encouraged  rather  than  discouraged,  as 
it  is  one  of  the  tersest  and  most  expressive  constructions  known  to  either  language. 


604  SYNTAX  282. 

Clause  of  Means. 

282.  The  clause  of  means  indicates  the  means  by  which  the 
effect  mentioned  in  the  principal  proposition  is  produced.     For 
the  conjunctions  used  and  illustrative  examples  see  238.  3.  I. 

Clause  of  Material. 

283.  Adverbial  clauses  of  material  are  quite  rare.      For  the 
conjunctions  used  and  illustrative  examples  see  238.  3.  J. 


WORD-ORDER. 

284.  I.  The  German  word-order  presents  peculiar  difficulties  to 
the  English-speaking  student.  One  of  the  first  things  to  learn  is 
that  word-order  in  a  German  sentence  is  intimately  connected  with 
accent.  In  German  words  are  removed  from  their  usual  position 
and  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  when  they  become 
emphatic,  while  in  English  we  may  accent  words  heavily  without 
changing  their  position.  The  next  important  position  in  a  German 
sentence  is  at  the  end.  The  least  emphatic  words  are  usually  found 
near  the  middle  of  the  sentence,  and  further  on  the  words  receive 
more  stress  as  they  approach  the  end.  Also  considerations  of 
euphony  influence  word-order.  Short,  light  objective  or  adverbial 
elements  precede  longer,  heavier  ones.  Opposed  to  this  freedom 
of  placing  words  according  to  their  logical  or  emotional  importance, 
or  the  requirements  of  euphony,  &c.,  are  certain  mere  formal  prin- 
ciples which  have  developed  certain  fixed  types.  Hence  the  whole 
subject  must  be  studied  in  detail. 

In  German  there  are  three  word-orders  :  the  verb  in  the  second 
place,  the  verb  in  the  first  place,  the  verb  in  the  last  place. 

i.  The  verb  in  the  second  place  may  assume  two  different  forms. 
The  subject  may  stand  in  the  first  place  with  the  verb  in  the  second 
place :  5)er  SSater  Itebt  fcen  (2of)n.  This  form  is  called  normal  order. 
If  any  other  word  for  emphasis,  or  to  establish  a  nearer  relation 
with  what  goes  on  before,  or  because  it  lies  nearer  in  thought, 
stand  in  the  first  place,  the  verb  still  maintains  the  second  place, 
followed  usually  by  the  subject  in  the  third  place  :  $luf  <8onnenfdjein 
folgt  jHegen.  This  order  is  called  inverted. 

a.  This  division  into  normal  and  inverted  order  is  now  quite  general,  but 
not  altogether  scientific.  In  earlier  periods  there  is  no  difference  whatever 
between  these  two  orders.  The  subject  or  any  word  in  the  predicate  could 
for  emphasis,  or  to  establish  a  nearer  relation  with  what  went  on  before,  or 
because  it  lay  nearer  in  thought,  stand  in  the  first  place,  followed  by  the  verb 
in  the  second  place.  This  older  order  of  things  is  in  large  measure  still  in 
force.  The  subject  still  takes  its  place  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  when  it 
becomes  emphatic,  especially  the  interrogatives,  Iver,  Ivetdjer,  &c.,  or  a  noun 
which  has  important  modifiers  :  Side  unrfhdje  Jhmji  bmtfyt  auf  bar  inbiotbueflcu 
ftretfKtt  unb  bem  frofyttdwt  gebenScjenujj  (Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte,  III, 
chap.  xiv).  The  subject  is  brought  forward  to  establish  a  nearer  relation  with 


284.  1.3.  a.  WORD-ORDER  605 

what  goes  on  before,  especially  in  case  of  demonstrative  pronouns.  Even 
the  weakly  accented  personal  pronoun  establishes  the  connection  with  what 
precedes  :  2Bi(lfi  bu  nidjt  beinen  Jlaffee  ttinfen,  Xantdjen  ?  @t  toirb  ganj  fait 
(Sudermann's  Fritzchen,  5).  This  personal  pronoun  is  sometimes  accented, 
and  then  it  stands  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  in  a  double  capacity  —  as  an 
emphatic  word  and  to  establish  a  connection  with  what  precedes :  •iperr,  ft 
fyatte  e$  Ieid)t!  Gt  ging  »on  fyinnen,  abet  bit  lief  et  al$  Gtbe  ba3  fyalb  jetftotte 
{Hetdj  (Sudermann's  Tej'a,  ll). 

These  original  ideas  which  lie  in  the  normal  word-order  are  now  often 
little  felt  or  not  felt  at  all,  as  this  word-order  has  developed  a  different  force. 
It  has  become  the  form  of  expression  suited  to  the  mind  in  its  normal  condition 
of  steady  activity  and  easy  movement,  from  which  it  departs  under  the  stress  of 
emotion  or  for  logical  reasons,  or  in  conformity  to  fixed  rules.  Thus  where 
there  are  several  subordinate  clauses  connected  by  unb,  cber,  &c.,  there  is  a 
strong  tendency  after  the  conjunction  to  return  to  the  normal  order :  ©tunb' 
Vlgamemnong  @ef)n  bit  gegeniibet,  |  unb  bu  ttettangtefi,  toatf  ftd)  nidjt  gebiifjtt :  |  fo  Ijat 
ufn?.  (Goethe's  Iphigenie,  5,  3).  2Bcnn  bann  bte  roKenben  SBagen  cotbetgefaufl  ftnb 
unb  man  fcott  fie  nut  ncd)  in  bet  getne  ufw.  (Auerbach).  2Bet  einen  foldjen  @d)titt 
untevnimmt  unb  ben,  ©ott  fei  !Danf !  tmtnet  nod)  fcft  gefugten  53au  bet  Jfitd)e  jet* 
ttutmr.etn  toill  unb  fyat  fid)  nid)t  beffet  a((e$  torljet  iiberlegt,  bet  fann  ftd)  nut  ldd)etltd) 
wacf)en.  In  much  the  same  manner  the  inverted  order  is  often  replaced  by 
the  normal :  Site  et  gutucffam,  tvat  fetn  ©efidjt  ftatf  verrtjcint  unb  et  fd)(ofj  ji<| 
me^tere  ©tunben  in  fein  3immet  etn  (Schubin's  Boris  Lensky,  x).  The  normal 
order  is  also  now  usually  employed  where  in  earlier  periods  the  question 
order  was  used,  i.e.  the  verb  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  for 
especial  emphasis.  Thus  usually  id)  mufi ,  but  in  colloquial  language  the  old 
question  order  asserts  itself:  (Trude)  llnb  bu  —  jeigft  fte  jefct  an?  (Forster) 
aRufj  id)  (M.  Dreyer's  Winterschlaf,  i).  In  a  somewhat  veiled  form  this  older 
usage  is  still  quite  common  in  the  literary  language.  The  expletive  e$  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence  as  a  provisional  subject  followed  imme- 
diately by  the  verb,  and  further  on  by  the  logical  subject :  ©<J  trtt  bet  3J}enfd) 
fo  lang  et  fttebt  (Goethe's  Faust,  Prolog).  Thus,  though  the  order  is  in  form 
the  normal,  it  is  in  fact  the  question  order,  for  the  verb  is  the  first  word  of 
real  meaning.  This  important  construction  is  discussed  at  length  in  251.  II. 
B.<z.  bb)  cc. 

As  the  original  use  of  the  normal  word-order  to  make  emphatic  the  subject 
is  not  now  so  vividly  felt  as  formerly,  it  is  now  common  to  place  the  subject 
near  the  end  of  the  sentence  if  it  is  to  be  especially  emphasized.  For  fuller 
treatment  of  this  point  see  251.  II.  B.  a.  cc. 

2.  The  verb  in  the  first  place  is  the  usual  order  of  a  question, 
and  may  be  called  question  order:  3fi  bet  Jtnafce  fleipiij? 

a.  In  earlier  periods  the  verb  stood  in  the  first  place  whenever  it  was 
emphatic,  or  in  order  to  establish  a  nearer  relation  with  what  went  on  before, 
or  because  it  lay  nearest  in  thought,  and  hence  could  introduce  a  declarative 
sentence.  In  literary  German  this  order  is  now  restricted  to  definite  groups 
of  cases,  which  are  given  in  287.  B.  In  popular  language,  however,  the 
earlier  freedom  of  placing  a  verb  at  the  beginning  of  even  a  declarative 
sentence  is  still  quite  common.  See  251.  II.  B.  b,  also  286.  A.  c. 

3.  The  verb  in  the  last  place  is  the  order  of  a  subordinate 
clause,  and  is  usually  called  transposed  order ':  £>ie  Sterne  erfdjeinen 
uu3  beSivegen  fo  ftein,  welt  fte  fo  ivett  »ou  unfl  cntfetnt  flnb. 

<T.  In  earlier  periods  the  verb  quite  commonly  introduced  the  principal 
proposition  in  emphatic  statement  and  narrative,  and  survivals  of  this  usage 
still  often  occur  in  emphatic  statements  and  ballads,  as  indicated  in  287.  B 


606  SYNTAX  284.  1. 3.  a. 

(7)  and  (8),  but  in  the  normal  declarative  sentence  the  verb  stood  at  the  end. 
This  was  in  conformity  with  a  general  principle  of  the  German  sentence  that 
modifiers  of  a  word  should  precede  it,  a  principle  which  in  large  part  is  still 
observed.  This  normal  order  was  disturbed  in  case  of  emphatic  modifiers  of 
the  verb  or  in  long  sentences,  where  the  attention  was  directed  to  the  modi- 
fiers by  crowding  the  verb  out  of  the  end  position  and  placing  there  the 
important  adverbial  and  objective  elements.  This  occasional  emphatic  order 
became  finally  the  new  normal  order  as  it  exists  to-day.  The  older  normal 
order,  however,  still  survives  in  poetry  ;  see  288.  B.  c.  It  has  also  been  pre- 
served in  the  subordinate  clause.  The  main  reasons  for  the  preservation  of 
the  older  order  here  seem  to  be  :  firstly,  the  subordinate  clause  is  shorter, 
and  hence  not  so  liable  to  disturbance  ;  secondly,  the  subordinate  clause  is 
usually  presented  more  dispassionately  as  a  compact  unit,  and  hence  the  old 
normal  order  is  preserved,  as  it  has  not  been  disturbed  by  logical  considera- 
tions or  the  stress  of  emotion  in  directing  the  attention  to  some  particular 
element  or  elements  as  in  the  principal  proposition. 

II.  These  different  word-orders  are  discussed  somewhat  in  detail 
in  the  following  articles,  but  a  number  of  still  smaller  details  can 
only  be  learned  from  practical  acquaintance  with  the  language. 
The  word-order,  as  it  is,  has  only  after  a  long  period  of  develop- 
ment assumed  its  present  form.  Earlier  usage  is  still  reflected 
occasionally  in  poetry  and  elevated  language  in  general,  as  is 
mentioned  below  and  in  237,  in  the  treatment  of  transposed 
word-order. 

Normal  Order. 

I.  General  Statement. 

285.  i.  Order  of  Words.  This  order  is,  first  the  subject  with  all 
its  modifiers,  then  the  simple  verb  or  in  compound  tenses  the 
auxiliary,  followed  by  the  modifiers  of  the  verb :  ©oetlje,  ber  am 
28.  9lugufi  1749  auf  bie  SEBelt  fain,  f)at  im  geifltgen  Seben  2>eutfd)Ianb8 
geroirft,  rote  etne  geroalttge  0hturerfd)einung  im  pf^ftfdjen  geroirft  §a tie. 

2.  Normal  order  is  found  : 

a.  In  independent  declarative  sentences :  3d)  trage  imnur  bie  <sdjiu)e 
ijorn  erfig  I  always  wear  square-toed  shoes. 

b.  In  questions  in  which  the  interrogative  word  or  phrase  is  itself 
the  subject  of  the  sentence:   SBer  fommt  benn  oflfg?  Who  all  are 
coming  ?     QBeffen  «£>ut  liegt  auf  bent  £iftf?e  ? 

c.  Often  in  other  interrogative  sentences,  which  are  distinguished 
from  declarative  sentences  only  by  the  rising  inflection  or  in  print 
by  the  punctuation :  llnb  6ie  fjafcen  ba§  im  (Srnfle  geglau&t  ?  And  you 
really  believed  that?     Such  sentences  usually  express  doubt  or 
surprise.     In  connection  with  ntcfyt  iraftr  is  he  not,  has  he  not,  is  she 
not,  has  she  not,  must  you  not,  &c.,  which  may  introduce  the  sen- 
tence or  close   it,   this   order  is   much  used   in  questions  which 
confidently  expect  an  affirmative  answer :  @S  ifl  fyeute  fcfyoneS  SCBetter, 
nicfyt  roa^r?  It  is  fine  weather  to-day,  isn't  it?    0ttd;t  roatyr,  fie  fann 
fcfyon  ftngen  ?  She  can  sing  beautifully,  can't  she  ? 

d.  In  wishes  the  normal  order  may  be  used  ;  see  168. 1.  i.  B.  a. 

e.  In  commands  which  are  expressed  by  the  indicative  :  see  177. 
B.b.c. 


285.  II.  B.  a.  NORMAL  ORDER  607 

f.  The  normal  order  is  also  sometimes  used  in  subordinate 
clauses;  see  237.  i.  A.  a,  d,f,  and  Note  i,  under  b. 

II.  Detailed  Statement. 

A.  Word-order  of  the  Subject.  The  general  rule  for  the  position 
of  the  modifiers  of  the  subject  is  that  adjectives  and  participles  pre- 
cede, an  adjective  clause,  an  adverb  (see  B.  a.  Note  (i),  (2),  (3),  (4), 
below),  or  prep,  phrase  follow,  an  appositive  or  genitive  either 
precedes  or  follows  the  subject :  @in  ebler  SKcmn  nnrb  burcfy  ein  guteS 
SJBort  ber  Srauen  rceit  gefitfyrt.  ©in  ©laufce,  redeem  bte  2£erfe  fcfylen,  iji  eiit 
toter  ©taufce.  2)er  2)urfl  nad)  Sftutynt  Uerleitet  mancfye  auf  falfcfye  SBege.  S)a3 
(Scfylofi  be3  JtatferS  6ei  $ot?bam  ijl  fetyr  fcfyon. 

a.  The  position  of  an  appositive  is  described  in  255.  III.  i.  A,  B. 
b,  and  that  of  a  genitive  is  treated  in  255.  II.  i.     The  appositive 
noun,  which  represents  an  older  partitive  genitive,  may  precede  the 
governing  noun  or  pronoun,  and  often  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
sentence,  whether  it  modifies  the  subject  or  an  object ;  see  255.  II. 
i.H.fl. 

b.  The  adjective  sometimes  stands  after  the  subject ;  see  104.  2. 
B.  a  and  b ;  111.  9. 

c.  All  modifiers  of  an  attributive  adjective  or  participle  must 
stand  before  it :  2>er  gfgen  feinen  93efd}u§er  fur  bte  empfangenen  SSofjItaten 
in  Ijofyem  ©rabe  banffcare  ^naSe  itbernafynt  freubig  ben  gefdfyrlidjen  5luftrag. 
£>a3  auf  bent  $tfd)e  liegenbe  3Bud). 

d.  An  appositional  noun,  adjective,  or  participle,  which  precedes 
the  subject,  not  as  an  attributive  modifier,  but  as  the  equivalent  of 
an  adverbial  clause,  must  like  adverbs  cause  inversion  :  (Sin  geborener 
«&errfdjer  (=  njeit  er  ein  gefcorcner  «§errfcfyer  rcar),  regierte  er  bie  ©emitter  ber 
2Wenfd?en,  we  ber  SBtnb  bte  SBetten  jtrtngt. 

B.  Word-order  of  the  Predicate.  The  personal  part  of  the  verb 
follows  the  logical  subject.  The  general  rule  for  the  word-order  of 
the  modifiers  of  the  verb  is  that  the  important  words  gravitate 
towards  the  end  of  the  sentence  and  the  less  important,  as  personal 
or  reflexive  (see  218.  i.  a)  pronouns,  stand  near  the  verb.  The 
following  points  should  be  carefully  mastered  : 

a.  The  verb,  or  in  compound  tenses  the  auxiliary,  must  follow  the 
logical  subject  immediately,  and  hence  no  adverbial  expressions  or 
clauses  must  be  allowed  to  stand  between  subject  and  verb  as  in 
English :  3cfy  fcefucfye  tfyn  oft  I  often  visit  him.  i£>te  ©riedjen  rcdtjten, 
bamit  tfyre  eigene  <£d}ttdd?e  tterbccft  bliefcc,  afle  <£d?nlb  beg  SSerlufleS  auf  tljn 
The  Greeks,  in  order  that  their  own  weakness  might  remain 
concealed,  threw  all  blame  for  the  loss  upon  him. 

Note.  To  this  important  rule  there  must  be  added,  however,  a  few  exceptions : 
(1)  Often  a  few  adverbial  expressions,  as  nur  only,  toemgflend  at  the  least,  jebenfattg 
at  any  rate,  fiic  meittf  $erfen,  or  fur  meinen  £eil,  or  nteinc$tei(3/0r  my  part,  and  the 
concessive  terms  freilidj  tj  be  sure,  in  bet  Hat  indeed,  n>ie  id)  jugcben  mu§  as  I  must 
confess,  &c.,  modify  not  the  verb,  but  only  the  subject,  and  hence  may  follow  it,  and 
thus  stand  between  subject  and  verb  :  3d)  tt>cntflflen$  Ijabe  nidjtg  gefeljen  I  for  my  part 
have  seen  nothing.  (2)  A  few  adverbs  as  befonbeta  especially,  »orjugttdj  particularly, 
»or  aflcm  above  all,  Sec.,  especially  emphasize  the  subject,  and  may  follow  it :  3)etn 


608  SYNTAX  285.11.  B.  a. 

33-ruber  befonbera  Ijat  fid)  in  ber  lefcten  Sett  gegen  tnid)  feljr  frennblid)  beunefen. 
(3)  Partitive  and  adversative  conjunctions  or  adverbs,  as  einerfeifc  on  the  one  hand, 
onbererfettg  on  the  other  hand,  aber,  inbeffen,  jebcd)  however,  bagegen,  fyingegm  on  the 
other  hand,  &c.,  which  represent  the  subject  as  sharing  in  an  action  or  as  being  in 
contrast  to  another  subject,  may  follow  the  subject :  @etne  JtranHtdjfeit  etnerfettS,  feine 
£tagf)eit  anberfeits  toaren  ifym  ein  gropes  -£>inberni$.  9Ule  toaren  fiber  ben  freemen 
2Hovbanfa((  aitf  ben  Siirften  au^er  fid),  biefer  im  ©egentetl  (or  fyingegen)  »erlor  feinen 
2lugfttbltcf  He  S^ffung.  (4)  Sometimes  adverbs,  or  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses, 
though  true  adverbial  elements  in  form,  are  felt  as  the  equivalent  of  adj.  modifiers, 
and  follow  the  subject:  35a3  §aug  ba  (  =  tag  ba  ftdjt)  gef)6rt  mtr  The  house  there 
belongs  to  me.  2)ie  £reibjagb  ant  3.  Samtar  (=  bie  am  3-  3anuar  fiattfanb)  brad)te 
uber  Ijnnbert  2)?enfd)en  auf  bie  Seine.  Cannibal,  ba  er  (  =  h>eld)er)  fid)  auf  bie  ncd) 
nid)t  vodig  untenrcrfnen  .f  etten  DberitalienS  jlufccn  u?o((te,  n>af)lte  ben  2Beg  iiber  bie 
5Upen.  (5)  A  clause  sometimes  stands  before  the  verb  when  it  refers  to  the  thought 
contained  in  the  predicate  as  a  whole  rather  than  to  the  verb  itself:  Set  Xunnet 
(literary  society  in  Berlin  in  the  years  1827-77),  n>a$  nid)t  gtctc^gultig  roar  unb  beSljatb 
f)iet  mit  erwd^nt  iterben  ntag,  befa^  aud)  ein  nid)t  unbetrat^tlid^ee  SSermcgen  (Fontane). 
(6)  A  phrase,  clause,  or  sentence  is  often  inserted  parenthetically  between  subject  and 
verb:  35 ie  ©tiftungsfcfte,  toie  gefagt  (as  already  mentioned},  toarett  gut.  35ein  93ruber, 
hjenn  bit  eg  bureaus  wiiten  h)tt(p,  f)at  bag  ®clb  genommen ;  er,  urn  frci  »on  ber  2eber 
gn  fpred)en,  ifi  ber  £>ieb.  3)er  ^nabe  —  SBil^elm  Jjiejj  er  —  antwortete :  3d)  Weif? 
e^  nid)t. 

b.  In  sentences  containing  a  compound  tense  and  also  those 
containing  a  separable  prefix  or  a  predicate  adjective,  the  gram- 
matically important  word  of  the  predicate,  i.  e.  participle,  infinitive, 
separable  prefix,  predicate  adjective  or  noun,  usually  stands  at  the  end 
of  the  sentence.  For  fuller  treatment  of  this  important  word-order 
see  215.  II.  i.  A.  This  word-order  is  observed  even  where  the 
participle  is  used  instead  of  a  past  tense ;  see  183.  i.  G.  Besides 
the  points  discussed  in  215.  II.  i.  A,  the  following  additional  details 
should  be  noted : 

aa.  Auxiliary  infinitives  stand  after  perf.  participles  :  <Ste  burften  jtd)  getrrt 
Ijaben  You  have  probably  made  a  mistake.  2Bir  raufien  foofyi;  fceibe  gugteidj 
barauf  gefomnten  fein  We  must  have  both  hit  upon  that  idea  at  the  same  time. 
A  dependent  infinitive,  however,  precedes  a  participle :  3d)  fyabe  tfyn  fommen 
gefefyen. 

bb.  The  predicate  noun,  adjective,  or  participle  is  followed  by  a  perf. 
participle  or  infinitive  :  ($t  tft  ein  tud)ttger  5J2ann  getoorben.  @ie  ifl  fd)6n  gcltefen. 
<3te  hnrb  ifynen  nafye  btetben.  (Sr  itirb  ein  tud)ttger  2J?ann  geworben  fein  He  has 
probably  become  a  good,  solid  man.  Here  belongs  the  predicate  participle 
in  the  passive  voice,  which  must  always  be  followed  by  the  participle  and 
infinitive  of  toerben :  35er  @d)iiler  ijl  gelobt  ftorben.  fir  nnrb  gelobt  fterben. 

cc.  The  infinitive  or  participle  which  stands  regularly  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence  must  be  preceded  by  its  modifiers :  3d)  fann  3fynen  feine  bejttmmte 
Slntlport  geben.  @r  ^at  ben  ©trett  angefangen.  If,  however,  the  infinitive  or 
participle  is  modified  by  an  infinitive  with  $11  or  by  a  clause  it  must  usually 
precede  these  modifiers  :  3d)  mujj  <Sie  bitten,  mtr  etnen  €?egenfdn'rm  ^n  letfjen. 
3d)  mod)te  gern  iutffen,  iuas  bte$  tfl.  35as5  ^inb  ^at  angefangen,  Sranjoftfdj  gu  ternen. 
34  Ijab'g  erfa^ren,  teag  Jpungern  ijl. 

dd.  A  single  adverb,  a  genitive,  or  dative  modifying  a  predicate  adjective, 
or  participle  must  precede  it,  but  a  phrase  or  longer  expression  may  also 
follow  it,  a  clause  usually  so  :  (Sr  iji  bort  geburttg  He  is  a  native  of  that  place. 
(Sr  ifl  ber  beutfd)en  <aprad)e  tnad)ttg  He  can  speak  and  understand  German. 
SSerjMung  ifl  ber  cffenen  ©eete  frentb.  But :  @r  ijl  aitS  bent  fiibltd)en  granfretd; 
geburttg,  or  @r  tft  geburttg  au«  bent  fiibltd)en  Sranfret^.  Qr  ift  baruber  fefjr  erfreut, 
but  3d;  bin  fefyr  erfreut,  bap  er  fid)  nteiner  ertnnert.  A  modifying  phrase  usually 
follows  when  some  word  in  the  phrase  is  modified  by  other  words :  3)er 


285.  II.  B.b.gg.          NORMAL  ORDER  609 

Slugenbtiff  ir-av  baf>et  wtegftcfjjl  ungunfttg  gettafjlt  fur  ben  ttcd)tnal3  gemad)ten  23erfud), 
gutlid)  §»ifdj«t  ben  ^arteten  $u  uermitteln. 

ee.  A  participle  which  has  the  form  of  an  infinitive  may  stand  at  the  end 
of  a  sentence  or  before  the  dependent  infinitive  and  its  modifiers  ;  see  178. 
2.  B.  c.  For  the  emphatic  position  of  the  dependent  infinitive  in  this  con- 
struction see  the  same  article. 

ff.  Sometimes  in  both  normal  and  question  order  other  words  can  follow 
an  infinitive  or  participle  contrary  to  the  general  rule  that  infinitive  and 
participle  must  stand  at  the  end.  This  exceptional  order  was  common  in 
Luther's  language,  and  it  is  not  infrequent  in  the  vigorous  prose  of  our  own 
time  whenever  it  seems  best  for  sake  of  emphasis  to  place  some  important 
modifier  of  the  verb  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  although  in  general  the  word- 
order  has  become  stereotyped:  33*  inerbet  fjoren  Krtegc  »nb  gefdjrety  »on 
friegen  (Matthew  xxiv.  6).  Jj?ajl  bit  bie  <£d)ttter$en  geltnbcrt  je  bed  23elabcnen  ? 
(Goethe).  <Sie  fyaben  3fyr  SebenSglucf  gec^fcrt  urn  tneinetunKcn  (Sudermann's 
Heimat,  4,  5).  Sometimes  in  colloquial  language  unimportant  words  follow 
the  infinitive  or  participle  :  3d)  befyaupte,  auf  un-it  bcin  2ktcv  ctmmrft,  fcer  fann  gat 
nie  ganoid)  mfacfyen  im  £eben  (Hauptmann's  Michael  Kramer,  i,  p.  26). 

On  the  other  hand,  this  irregular  feature  is  a  regular  characteristic 
feature  of  the  German  spoken  by  Jews  who  have  not  eradicated  all  traces  of 
Hebrew  or  other  foreign  influence  from  their  language :  £)te  ^cunere  ftnb 
geujefen  in  unfrer  <2tabt,  enter  Ijat  fie  gefriegt  tton  einem  a! ten  fterbent'cn  Settler,  unb 
tjl  geworben  ein  tndd)tiger  3JJann  (Veitel  Itzig  in  Freytag's  Soil  und  ffaben, 
chap.  i).  This  order  is  also  found  in  the  German  of  Poles,  Frenchmen, 
Englishmen,  and  other  foreigners  :  3d)  after  fage,  Jjjerr  *)3farrer,  btefe  ©iinbc  fann 
nid)t  »erjie()en  tuerben  in  @»igfeit,  benn  er  fyat  ftd)  nid}t  nur  fclbjl  erniebrtgt  jum  Jter,  «r 
fyat  and^  anbre  tn'netngejogen  in  fetnen  5^K  unb  ^  fie  bctrixjcn  urn  if)r  icitltd?e3  nnb 
eungeS  §et(  (the  Polish  chaplain  in  Halbe1 's  Jugend,  p.  96).  Compare  also 
the  German  of  Riccaut  in  Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  4,  2.  See  like- 
wise 215.  II.  I.  A.  a.  Note. 

In  general,  however,  the  position  of  the  infinitive  and  participle  at  the  end 
of  the  proposition  has  become  stereotyped,  so  that  they  occupy  this  place 
even  when  they  are  preceded  by  more  emphatic  words.  English  word-order, 
which,  in  general,  is  much  more  fixed,  often  preserves  at  this  point  the  old 
freedom  of  position  better  than  the  German  :  Clo. :  the  lady  bade  take  away 
the  fool;  therefore  I  say  again,  take  her  away.  OH. :  Sir,  I  bade  them  take 
away  you  (Shakespeare's  Twelfth  Night,  i,  5).  Narr :  £a$  fttauletn  teoflte 
bag  9larrengcftd)t  toeggcfdjafft  Ijaben,  bavitm  fage  id)  nod)  einntal :  fd)afft  ba3  ftraulein 
toeg!  Olivia:  ©uter  5«nnb,  id)  ttedte  (Surf)  uvggcfdmfft  Jjaben  (A.  W.  Schlegel's 
translation).  Schlegel  could  not  easily  have  imitated  here  the  English 
order,  and  hence  the  force  of  the  English  can  only  be  indicated  by  a  strong 
accent  upon  (Sad).  Perhaps,  if  the  German  translator  had  thoroughly  under- 
stood the  meaning  of  the  position  of  you  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  he  would 
have  arranged  his  words  differently.  This  position  indicates  strong  emphasis, 
and  can  be  imitated  in  German  by  putting  the  object  in  the  first  place  :  ©uter 
greitnb,  @ud)  u?c(lte  id)  lveggefd)afft  fyuben. 

gg.  The  preceding  remarks  refer  to  the  usual  position  of  participle,  infini- 
tive, separable  prefix,  predicate  adjective,  or  noun.  A  certain  logical  em- 
phasis always  lies  in  all  these  grammatical  functions,  even  though  there 
may  be  no  especial  stress  upon  the  individual  words,  and  hence  the  regularity 
with  which  we  find  these  words  in  their  position  at  the  close  of  the  sentence,. 
However,  if  any  especial  emphasis  be  placed  upon  the  individual  words  in 
these  functions,  they  are  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence :  ®d)cn  ijl  baa 
Setter  I)eute  nid)t.  ©cgeben  fyabe  id)  ifym  ba<3  3)ud)  ntd)t,  fenbtrn  nur  geltcfjen. 
©djretben  fcdtte  er  bod)  n>enigften<J  gcfonnt.  The  separable  prefix  only  rarely 
thus  introduces  the  sentence,  and  that  usually  in  poetry,  preferring  as  a  rule, 

R  r 


610  SYNTAX  2BS.ll.B.b.gg. 

to  stand  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  :  Burucfc  Heibt  bet  Jtnawen  £rop  (Schiller). 
See  215.  II.  I.  A.  e  for  the  manner  of  writing  the  prefix  here. 

hh.  If  an  infinitive  or  participle  belongs  to  several  propositions  it  is 
usually  in  normal,  inverted,  and  question  order  found  in  its  proper  position 
in  the  last  of  the  propositions,  and  understood  with  the  others  :  (§r  (@dfar) 
fyat  biefe  bcibcn  grofjen  Slufgaben  nid)t  blofj  neben  einanber,  fonbern  eine  burd)  bt«  anbere 
flelofl  (Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte,  V,  chap.  ii).  In  colloquial  language 
it  may  be  found  in  the  first  proposition  and  understood  with  the  others  : 
•§dtt'  id)  fyittgeljen  foflen  unb  ifju  anjeigen  ?  (Halbe's  Der  Strom,  p.  69). 

c.  Order  of  Objects.  The  general  rule  is,  here  as  elsewhere 
in  the  predicate,  that  the  known  and  hence  less  important  and 
unaccented  word  comes  first,  and  the  newly  introduced  word, 
to  which  the  attention  is  to  be  especially  called,  and  which  con- 
sequently bears  the  accent,  follows.  A  longer,  heavier  word  often 
for  the  sake  of  euphony  follows  a  shorter  word.  The  following 
applications  of  these  points  are  to  be  especially  noted,  but  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  these  positions,  though  the  common  ones, 
are  not  absolute,  and  hence  will  change  at  once  when  the  relative 
importance  and  accent  of  the  objects  change. 

aa.  If  there  are  two  ace.  objects,  one  of  the  person  and  one  of  the  thing, 
the  object  of  the  thing  will  follow  if  it  is  a  noun,  but  will  precede  if  it  is  a 
pronoun,  as  it  already  will  have  been  referred  to,  and  hence  is  the  less 
important  word :  2)er  Sehrer  lefyrte  ben  (£d)uter.  (or  tljn,  if  the  person  has  been 
mentioned)  ben  rid)ttgen  Slugbrucf.  But :  3d)  lueifj  ben  rid)tigen  Slugbrucf  nid)t. 
Sefjre  ifjn  mid).  Of  course  the  pronominal  object  of  the  thing  may  follow  when 
it  becomes  the  more  important  or  a  longer,  heavier  word :  2>cr  <£d)uler  lernt 
ben  rid)tigen  Slusbrucf .  2)er  Secret  lefyrt  ifin  benfelben  (instead  of  Ujn  tfyn). 

Note.  The  contracted  form  of  e<5  often  by  way  of  exception  follows  a  pronominal 
ace.  of  the  person  when  no  especial  emphasis  of  the  person  is  involved  :  3d?  rpeifj  bag 
9Hd)tige  nidjt.  £ef)re  eg  mid)  or  8ef)te  mid)'g.  The  contractions  tljn's  and  ttng'g, 
however,  are  not  used,  and  hence  here  the  regular  forms  eg  ifyn  and  eg  ling  must  be 
employed. 

bb.  When  there  are  two  objects,  a  dat.  and  an  ace.,  the  dat.  precedes  if  the 
ace.  is  a  noun  or  any  pronoun  other  than  a  personal  or  reflexive  pronoun  : 
3d)  fd)rteb  meinem  greunb  (or  tfym)  etnen  33rief  (or  bteg).  Seine  2Ktttel  erlaubm 
tl)m  bieg. 

Note.  Of  course  the  dat.  follows  when  it  becomes  more  prominent  than  the 
ace.,  especially  when  it  is  modified  by  a  clause :  3d)  empfefyle  biefen  Jtnaben  meinem 
Sretinbe,  ber  fid)  gercifj  feiner  annefymen  nnrb. 

cc.  Of  two  objects,  a  dat.  and  an  ace.,  the  ace.  precedes  if  it  is  a  personal 
or  reflexive  pronoun :  3d)  fagte  eg  ifym.  (Sr  naljm  i()n  fid)  gum  SDhifter.  ©in 
<£d)erj,  ftie  er  ifyn  fid)  oft  ertanbt.  (Sr  entjog  fid)  mir. 

Note.  The  following  exceptions  are  common  :  (i)  The  contracted  form  of  eg  often 
follows  the  dat.,  especially  the  datives  mir,  bir,  fid)  :  ©ib  eg  mtr,  or  ©ib  mir'g. 
(2)  The  ethical  dative  (258.3.  C"),  which  is  usually  weakly  accented,  can  stand  before 
the  ace.  of  a  pronoun :  @djilt  tfin  mir,  or  mir  tf)n  nidjt,  ben  lieben  3ungen !  (3)  Of 
course  the  dat.  follows  the  ace.  if  it  is  the  more  important  and  emphatic  of  the  two: 
3d)  bebarf  eineg  {Rated  »on  Sfjnen.  SSoflcn  <Sie  mir  tf)tt  geben  ?  Here  both  the 
dat.  and  the  ace.  object  have  already  been  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  person 
addressed,  but  the  thing  represented  by  the  ace.  is  the  point  towards  which  the 
attention  is  more  particularly  directed.  Notice  in  the  following  sentences  the  shifting 


88B.II.B.4.M.  NORMAL  ORDER  611 

of  position  according  to  fine  shades  of  meaning  :  9ld)  blctb'  nut,  Scfte !  3d)  fcrtltge  bit 
tf)tt  (i.  e.  ben  Jlaffee)  fdjcn  (Beyerlein's  Damon  Othello,  i,  5).  SMe  (i.e.  bie  Slltmen) 
ttjifl  id?  mit  aber  a[(e  auffieben,  imb  ftemt  fie  venrclft  finb,  preffe  id)  fie  mit  (ib.,  i,  5). 
2ld)  teas,  bumm  !  —  Jtinb  !  Sag  ware  fd)Iimm !  23in  id)  bed)  felbft  bein  fieljtet 
ge»efen  unb  fyab'  bid)  mir  Ijerangejogen,  fo  line  id)  bid)  fyaben  oolite  (ib.,  i,  7). 

dd.  If  there  are  an  accusative  and  a  prepositional  or  genitive  object,  the 
ace.  precedes  :  (5r  fd)rieb  einen  93rief  an  feinen  b-reunb.  !£cr  Scnig  jtcl)  ben  Jperjog 
beg  23erratcg. 

ee.  The  preceding  rules  for  the  position  of  objects  must  of  course  be  set 
aside  if  one  of  the  objects  is  an  interrogative  or  relative  pronoun,  for  these 
must  always  stand  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  :  2Bag  fd)reiben  Sie  Sfyrem 
greunb  ? 

d.  Order  of  Adverbs.     Here  as  elsewhere  in  the  predicate  the. 
rule  holds  that  the  unimportant  words  stand  nearest  the  personal 
part  of  the  verb,  and  the  important  ones  gravitate  towards  the 
end    of  the    sentence.      Adverbs   usually  observe   the   following 
order:    Time,  Place,  Manner,  Cause,  Purpose-.    @r  fefyrt  tyeute  Don 
$art§  nut  fcinem  ^reunbe  reegen  ^amiltenuertialtniffe  unb  jut  flRegetung 
feiner  ©efcfyafte  jurucf.     The  following  details  should  be  carefully 
noted  : 

aa.  For  the  sake  of  euphony  a  short  word  often  precedes  a  heavier  one  or 
a  phrase,  although  according  to  the  usual  rule  it  would  follow  it :  3d)  reifh 
gcrn  nad)  ^arig. 

bb.  Of  several  adverbs  the  more  general  precede  the  more  specific :  2Bit 
rcifen  ntcrgen  frufy  urn  fed)g  Ufyv  50  9)iinutcn  ab.  3)ev  ^olijtfl  fanb  ben  5Bctritnfenen 
aitf  bee  jvafyrftrafJe  im  2)rertie  licgen.  Of  course  the  word  of  more  general  meaning 
follows  if  it  is  to  be  made  emphatic  :  3d)  bcaitftragte  ifjn,  ntcincnt  J?ut[d)er  jn  fagen, 
er  ntcge  fid)  urn  ad)t  U^r  ntcrgcuei  jitv  SBeiterfa^rt  bercit  ()alten. 

cc.  The  negatives  md)t  not,  nie,  nicmalg  never,  &c.,  usually  stand  at  the  end 
of  the  clause,  or,  in  case  there  is  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective,  an  infinitive, 
a  perf.  part.,  or  an  inseparable  prefix  in  the  clause,  just  before  these:  (St 
fd)vicb  nttv  l)eute  nid)t.  (Sr  ttill  nid)t  <ScIbat  bteibcn.  5)ev  Bnfricbcne  tfi  ntdjt  arm. 
(Sv  l»trb  nid)t  fommen.  3d)  I)abe  if)it  nie  gefcfjcn.  ^t  ifl  ncd)  nid)t  jurucfgefcfyrt.  _In 
elliptical  propositions  ntd)t  stands  last :  2i>ct  Ijat  bag  getan  ?  3d)  [babe  e<?]  nid)t 
[getan].  This  is  the  position  of  the  negative  only  when  it  modifies  the  predi- 
cate, and  hence  the  statement  as  a  whole.  In  case  the  negative  modifies 
some  other  word  in  the  sentence  it  must  stand  just  before  that  word  :  91td)t 
er  fam,  fonbcrn  fie.  6r  fyat  nid)t  mid),  fonbent  <2te  betrcgen.  @c  fcmmt  nidit  tjeute, 
fonbent  movgcn. 

dd.  A  single  adverb  modifying  another  must  stand  before  it :  Sr  ifl  fefjr  a(t. 

e.  Order  when   there  are  both   Adverbs  and  Objects.      Of  the' 
modifiers  of  the  verb,  adverbial  elements  are  of  less  importance 
as  a  rule  than  noun  objects  and  hence  precede  them,  but  pro- 
nominal objects  precede  adverbial  elements :   2>er  8'iirfi  yerlicfy  cw8 
SanfKufctt  bem  8-cIbf)errit  biefe  SBiirbe.    (2ic  (pvccljcn  tonfonimcn  flut  2)eut(c^. 
6r  ufrcrtrciflt  nut  fdinctlcr  SBefonnen^eit  fcinem  Qtbiutantcu  bie  SScrfoIjjung  ter 
5'einbe.     Gr  fagte  cS  mir  gcfleru  nitt  grower  ^yrcubc. 

aa.  Adverbs  of  place  usually  follow  an  accusative  or  dative  object,  but 
precede  a  prepositional  object :  ILUr  fonntcn  bag  !Bud)  nirgcnbd  im  -&aufe  finben, 
but  Sic  ivarten  Incr  in  bcr  9Ja()e  anf  euren  ©inf. 

bb.  Of  course  emphasis  can  reverse  the  usual  order  of  objects  and  adverbs. 
Especially  in  short  sentences  adverbs  of  time  and  manner  often  stand  after 
objects  :  3d?  fatj  btcfen  ^errn  gejUrn.  3d)  trinfe  ben  ^affec  fcfyr  gent. 

R  T  2 


612  SYNTAX  285. 1  I.e. 

C.  Order  of  Adjective  Modifiers.  The  adjective  modifiers  of  any 
noun  whether  in  the  subject  or  predicate  have  exactly  the  same 
word-order  as  the  modifiers  of  the  subject  (see  A) :  Jtein  £)id?ter  ober 
2)cnfer  t)at  nacfy  £utfyer3  fyittn  emeu  in  fosnel  SRicfytungen  gletcfyjeitig  nnrfenben, 
fcier  aufeinanberfotgenbe  ©enerationen  fcoflburcfybringenben  (£influfj  gefyafct  al3 
©oetf)e  (Hermann  Grimm's  Goethe,  Einleitung). 

a.  Sometimes  the  adjective  is  placed  after  the  governing  noun  for 
emphasis:  3>a6  iji  mdjt  ntetn  grditlem,  <£cf)af,  biramteg!  (Hartleben's  Rosen- 
montag,  p.  118).  For  other  cases  where  the  adjective  follows  see  104.  2.  B. 
a  and  b  ;  137. 1.  a  ;  111.  9. 

Inverted  Order. 

286.  In  this  word-order  the  predicate,  an  object,  some  adverbial 
element,  or  the  expletive  eg,  occupies  the  first  place,  the  verb 
stands  in  the  second  place,  and  the  subject  then  follows  imme- 
diately or  at  an  interval  of  several  words:  2)amalS  trofynten  bte 
JMten  in  offenen  glecfen,  je§t  umgafcen  ttyre  Drtfcfeaften  reotytgefitgte  SKaitern. 
This  order  differs  from  the  normal  order  in  that  some  word  from 
the  predicate,  or  the  expletive  eg,  takes  the  first  place  and  the  subject 
takes  the  position  after  the  verb,  or  in  compound  tenses  after  the 
auxiliary.  In  other  respects  the  position  of  the  words  is  in  general 
retained  as  in  normal  order.  Compare  older  English  :  Now  has  he 
land  and  beefs  (Shakespeare's  Henry  IV,  Second  Part,  3,  2). 

The  leading  points  as  to  the  use  of  this  order  and  the  particulars 
concerning  the  word-order  are  as  follows : 

A.  Use  of  Inverted  Order.     This  order  is  used  : 

a.  Just  as  in  English,  as  the  usual  form  for  a  question  introduced 
by  an  interrogative  word  which  is  not  the  subject  of  the  verb  :  9Ba3 
gt&t  eg  3Reueg?    SBarum  f omntt  er  ?    The  same  form  is  also  sometimes 
used  in  exclamations :  2Bie  fcfyon  ifl  bag  ^Better ! 

b.  The  inverted  order  is  used  whenever  for  some  rhetorical 
reason  a  word  or  an  expression  is  brought  forward   from   the 
predicate  and  placed  at  the  head  of  the  sentence,  and  hence  its 
use  is  a  matter  of  style.      Words  are  thus  in  general  brought 
forward   for  the  following  reasons.     (1)  A  word  or  words  con- 
taining a  reference  to  a  preceding  sentence  or  connected  with  it 
in  thought  are  naturally  brought  forward,  so  that  that  which  is 
stated  in  the  one  sentence  and  is  now  known  may  become  the  sure 
foundation  for  the  next,  upon  which  the  thought  can  be  further 
built  up   and  enlarged :    (Sr  rear  gtrar  etn  grower  9ftebner,  8d)riftfMer 
unb  ftelb^err,  a&er  jeteS  bafon  ifl  er  nnc  geirorben,  teeil  er  etn  ooflenbeter 
©taatSmanu  rcar.      Here  jebeS  batton,  referring  as  it  does  to  the 
foregoing  words  Sftebner,  €ct)rtftftefler,  frelbtyerr,  serves  nicely  as  a 
foundation  upon  which  to  build  a  new  thought.     (2)  Words  take 
the  first   place  which  lie  nearest  in  thought,  especially  such  as 
give  us  a  general  idea  of  the  situation,  so  that  the  mind  may  be 
prepared  for  that  which  follows :  $tef  itnten  ju  unferen  ftupen  lag  irie 
im  bangen  Xrautue  bie  @tabt  S'retfcurg  mtt  tijren  gerflreuten,  matt  fcfyimmernben 
Stcfytern.     (3)  Any  word  or  words  may  for  especial  emphasis  be 
brought  forward  from  the  predicate  and  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of 


286.  B.  b.  INVERTED  ORDER  613 

the  proposition :  (?r  fyat  fefyr  sieleS  unternommen,  $clmi(\cn  ifl  it;nt 
tiidjtg.  3?  i3  ber  £cwe  femmeu  vctrb,  unb —  fommcit  icirb  er  (Ludwig's 
Makkabder,  i).  3Wan  maij  GorneliuS  t)cutc  serclijren  ocer  gleidjgulttg  an  itym 
»oru&erge§en  :  Icbcit  tut  (251.  II.  B.  a,  bb,  2nd  paragraph)  er  unb  iiber= 
Icbctt  ivirb  er  xnclc  no*  (Hermann  Grimm  in  Deutsche  Rundschau, 
Mai  1896,  p.  255).  For  other  examples  of  this  emphatic  position 
for  the  perfect  participle  and  the  infinite  see  251.  II.  B.a.bb,  yd 
paragraph.  A  verb  in  a  simple  tense  cannot  thus  be  put  in  the  first 
place  ;  see  B.  b,  below.  Also  other  elements  can  be  brought  for- 
ward from  the  predicate :  3ffet  fyat  <*  "»  grcfjeS  <&ciu3.  £>cit  SBfltcc 
liefct  ber  <Sot;n.  S5ic  ftraiijofcu  fd?Iug  QBctttngton.  Sfttcfot  inir  ga6  er  t*a3 
3?ud),  er  gab  e§  metnem  23ruber.  ®ort  nnter  i>cm  SBaum  ft£t  er.  2ri)oit 
ifl  fte  nidn,  gut  ifl  fte.  ©ar  feiu  Jlcrl !  ©in  Sump  ifl  er.  Also  in 
questions  some  word  can  for  emphasis  be  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  sentence,  followed  by  inverted  order:  Unb  ba3  bnlfen  <Ste? 
The  question  is  not  here  detected  by  the  order,  but  by  the  rising 
inflection  of  the  voice.  Of  these  different  uses  (i)  and  (3)  distin- 
guish themselves  by  a  stronger  accent.  (4)  Instead  of  a  word  or 
phrase,  as  in  the  preceding  cases,  a  full  or  contracted  clause  may 
for  the  same  reasons  precede  the  verb,  or  the  main  sentence  maybe 
found  within  the  body  of  the  subordinate  clause.  In  both  of  these 
cases  inversion  in  the  principal  proposition  is  the  rule :  5Sa(J  ntoglirr; 
rear,  t)at  er  geleiftct.  Um  ben  ^Irjt  ju  l;olen,  fufyr  er  fdjneft  nad;  ber  *2tabt. 
lf£auf'  nur,"  fagte  id?,  ,,Iauf." 

c.  This  order  is  also  used  to  emphasize  the  subject,  predicate,  or 
a  verb  in  a  simple  tense,  in  which  cases  the  sentence  is  usually 
introduced  by  e3,  followed  immediately  by  the  verb  and  still  later 
by  the  subject.  See  251.  II.  B.a.  In  this  construction,  however, 
the  word-order  is  only  formally  inverted.  It  is  in  reality  that  of 
a  question,  as  the  verb  in  fact  stands  in  the  first  place.  The  e8 
which  precedes  the  verb  has  no  accent  and  no  logical  force  and 
hence  does  not  count,  serving  here  merely  as  a.  formal  introduction 
to  the  sentence.  This  introductory  e-3,  however,  is  quite  serviceable, 
as  it  formally  distinguishes  this  emphatic  form  of  the  declarative 
sentence  from  the  interrogative  form.  In  popular  language  this 
c3  is  often  dropped;  see  251.  II.  B.  b. 

B.  Particulars  of  the  Word-order: 

a.  If  some    adverbial    element    introduces    the    sentence,    the 
subject  usually,  as  in  the  preceding  examples,  follows  the  verb 
immediately,  or  is  separated  from  it  by  unimportant  words,  but 
also,  as  in  the  following  sentences,  the  subject  may  stand  near  the 
end  of  the   sentence,   especially  when   it  contains  the    new  and 
hence  important  element  in  the  sentence,  and  is  therefore  to  be 
emphasized :  3?ei  ben  GJriedjcn  unb  JRomern  trat  fetyr  friify  an  bic  £teUe  bed 
OiiaucS  alS  bte  ©runblage  ber  polittfd?en  Gintett  bcr  i'iaucrring.     Gafar  ivar 
SWenard? ;    after   me   1; at   ifyn   ber  3>rannenfdnvinbel   crfapt  (Mommsen's 
Romische  Geschichtc,  V,  chap.  xi). 

b.  If  it  is  desired  to  emphasize  the  subject  or  a  verb  in  a  simple 
tense  we  most  commonly  employ  the  inverted  order,  introducing 
the  sentence  with  eg.    This  important  construction  is  explained  in 


614  SYNTAX  286.  B.  b. 

251.  II.  B.  a.  bb,  cc.  From  another  standpoint  this  word-order  may 
be  regarded  as  the  normal  order,  as  the  grammatical  subject  c3 
stands  in  the  first  place.  From  still  another  point  of  view  it  is  the 
question  order,  as  explained  in  A.  c,  above,  and  also  in  284.  I.  i.  a, 
2nd  paragraph,  toward  end. 

c.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  German  that  after  a  subordinate  clause, 
especially  one  of  cause  (reason,  condition,  concession),  the  following 
principal  proposition  is  often  introduced  by  fo,  which  repeats  for 
especial  emphasis  the  substance  of  the  preceding  clause :    2Bcnn 
ber  sD?enfd)  fetnen    ©enup  metyr  in  ber  Qlrbeit  ffnbet  unb  blo£  arbettet  unt 
fo  fcfynett  une  ntoglid)  jum  ©enufj  ju  gelangen,  fo  if!  eS  nur  ein  Sufall,  itenn 
er   fein   SBerbrecfyer  irirb.      This  use  of  fo   is,  as  in  the  preceding 
example,  more  common  after  long  subordinate  clauses,  but  must 
also  be  used  sometimes  in  shorter  sentences  where  the  principal 
proposition  and  the  subordinate  clause  have  the  same  word-order, 
as   it  is  here  necessary  to  distinguish  the  principal  proposition 
from  the  subordinate  clause :    Jtamt  id),  fo  fomme   td).      Here  the 
relation  of  the  propositions  would  not  be  clear  without  the  use 
of  fo,   as   both   propositions  have   the   same   order.      In   poetry, 
however,  the  fo  is  often  even  here  dispensed  with :  (Sfytt  ben  ^ontg 
feme  SBitrbe,  |  etyret  uu3  ber  «£>anbe  &Iei§  (Schiller). 

d.  If  any  adverb  or  adverbial  element,   or  a  predicate   noun 
or   adjective,   belongs   to    two    co-ordinate    sentences    connected 
by  unb  or  ober,  it  usually  causes  inversion  only  in  the  first  propo- 
sition, the  second  standing  in  normal  order :  S)ann  gietyen  ficfy  93ritber 
itnb  <£d?irefter  jurucf,  imb  (Sonfe  eilt  bie  Jreppe  tytnauf.     <£cfyon  tft  fte  md;t 
unb  fte  icirb  eg  me  irerben.     In  case  the  subjects  of  the  different  pro- 
positions refer  to  the  same  person,  the  subject  is  quite  commonly 
suppressed  in  the  second  proposition.      For  examples  see  2" 51.  II. 
A.  e.     Sometimes,  however,  the  force  of  the  word  introducing  the 
first  proposition  is   felt,   and   inversion   in   the   next   proposition 
results :  <£ter  tying  bie  ftlberne  ©ebddjtntgatnpel  unb  ertyob  ficfy  ebcnfaflS  eine 
sjergitterte  SBii^ne  (Heine,  Hamburger  Ausgabe,  4,  5).     <8d?6n  war  fte 
(fte  <8tabt  Jliel)  niemalS,  ifl  fte  aud?  ntd;t  gercorben  itnb  itirb  fte  me  reerben 
(Jensen). 

In  case  an  object  is  common  to  several  propositions  it  is  usually 
expressed  in  the  first,  and  repeated  in  the  form  of  a  pronoun  in 
the  second,  which  has  normal  word-order :  £>ag  n?etf)  id?  unb  bie  ganje 
(Stabt  ivetjj  el.  Sometimes,  however,  the  object  is  expressed  but 
once,  namely,  in  the  first  proposition,  in  which  case  the  second 
must  have  inverted  order,  as  the  force  of  the  object  introducing  the 
first  proposition  is  felt :  £$erpfltd;tungen  tyat  jeter  ©afigeber  gcgen  feine 
©afte  unb  bafji  id)  bie  nteinigen  fetme,  wet^  id;  unb  ttetfji  bie  SSett  (Raabe's 
Der  Drdwnling,  xxvi). 

e.  If  a  sentence  is  introduced  by  certain  co-ordinate  conjunctions, 
the  order  remains  normal,  while  on  the  other  hand  it  becomes 
inverted  if  introduced   by  others.     This   matter  is  discussed   in 
articles  233-237. 

f.  The  following  words  or  classes  of  words  may  introduce  a 
sentence   without   causing    inversion :     (1)     Exclamations   do   not 


287.  A.  QUESTION  ORDER  615 

usually  influence  the  word-order,  as  they  are  felt  as  standing 
outside  of  the  structure  of  the  sentence :  $la,  bag  rcirb  iraS  <£d;6ne3 
geben!  Plague  on  it,  that  will  make  a  pretty  mess!  (2)  The 
affirmative  adverb  ja  and  negative  nein :  ketn !  id;  gcfy'  nid;t  in  fcie 
(2tabt.  (3)  The  adverbs  nun  in  the  one  meaning  well,  getrif?  cer- 
tainly, and  a  number  of  concessive  adverbs,  adverbial  conjunc- 
tions (for  which  see  235.  A.  c,  and  236),  short  adverbial  clauses, 
and  also  independent  sentences  with  the  force  of  adverbs,  do 
not  always  cause  inversion,  as  they  are  felt  as  modifying  the 
whole  sentence  rather  than  the  verb :  aflerbingg  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted, freilidj  to  be  sure,  jirar  it  is  true,  in  ter  $at  indeed, 
ivie  id)  jugefcen  mup  as  I  must  confess,  id;  gefhfye  e§  I  acknow- 
ledge it,  &c.  Exs. :  9htn,  id;  ivcrbc  jum  93atcr  f  ommcn  (Benedix's  Doktor 
Trcuwald,  i,  4).  ©eirip,  man  nutf?  and)  frf;imgen  fonnen  (Fontane's 
Effi,  ix).  9Ukrbing8,  id;  $afce  eg  nid;t  fetfcfi  gefefyen,  abet  id;  glanfe  e£. 
These  adverbs  and  adverbial  expressions,  with  the  exception  of 
the  short  independent  concessive  sentences,  may  also  cause  in- 
version, as  they  are  also  often  felt  as  modifiers  of  the  predicate : 
Qltterftngg  tyafce  id;  eg  ntdjt  felbfl  gefefyen,  aber  id;  gtaube  e3.  After  the 
adverbs  which  are  followed  by  normal  order,  the  voice  pauses 
somewhat,  while  after  those  which  are  followed  by  inverted  order 
there  is  no  such  distinct  pause,  as  the  adverb  is  felt  as  belonging 
closely  to  the  following  verb.  (4)  A  number  of  adverbs  as  nur 
only,  wetteidrt  perhaps,  befonterg  especially,  bagcgcn,  t;ingegen  on  the 
contrary,  felbft  even,  fd;on  even,  &c.,  modify,  not  the  predicate, 
but  only  the  subject,  or  some  part  of  it,  and  hence  can  stand  before 
(and  also  after)  the  subject  without  causing  inversion  :  93icUeid)t  bcr 
jiwerltifftgfle  9)ieffcr  ber  ftetgenbcn  Jtultur  ifl  bag  ©rfi'itjl  ber  3"f«i«'»f"s 
get;origfeit  ber  Nation  (Mommsen's  Romische  Geschtclitc,  V,  chap.  vii). 
Sometimes  inversion  takes  place  after  such  words,  but  then 
with  a  different  meaning,  as  inversion  is  a  sign  that  the  adverb 
modifies  the  verb  and  not  the  subject :  9£enig|lcni3  mein  3?ruber 
tefyauvtet  c3  My  brother  AT  LEAST  (I  do  not  know  whether  anybody 
else  does)  asserts  it,  but  SBenigflenS  M;auptet  tS  mein  SPruber  my 
brother  asserts  it  AT  LEAST  (I  do  not  know  whether  his  statement 
is  true).  (5)  After  a  conditional  or  concessive  clause  the  following 
principal  proposition  sometimes  for  especial  emphasis  remains  in 
normal  order,  especially  after  a  concessive  clause  beginning  with 
a  relative :  ©erl;atb  merf te  nid;t,  ivie  arg  er  [cine  5ran  »crnad;laffujte ; 
fctitte  cr'3  gemerft,  cr  Jcurbe  e3  md;t  gentad;t  t;akn  (Riel's  Dcr  stumme 
Ratsherr,  I).  SSa8  er  3I;ncn  and;  imtucr  verfpvid^t,  @ie  biirfen  i(;m  nid;t 
traucn. 

Question  Order. 

287.  A.  In  this  order  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  stands 
in  the  first  place,  the  subject  usually  stands  in  the  second  place, 
always  if  it  is  a  personal  pronoun,  and  the  other  parts  are 
arranged  in  general  as  in  normal  order :  2)iu|}  id;  mid;  red;tS  ober 
Itnfd  rcenben?  If  the  subject  is  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  other  than 
a  personal  pronoun  it  can  for  emphasis  be  placed  toward  the  end 


616  SYNTAX  287.  A. 


of  the  sentence  :  .tfann  mid;  bag  cin  2JMbd;en  fragen  ?  Can  a  girl  ask 
me  such  a  question  as  that?  SBunbert  bid;  bag  ?  As  in  these 
sentences,  the  subject  is  quite  commonly  separated  from  the  verb 
by  unaccented  pronouns,  providing  it  is  itself  not  an  unaccented 
personal  pronoun,  in  which  case  it  must  immediately  follow  the 
verb:  SBunbert  eg  bid;?  However,  if  the  pronominal  objects  are 
to  be  made  emphatic,  they  should  follow  the  subject  :  2Bag  getyt 
(SIfe  bid)  an?  If  an  infinitive  is  to  be  made  emphatic  it  cannot,  of 
course,  in  normal  or  question  order  stand  in  the  first  place.  If  it 
depends  upon  a  participle  it  can  be  emphasized  by  being  placed 
after  the  participle  :  «£abt  ifyr  Son  eurcm  £ate  tyer  je  einen  ^elfen  gefefyen 
fid;  neigen?  (Sudermann's  Johannis,  -2,  i). 

B.  This  order  is  found  :  (1)  In  all  independent  interrogative 
sentences  which  are  not  introduced  by  an  interrogative  pronoun, 
adjective,  or  adverb  :  SBotten  <5ie  rcofyl  bieg  fitr  mid;  tun  ?  Here  there 
is  a  marked  rising  of  the  voice  toward  the  end  of  the  sentence  as 
in  English,  but  in  the  following  uses  the  voice  falls  toward  the  end 
of  the  sentence,  except,  however,  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  (2)  and 
(4).  In  the  conditional  and  concessive  clauses  there  mentioned  the 
voice  rises  slightly  toward  the  end  of  the  clause,  as  the  clauses 
were  in  fact  originally  questions  ;  see  237.  i.  A.  b.  Note  2.  (2)  In 
conditional  clauses  not  introduced  by  a  conjunction.  For  exam- 
ples see  237.  i.  A.  b.  (3)  In  clauses  introduced  by  alg  as  if.  See 
237.  i.  A.  c.  (4)  In  concessive  clauses  not  introduced  by  a  con- 
junction :  3|1  eg  gleicfy  0tad;t,  fo  Ieud;tet  unfer  dtedjt.  See  280.  b.  (i) 
and  (3).  (5)  In  independent  hortatory  and  optative  sentences. 
See  168.  I.  i.  A,  B.  a,  and  169.  I.  A.  (6)  In  imperative  sentences  : 
Saffen  <Sie  biefe  <2d)itfjel  fyerumgetyen.  (7)  The  question-order  is  often  used 
to  make  a  statement  in  a  stronger,  more  lively  manner,  especially 
when  accompanied  by  the  adverb  bod;  (for  historical  explanation  see 
251.  II.  B.  b:  <§a6'  id)  ben  SJRarft  unb  bie  <2tra§en  bod;  nie  fo  cinfant 
gefetyen  !  |  3fl  bod;  bie  ©tabt  fine  gefefjrt  !  (Goethe's  H.  und  D.,  I.  1-2). 
3fi  bag  fd;6n!  How  beautiful  that  is!  SSetfj  id)  bod),  njoran  id;  6m!  I 
know  what  I  am  about  !  In  Wildenbruch's  Die  Quitzows  we  find, 
p.  16,  the  following  dialogue  illustrating  this  common  construction 
in  the  popular  language  of  Berlin  :  Perwenitz  :  S)ag  tg  ntd)t  rcafcr, 
bag  tg  ber  Ouitjorc  (name)  ntd;  !  Stroband  :  3g  er  bod)  !  But  he  is 
though  !  Perwenitz  :  3g  er  nid;  !  I  tell  you  he  isn't.  But  also 
quite  common  in  colloquial  language  generally  :  Petrienchen  :  3fi 
irieber  mal  gar  nid;t  red;t  trotyl,  bie  gnabige  B'rau.  Minna  :  <8iefyt  man  ityr 
ja  an  (Wildenbruch's  Der  unsterbliche  Felix,  i,  i).  Qlbteu,  mein  fletneS 
Sraulein.  (@r  ftetyt  ifjr  nad;,  bann  ftetyt  er  auf,  gctyt  im  3'ntmer  tyin  unb  tyer.) 
Jlonnte  bag  nun  etn  attertieofteg  vg»aitsfraud;en  irerben  (ib.,  i,  2).  Hanoldt  : 
<£>at  er  eg  gelefen  ?  Lieberitz  :  2Betp  id;  nid;t,  fommt  aud;  nid;t  barauf  an 
(ib.,  i,  5).  Hanoldt  :  5)ag  erf  tare  mir.  .  Lieberitz  :  9Bttt  id;  (ib.,  i,  5). 
Erna  :  Sag  tyat  er  gefagt  ?  Lieberitz  :  «§at  er  gefagt  (ib.,  i,  5).  «£crrgott, 
irar  euer  ^efl  fyeute  nettl  «§a6'  id;  mid;  amufiert  !  (Hartleben's  Rosen- 
montag,  p.  90).  SBenno  follte  natiirlid;  ben  3Kunb  tyaltcn  —  fann  er  afrer 
ntd;t  (ib.,  p.  179).  3fl  bie  lifttg!  I  tell  you  she  is  sly!  For  other 
examples  see  251.  II.  B.  b.  Compare  older  English  :  Fab.  :  Is't  so 


288.  A.  TRANSPOSED  ORDER  617 

• 

saucy  ?  Sir  And.  :  Ay,  t's'i,  I  warrant  him  :  do  but  read  (Shake- 
speare's Twelfth  Night,  3,  4).  Sometimes  this  construction  is 
found  in  connection  with  ja  or  after  :  SSupten  anr  eg  ja  aUe  !  Why, 


we  all  knew  that  !  £at  bag  abet  3ftufye  gefoflet.  I  tell  you  that  cost 
a  good  deal  of  trouble.  Minna's  reply,  given  above,  contains 
ja.  Such  sentences  often  have  the  force  of  a  subordinate  clause 
containing  the  self-evident  reason  for  the  preceding  statement: 
(Jr  fonn  eg  nicijt  flveiten,  fatten  eg  bod?  atte  gefefren.  (8)  In  poetry  and 
the  language  of  the  common  people  the  question  order  is  frequently 
found  in  narrative  style:  <Saf;  ein  StnaV  em  OJoetein  fle^'n,  |  Oiostetn 
auf  bet  «§eir>en,  |  tear  fo  jung  unb  niorgenfdjim,  |  lief  er  fdmefl,  eg  nal)  311 
fefy'n,  |  falj'g  mtt  uielen  frreufcen  (Goethe).  See  251.  II.  B.  b.  (9)  After 
the  conjunction  unb  to  emphasize  the  verb  or  the  subject.  See 
233.  A.  d.  The  question  order  after  unb  is  sometimes  apparently 
used  where  in  fact  the  order  is  the  inverted,  as  an  adverb  or  an 
object  which  has  been  previously  employed  is  understood  ;  see 
286.  B.  d. 

Transposed  Order. 

288.  A.  In  this  order  the  clause  is  introduced  by  a  subordinate 
conjunction,  or  a  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb,  and 
ends  with  the  personal  part  of  the  verb,  the  remaining  elements 
having  about  the  same  arrangement  as  in  normal  and  inverted 
order:  Seine  Sreunbe  furd)teten,  baj?  eg  il)m  ju  fcfyrrer  nxrben  univbe.  As 
in  the  preceding  sentence,  the  subject  usually  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  clause,  always  if  it  is  a  personal,  relative,  or  interrogative 
pronoun,  but  if  it  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  other  than  those  just 
mentioned  it  may,  as  in  the  inverted  order,  be  preceded  by  adver- 
bial elements  or  a  pronominal  object,  but  not  by  the  other  elements 
which  can  introduce  the  proposition  in  the  inverted  order,  as 
described  in  286.  A.  b,  above  :  $Bie  fceutjutage  in  nnfcrcr  unb  burcfy 
unfere  SBeltltteratur  bte  ©egenfa'fce  ber  ctviHfierteu  SRattonen  aufgetoben  fmb, 
fo  f)at  bte  gried)ifd)e  SDufytfimft  bag  biirftige  unb  eijotiltfcfye  Stammgefufcl 
3itm  fyeUentfctyen  93olf8&enmfjtfem  «nb  btefeg  gum  ^umanigmug  untgewanbelt 
(Mommsen's  Romische  Geschichte,  I,  chap.  xv).  (5g  i|t  etu  $?orurteil, 
bap  in  ber  atfgemetnen  SSertrettitng  ber  ctementaren  Jtenntniffe  bag  "Mltertum 
^inter  unferer  3°^  Jvefentlid;  jurucfgejianben  ^ate  (ib.,  Ill,  chap.  xiv). 
9Bte  ber  Jliinfller  atleg  malen  fann,  nur  ntd)t  bte  scflenbete  <2djon^ett,  (o  fantt 
aud;  ber  ©efd)id)tgfd)rettev,  ivo  tl)iu  afie  taufenb  3a^re  einmal  bag  ^oUfommene 
ftegcgnet,  nur  bariiter  fdjireigen  (ib.,  V,  chap.  xi).  The  predicate  noun, 
adjective,  infinitive,  or  perfect  participle  cannot,  as  in  the  inverted 
order  for  special  emphasis,  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause, 
nor  can  they  take  the  emphatic  position  at  the  end,  for  the  subor- 
dinate clause,  according  to  284.  I.  3.  a,  is  usually  presented  dispas- 
sionately as  a  compact  unit,  and  hence  does  not  show  in  the 
word-order  the  influence  of  logical  considerations  or  strong  emotion. 
The  infinitive  and  participle  stand  next  to  the  end  before  the 
personal  part  of  the  verb,  the  predicate  adjective  or  noun  stand 
before  the  personal  part  of  the  verb  in  case  of  a  simple  tense,  and 
before  the  different  parts  of  the  verb  in  case  of  a  compound  tense. 


618  SYNTAX  288.  A. 

Although  the  logical  importance  of  the  predicate  adjective,  noun, 
infinitive,  and  participle  does  not  find  expression  in  the  word-order, 
they  are  distinguished  by  strong  stress  as  in  English  :  3d?  fe§e  mid? 
nid)t  in  ben  SBagen,  well  id)  geljeit  unfl. 

a.  Note  especially  that  a  clause  or  infinitive  phrase  which  is  de- 
pendent upon  another  dependent  clause  must  follow  the  pronominal 
subject  of  the  governing  dependent  clause,  and  not  precede  it  as  in 
English :  @r  fcefyau^tete,  bafj  er,  anftatt  bte  93erfammlnng  aitfntlofen,  etneit 
Qlntrag  mad)cn  iroflc  He  stated  that  instead  of  dissolving  the  assembly 
he  would  make  a  proposal.     £8enn  er,  nad)bent  man  fetne  ^Ingfage  te* 
^roeifelte,  irteber  fragen  follte  ufuj.   If,  upon  their  doubting  his  statement, 
he  asked  again,  &c. 

b.  The  objective  genitive  of  a  relative  pronoun  must  introduce 
the  subordinate  clause  ;  see  255.  II.  i.  D.  b. 

B.  This  order  is  used  : 

a.  In   subordinate   clauses.     There  are,   however,  exceptions, 
which  are  stated  in  237.  I.  A,  B,  C,  D. 

b.  In  lively  questions  and  exclamations,  which  are  usually  intro- 
duced by  a  subordinate  conjunction  or  an  interrogative  pronoun  or 
adverb  :  2Bo  er  trotyl  jefct  ift?     I  do  wonder  where  he  is.     Gutter,  ofc'3 
jerent  SKabdjen  fo  ift,  bag  eine  9Braut  rcetben  foft,  une  mtr  ?     SSer  it)m  bag 
ivofyl  gefagt  tyafren  mag !  Who  in  the  world  could  have  told  him  that  ? 

c.  In  poetry  frequently  also  in  principal  propositions,  for  sake 
of  rhyme  or  meter,  as  a  survival  of  a  once  more  general  freedom 
in  placing  words  :  2)er  alte  @d?tmeb  ben  33art  ftd)  ftreid;t :  |  ,,2)aS  (gc^ivevt 
ift  ntcfyt  ^u  (driver  nod)  leidjt"  (Uhland). 

d.  In  early   N.H.G.,  when  je  and  banad)   introduce   both  the 
principal   proposition  and   the   subordinate   clause,  the   principal 
proposition   sometimes   has  transposed  order  for  the  sake  of  a 
parallelism  between  the  two  propositions,  and  this  older  usage 
survives  in  poetry  and   proverbs :    3e  metyr  er  after  tterbot,  je  metyr 
fte  eS  auS&reiteten  (Mark  vii.  36).     3e  mefjr  fte  tyat,  je  metyr  fte  will;  me 
fd^reetgen  i^re  SBimfcfye  \till  (proverb).    S)anad)  etner  tut,  banad)  eg  itynt 
ge^t  (prov.).     3e  —  je  is  now  largely  replaced  by  je  (with  transposed 
order)  —  befto  or  um  fo  (with  inverted  order) :    3e  metyr  ber  ^orrat 
fdjmolji,  beflo  (or  um  fo)  fd)rerflid)er  iritd)g  ber  ganger.     Transposed  order 
in  both  propositions  for  the  sake  of  the  parallelism  is  now  quite 
rare  :  £>efto  jatylretd)er  fo  eine  ©rafclegung  gefyanbtya&t  icirb,  je  amfangltd)er 
bie  Dffertorien  flte^en  (Hauptmann's  Die  Weber,  3,  p.  50). 

C.  For  the  position  of  an  auxiliary  which  is  common  to  two  or 
more  subordinate  clauses  see  237.  i.  E. 


GENERAL   INDEX 


The  figures  used  in  this  index  refer  to  pages,  those  employed  in  the  body  of  the 
Grammar,  however,  refer  to  articles.  The  abbreviations  here  used  are :  pron.  for 
pronunciation  ;  orthog.  for  orthography  ;  decl.  for  declension  ;  compar.  for  comparison  ; 
grad.  for  gradation,  i.e.  the  principal  parts  of  a  strong  or  irregular  verb;  syn.  for  ' 
syntax,  i.e.  the  influence  upon  the  syntactical  structure  of  the  sentence,  government  of 
case,  &c. 


a,  pron.,  22. 
a,  pron.,  21. 
a,  pron.,  21. 
ii,  pron.,  20  ;  as  mutation  of  aa,  15. 

aa,  pron.,  22  ;  mutation  of,  15. 
Slat,  decl.,  75. 

?lar,  decl.,  75. 
9la$,  decl.,  85. 

ab,  pron.,  15  ;  sep.  prefix,  338  ;  mean- 
ing compared  with  that  of  au<5  and 
cut;,  358  ;  syn.,  532  (r,)  ;  substan- 
tival prefix,  468  ;  prep.,  388. 

9lbenb,  decl.,  77. 

abcv,  conj.,  419  (A);  compared  with 
attcin  and  fonbcrn,  420 ;  —  item,  434  ; 
substantival  prefix,  468. 

abcjcfien,  syn.,  548. 

aKjcrecfonct,  prep.,  379  ;  absolute  parti- 
ciple, 578  (a). 

abfyerctt,  syn.,  564  (c). 

9lb(af.,  decl.,  77. 

Abridgment  of  clauses :  see  Clauses. 

abfavjcn,  syn.,  531  (e), 

Slbfdjcu,  gender,  126. 


dbfdjm&en,  syn.,  531  (e). 

abfctnfor.cn,  syn.,  531  (c). 

abfcit,  abfeiten,  abfcitiij,  afcfcita,  379. 

abjUfjcu,  syn.,  548. 

Slbt,  decl.,  81. 

abtiut :  ftd?  — ,  syn.,  558. 

atnvavtcn,  syn.,  548. 

atnvartiJ,  prep.,  379. 

abjiutficfi,  prep.,  379. 

Accent :  word  accent,  42-3  ;  logical, 
42,  53;  emphatic,  42,  53;  ryth- 
mical,  43  ;  foreign,  43,  49  ;  sen- 
tence, 43,  52  ;  accent  in  simple 
stem  words,  43 ;  accent  in  deriva- 
tive words,  43-5  ;  accent  of  com- 
pounds, 45-9 ;  geographical  com- 
pounds, 47  (£•),  483  (6,  B),  487  (A)  ; 
secondary  accent,  49-50;  physio- 
logical principle  in  secondary' 
accent,  50 ;  unaccented  syllables, 
51  ;  grammatical  accent,  52  ;  sen- 
tence accent  influenced  by  the 
rhythm,  53. 

Slccorb,  pron.  and  orthog.,  27. 


620 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Accusative : 

I.  in  the  adverbial  relation  to  denote : 
place,  360  (d). 

time,  361-3. 
degree,  366-7. 

II.  as  an  object  : 
with  transitives : 

representing  the  thing  as  : 
affected  by  the  action,  524  (i). 
the  result  of  the  action,  524  (i). 
trans,  or  intrans.,  524  (b). 
prep,  phrase  instead  of  ace.,  525  (e). 
\  with  intransitives : 

cognate  ace.,  525  (2.  A). 
ace.  of  result,  527  (B). 
ace.  object  of  a  prep,  contained  in 
a  compound,  556  (b}. 
in   impersonal   constructions,   349 

(A.  a). 

either  dat.   or   ace.  according  to 
meaning  or  from  unsettled  usage, 

538-45. 
with  adjectives,  adverbs,  participles, 

552-4. 
double  object : 

ace.  of  thing  and  dat.  of  person, 

555-7- 
ace.  of  person  and  gen.  of  thing, 

557-61. 
double  ace. : 

ace.  of  person  and  ace.  of  thing, 

563-7. 

ace.  of  the  direct  object  and  a 
pred.  ace.,  567-71. 

III.  in  the  predicate : 
in  dialect,  501  (c.  a). 

by  attraction,  497  (2.  A.  a.  Note). 

IV.  after  prepositions : 
ace.  only,  400-6. 
ace.  and  dat.,  406-18. 

V.  independent  ace. : 
ace.  absolute,  579. 

ace.  in  exclamations,  582  (4). 
;acfy,  suffix,  451. 
Vtcfyt :  feine  —  fyafcen,  syn.,  548. 
acfytcn,  syn.,  548. 
adjtfyaben,  syn.,  548. 
acfttleg,  syn.,  552. 
2lcfcr,  decl.,  72. 


Address,  pronouns  of,  183-5  >  posses- 
sives  in  address,  171 ;  nom.  in, 

578  (A). 

9lbcvlafj,  decl.,  77. 

abtcu,  pron.,  20. 

Adjectives,  inflection  of,  127-41  ; 
strong,  127,  130;  weak,  127,  131  ; 
mixed,  131-2;  uninflected,  127-30, 
137-40 ;  inflection  of  adjectives 
with  the  suffixes  ;et,  ten,  ;er,  133-4; 
peculiarities  and  irregularities  in 
the  inflection,  134-40  ;  ascending 
comparison,  141-5  ;  variations  in 
comparison,  143-4 ;  irregularities 
in  comparison,  147-50 ;  the  relative 
superlative,  141-2  ;  adverbial 
superlative,  142  ;  absolute  super- 
lative, 142-3;  adjectives  mutating 
in  the  superlative,  144;  periphrastic 
comparison,  146-7  ;  descending 
comparison,  147 ;  inflection  of 
adjective-substantives,  132. 

3lbler,  pron.,  22. 

Stbmiral,  decl.,8i,  84. 

Adverbial  modifiers,  577. 

Adverbs  :  definition,  352  ;  formation, 
465-7 ;  function  and  form  of  ad- 
jectives and  adverbs  compared, 
352-4  ;  nature  of  adverbs  and  pre- 
positions compared,  374  (i,a,c); 
classification  of  adverbs,  354-73  ; 
comparison,  145,  374  ;  periphrastic 
comparison,  146,  149;  irregularities 
in  comparison,  147-9  >  descending 
comparison,  147  ;  adverbs  used  as 
relative  pronouns,  207-10. 

ae,  pron.,  8. 

Slercnaut,  pron.,  8. 

after?,  prefix,  469. 

aggregieren,  syn.,  533  (6). 

Signed,  pron.,  32. 

Slgraffe,  pron.,  27  (6). 

Agreement  of  verb  with  subject, 
501-8 ;  of  predicate  noun  with 
subject  in  gender  and  case,  508-9  ; 
of  adjectives  and  participles,  509- 
10;  of  relative,  588;  of  appositives, 
519. 

,  pron.,  19. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


621 


aJ),  pron.,  8. 

Slfyn,  decl.,  87,  90. 

afynben,  syn.,  530  (d),  561  (c). 

afjneln,  syn.,  530  (d). 

afynen,  with  simple  infin.,  279  ;  syn., 
349.  530  (d). 

afjnen,  syn.,  530  (d). 

af)oi,  pron.,  23. 

Vlfyorn,  pron.,  25  ;  decl.,  77. 

at,  pron.,  8. 

ant,  pron.  in  French  words,  8. 

afflamieren,  syn.,  533  (b). 

91ft,  dec!.,  75,  96. 

9Ubum,  decl.,  93. 

§llca$ar,  pron.,  29. 

Sllf,  decl.,  87. 

?Uibi,  pron.,  16. 

9Uf,  decl.,  75,  90. 

SUfofyof,  pron.,  25. 

a((,  decl.,  178. 

aflbieroeU,  conj.,  429  (E). 

aflctn,  conj.,  419  ;  compared  with  abet 
and  fonbern,  420. 

aflentljalbcn,  360. 

aderfyanb,  174,  215. 

a((erlet,  174. 

3Uv,  decl.,  75. 

Alphabet,  5. 

al3,  explanatory  conj.,  421 ;  sub.  conj., 
427  (3.6),  428  (c),  429  (D.I.  A.  a, 
B,  E),  430-1 ;  with  predicate  nom. 
or  ace.,  497  (b),  501  (c),  568  (b), 
569  (a) ;  difference  of  meaning  here 
between  ate  and  tote,  432  (4) ;  dif- 
ference between  aliJ  and  fur,  568  (<:), 
569  (Note  l) ;  altf  omitted  after  fo, 
431  (c)  ;  with  following  relative 
pronoun  or  adverb,  201  ;  used  as 
a  relative,  209  (D  (i)),  210(8);  - 
bafi,  sub.  conj.,  429  (D.  i.  B,  2)  ; 
—  ttjemi,  429  (c.  a,  D.  i.  B)  ;  —  ob, 
429  (c.  a). 

alfo,  explanatory  conj.,  421  ;  coordi- 
nate conj.  with  a  double  construc- 
tion, 423  ;  —  bod),  434. 

am,  pron.  in  French  words,  8. 

Slmarant,  decl.,  93. 

2lmbo(3,  decl.,  77. 

Slmt,  decl.,  85. 


an,  pron.,  15  ;  sep.  prefix,  338  ;  mean- 
ing compared  with  that  of  fyerait, 
356 ;  syn.,  532  (B)  ;  prep.,  407. 

an,  pron.  in  French  words,  8. 

3lnah)fe,  pron.,  1 8. 

Slnanatf,  decl.,  78. 

aubetreffa,  in  2lnbetreff,  380.  t 

anber,  174. 

anerfcnnen,  syn.,  568  (b). 

anerifogen,  conj.,  429  (E). 

anfafyrcn,  conjugated  with  fyaben  or  fetu, 
290. 

anfaiigeu,  conjugated  with  fetn,  296. 

ano,cf)en,  conjugated  with  fjaben  or  fetn, 
290 ;  syn.,  538. 

9lna,e(,  gender,  124. 

Slngeltt,  decl.,  88. 

angeftc^ti?,  prep.,  380. 

9lngjl,  decl.,  83. 

angil,  syn.,  350,  533  (c). 

an^eimfallen,  syn.,  533  (c). 

anflagen,  syn.,  557. 

attfcmmen,  conjugated  with  fetn,  290 ; 
syn.,  538. 

Slntap,  decl.,  77. 

aniajHtd),  prep.,  380. 

aitlaufett,  conjugated  with  Ijaben  or  fetn, 
290. 

anltegcn,  syn.,  539. 

anntaf,eit :  |ld)  — ,  syn.,  558. 

Slnmut,  gender,  125. 

anmutcn,  syn.,  557  ;  fic^  — ,  syn., 
558. 

9lttitalen,  decl.,  89. 

annefjntcn  :  ftcfy  — ,  syn.,  558. 

attfdiulttgcn,  syn.,  557. 

anfefjcn,  syn.,  568  (b). 

anjtcfittg,  syn.,  552. 

anflatt,  prep.  380;  conj.,  419;  —  bap, 
429  (c.  c). 

anftef)cit,  syn.,  350. 

ant?,  prefix,  469. 

Jlntlifc,  decl.,  80. 

Slntrag,  decl.,  83. 

antreffen,  with  infin.  w.  511,  274. 

9lnnvort,  gender,  126. 

t,  syn.,  529  (Note),  531  (e). 
ic^,  prep.,  380. 

Slntralt,  decl.,  83, 


622 


GENERAL  INDEX 


amwnbcln,  conjugated  with  Ijaben  or 

fein,  290  ;  syn.,  539. 
9tycr9ii,  pron.,  19. 
5lpfel,  decl.,  72. 

Apostrophe,  55. 

Apposition :  agreement  of  appositives, 
519-21  ;  position,  520  (A),  522  (B)  ; 
appositional  construction  with 
proper  names,  514  (G.a);  a  noun 
in  apposition  with  a  sentence,  520 
(<z) ;  apposition  instead  of  the  gen. 
of  earlier  periods,  522  (2). 

•StyrU,  pron.,  15,  19. 

Sir,  decl.,  75. 

Slvabcr,  pron.,  22. 

Sirdje,  pron.,  28. 

arg,  compar.,  144. 

Slrgernig,  gender,  96. 

Slrm,  decl.,  75. 

arm,  compar.,  144. 

Slrmbrujl,  decl.,  83. 

arten,  conjugated  with  fein,  292. 

Article  :  def.,  decl.,  56  ;  indef.,  decl., 
58  ;  use  of  the  articles,  58-67  ;  use 
of  the  articles  with  collective  nouns, 
61  ;  with  names  of  materials,  61  ; 
with  abstract  nouns,  6l ;  with  names 
of  persons,  61 ;  with  geographical 
names,  63-4  ;  omission  of,  65-67. 

*arttg,  suffix,  452. 

SlrtiKerie,  pron.  and  orthog.,  18. 

9lr$t,  pron.,  21  ;  decl.,  81. 

510,  decl.,  78. 

§lf#,  decl.,  Si. 

$lf(f>t)litS,  pron.,  21. 

5lfoeft,  decl.,  93. 

ofjtfHeren,  syn.,  533  (6). 

Slfyt,  pron.,  19. 

afjetifdj,  orthog.,  29. 

;&t,  pron.,  16  ;  meaning,  451. 

tat,  foreign  suffix,  452. 

Sltfycift,  pron.,  9. 

9ltfyene,  pron.,  16. 

9Wa«,  decl.,  77,  93. 

9«om,  decl.,  81. 

atf$,  interj.,  434. 

attacfytcrcn,  syn.,  533  (3). 

Attraction :  in  case,  497  (2.  A.  a. 
Note),  591  (c.  b)  ;  trajection,  588  (<?). 


attrtbmctcn,  syn.,  533  (£). 

au,  pron.,  8. 

du,  pron.,  8,  23. 

aud),  meaning,  422. 

aiif,  sep.  prefix,  338  ;  syn.,  532  (B)  ; 
prep.,  409  ;  —  bafj,  conj.,  430  (H). 

?lufmfyr,  decl.,  77. 

aufwdrt^,  prep.,  380. 

9luge,  decl.,  91. 

Slugcnmerf,  decl.,  80. 

Stiigur,  decl.,  93. 

aiiS,  sep.  prefix,  338 ;  meaning  com- 
pared with  that  of  ab  and  cnt;,  358  ; 
syn.,  532  (B)  ;  prep.,  388. 

aiiSbteten,  syn.,  539. 

C'luSjUidjt,  decl.,  83. 

auSgenonrmen,  conj.,  419. 

au^geftopftet  Xierfidnbler,  112. 

au^gteitcn,  grad.,  309. 

au^ftingcln,  conjugated  with  fein,  296. 

aii3tufen,  syn.,  569  (d). 

auSf^Ue^Ud),  prep.,  380. 

auper,  prep.,  412  ;  conj.,  419;  —  baf, 
conj.,  430  (F)  ;  —  luenn  (ib.). 

au^erbem,  conj.,  422. 

aiifjerfyalb,  prep.,  380. 

au3tt>ei3lid),  prep.,  380. 
,  decl.,  8 1. 
,  decl.,  89. 

Slvancement,  pron.,  16. 

avifteten,  syn.,  533  (b). 

atr,  pron.,  8. 

9lrt,  decl.,  83. 

at),  pron.,  8. 

93aaf,  pron.,  21. 

,  pron.,  23. 
,  decl.,  81. 
ba^en,  grad.,  320. 
33o<f,  decl.,  78. 
bacfen,  grad.,  320. 
back  vowels,  18. 
Sab,  decl.,  85. 
batb  —  batb,  conj.,  423. 
S3atg,  decl.,  81,  85,  96. 
33atfon,  pron.,  24. 
®al(,  decl.,  81. 
93a[(on,  pron.,  24. 
33atfam,  decl.,  77. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


623 


5Satj,  decl.,  75. 

5Ban,  decl.,  75. 

S3anb,  decl.,  81,  96. 

23anbtt,  decl.,  80. 

fcange,  compar.,  144 ;   syn.,  350,  533 

(c). 

bangcn,  syn.,  350. 
JBanf,  decl.,  83. 
S3anfcrt,  decl.,  77. 
23anficr,  pron.,  20. 
fflann,  decl.,  75. 
batmen,  grad.,  322. 
bar,  syn.,  552. 

?bar,  suffix,  pron.,  16;  meaning,  452. 
23dr,  decl.,  87. 
S3arbat,  decl.,  81. 
S3aron,  decl.,  81. 
SBarfdj,  pron.,  21  ;  decl.,  75. 
SSart,  pron.,  21 ;  decl.,  82. 
Sag,  decl.,  75. 
33afj,  decl.,  82. 
SSaffin,  pron.,  24  ;  decl.,  94. 
Sail,  decl.,  75. 
S3aftarb,  23aftatt,  decl.,  77. 
23atattlon,  pron.,  24  ;  decl.,  94. 
23au,  decl.,  75. 
23aud),  decl.,  82. 
batten,  grad.,  322. 
83auer,  decl.,  90;  gender,  96,  124. 
33aum,  decl.,  82. 
SSaufd),  decl.,  82. 
bait},  interj.,  434. 
SBatycr,  decl.,  87. 
S3ajav  (now  53afar),  pron.,  31. 
be;,insep.  prefix,  339;  meaning, 471-2. 
bcacfytcn,  syn.,  548. 
bcben,  syn.,  537^). 
Sebarfjt,  decl.,  83. 
bcbanfcn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  558. 
bcbcnfcn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
bcfccutcn,  with  infin.,  278  ;  syn.,  539. 
bcbtcmn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
bcbina,cn,  grad.,  315. 
bcbiinfcln,  syn.,  540. 
bcbanfcn,  syn.,  540. 
bcburfcn,  syn.,  548. 
bcburfttg,  syn.,  552. 
'  Seer,  decl.,  78. 
23ect,  decl.,  79. 


befab,ren :  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

S3cfcl)(,  decl.,  77. 

bcfefylen,  grad.,  318  ;  syn.,  539. 

befefyligen,  syn.,  539. 

bcfici^en,  grad.,  308  ;  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

befletfjtgen,  grad.,  308  ;  fid) — ,  syn.,  559. 

befit jfcn,  syn.,  552. 

befotgen,  syn.,  529  (Note). 

bcfurd)ten :  fid)  —  befitrdjten,  syn.,  559. 

begebett :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

bcgegueit,  conjugated  with  Ijabcn  or  feitt, 
295  ;  syn.,  530  (d). 

Set3c()r,  decl.,  77. 

begefjrcn,  syn.,  548. 

begicrij,  syn.,  552. 

beginnen,  grad.,  316. 

bca,lettcit,  grad.,  309. 

begru§ctt,  syn.,  568  (<£). 

bfftacjcn,  syn.,  528  (a). 

befyatren,  conjugated  with  ^abcn  or  fcitt, 
291. 

bcfyelfen  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

33d)6rbc,  pron.,  20. 

33e()itf,  decl.,  77. 

bcfjnfci,  prep.,  380. 

betjute !  370  (B). 

bet,  sep.  prefix,  338 ;  syn.,  532  (B)  ; 
prep.,  389. 

33ct(,  decl.,  79. 

bcilctbe  nid't !  434. 

®cin,  decl.,  79  ;  feitt  — ,  434. 

bcifammcn,  meaning,  359. 

SBcifvtel ;  \\i\\\  — ,  421. 

bcifjcn,  grad.,  308. 

Sctttao,,  decl.,  83. 

bci^ett,  factitive  of  beifien,  309. 

befef)tt,  syn.,  349-50. 

bcflctbcn,  grad.,  310. 

beflcmtncn,  312. 

befcmmen,  use  in  passive  construction, 
301 ;  with  infin.  w.  jit,  274 ;  con- 
jugated with  fcitt  or  Ijatcn,  295 ; 
syn.,  529  (6). 

SBelas,  decl.,  83. 

bcletircn,  syn.,  557. 

bcltcbcn,  syn.,  350,  528  (a),  540. 

beUctt,  grad.,  322. 

bcmadnta,ctt :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

bcmctftcnt :  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  559. 


624 


GENERAL  INDEX 


bemer!en,  with  simple  infin.,  279 ;  syn., 

570. 

benebfl,  prep.,  394. 
benefcmen,  syn.,  557. 
benetigen,  benctcn,  syn.,  548. 
benotigt,  syn.,  552. 
berauben,  syn.,  557. 
beraubt,  syn.,  552. 
83erber,  decl.,  93. 
bcrcben,  syn.,  557,  559. 
S3ereid),  gender,  124. 
bergen,  grad.,  317. 
33etid?t,  decl.,  77. 
bettd)ten,  syn.,  557,  566  (£). 
betid)tet,  beridjt,  syn.,  552. 
berften,  grad.,  316;   conjugated  with 

fein,  292. 
berufyen,  conjugated  with  fyaben  or  fein, 

291. 

berufymen  :  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
befage,  prep.,  381. 
33efd)eib,  decl.,  77. 
befcfyeiben,  syn.,  532  (g),  557;  ft$  — , 

syn.,  559. 

befd)eiben,  adj.  part.,  310. 
befd)eren,    grad.,    314;     syn.    of  wk. 

befd)eren,  529  (b). 
befd)reiben,  syn.,  568  (b). 
befdjulbigcn,  syn.,  557. 
S3cfd)n?crbc,  pron.,  20. 
befd)h?eren  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
befd)tmngcn,  grad.,  315. 
befd)tt?cten,  syn.,  564  (a). 
beftnncn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
beforgen  :  fid}  — ,  syn.,  559. 
beffcrn  :  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
SBefhnb,  decl.,  83. 
Sefhcf,  decl.,  80. 
befiefyen,  conjugated  with  fyaben  and  feitt, 

291. 

befheben  :  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
beten,  syn.,  531  (e). 
bctradjten,  syn.,  568  (b). 
23etrag,  decl.,  83. 
betrcp,  ttt  SSctrcff,  380. 
S3ett,  decl.,  91. 
bcttcn,  syn.,  532  (g),  540. 
beitgcn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  530  (d). 
S3euwe,  pron.,  21. 


b«or,  sep.  prefix,  339 ;  syn.,  532  (B)  ; 

conj.,  428  (B). 
beftafyte !  370  (B),  434. 
betrcgen,  grad.,  314. 
93etoet$,  decl.,  77. 
bciuuft,  syn.,  552. 
bejafylen,  syn.,  540. 
bejeidjnen,  syn.,  568  (b). 
bqtdjttgen,  syn.,  557. 
bejieijentttd),  419. 
bejie^ung^itctfe,  419. 
bejugltd),  prep.,  381. 
33tber,  pron.,  18. 
btcgcn,  grad.,  313. 
S3icr,  decl.,  79. 
Siefi,  decl.,  85. 
bieten,  grad.,  313. 
S3t(b,  decl.,  85. 

93if(ett,  pron.  and  orthog.,  21. 
bin,  pron.,  15. 
binben,  grad.,  315. 
binnen,  prep.,  381. 
bi$,  pron.,  15  ;  prep.,  401 ;    conj.,  428 

(B),  429  (e) ;  —  bafc,  428  (B). 
SBtfdjcf,  decl.,  84. 
bifid^n,  176. 
bifi,  pron.,  15. 
bitten,  grad.,  319;  [id?]  bitte,  meaning, 

435  5  syn.,  557,  564. 
Staff,  decl.,  75. 
blanf,  compar.,  144. 
blafen,  grad.,  321  ;  with  infin.,  278. 
blafj ,  compar.,  144. 
Slap,  decl.,  87. 
SBtatt,  decl.,  85. 
33lei,  decl.,  79. 
bletben,  grad.,  310;    conjugated  with 

fein,  291  ;    with    gerundive,    265 ; 

with  simple  infin.,  277. 
bteidjcn,  grad.,  308,  309;  conjugated 

with  fyaben  or  fein,  292. 
JBlcjj,  decl.,  87. 
JBlccf,  decl.,  82. 
Hof?,  adj.,  syn.,  552. 
btofj,  adv.,  365,  423. 
93lud)er,  pron.,  20. 
Scef,  decl.,  82. 
93oben,  decl.,  72. 
S3oeuf,  pron.j  20. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


625 


Soer,  pron.  and  orthog.,  23. 

Sogen,  decl.,  72. 

Soi,  pron.,  23. 

Sotfcenburg,  pron.,  22,  23. 

Soft,  decl.,  75. 

*bo(b,  suffix,  450. 

Soot,  decl.,  79,  84. 

Seotien,  pron.,  20. 

Sorb,  decl.,  75. 

Sorn,  decl.,  75. 

Scrft,  decl.,  75. 

Sorbe,  pron.,  20. 

Sorfe,  pron.,  20. 

Sort,  decl.,  85,  86. 

Sofetoify,  decl.,  86. 

Soubotr,  pron.,  22. 

Souquet,  pron.  and  orthog.,  34. 

Souteifte,  pron.,  31. 

Sotole,  pron.,  22. 

Srad)e,  pron.,  21. 

Sranb,  decl.,  82. 

braten,  grad.,  321. 

Srau,  decl.,  82. 

Srciu,  decl.,  79,  82. 

Sraud),  decl.,  82. 

braudjen,  syn.,  548. 

bvauen,  grad.,  322. 

Sraut,  decl.,  83. 

Srautigatn,  decl.,  77. 

Bremen,  pron.,  17;   grad.,  318;    past 

indie,  brad),  pron.,  21 ;  past  subj. 

brcidje,  pron.,  21  ;  conjugated  with 

fein,  292. 
Sreboto,  pron.,  22. 
brennen,  grad.,  324. 
Srdt,  decl.,  85. 
Srejel,  pron.  and  orthog.,  20. 
Srief,  pron.,  18. 
SrUlant,  decl.,  93. 
bringen,  grad.,  325  ;  use  in  passive 

construction,  302  ;  syn.,  547. 
brinmit,  grad.,  322. 
Srcmbeere,  pron.,  22. 
Sronje,  pron.,  29. 
Srofuttt,  decl.,  91. 
Srot,  decl.,  79,  84. 
Srud>,  decl.,  82,  85  ;  gender,  124. 
brucfyig,  pron.,  20. 
Sruber,  decl.,  72. 


Sritnfl,  decl.,  83. 
Srufl,  decl.,  83. 
Srutud,  decl.,  92. 

Sudj,  pron.,  23  ;  decl.,  85  ;  pi.  Sfidjer, 
pron.,  19. 

pron.,  23. 

decl.,  75. 
SudjjJabe,  decl.,  74,  87. 
Sug,  decl.,  82. 
33ulgar,  decl.,  89. 
Suit,  Sulten,  Siilte,  decl.,  75. 
Sunb,  decl.,  79,  82  ;  gender,  96. 
Sunbet,  gender,  124. 
Sur,  pron.  and  orthog.,  23  ;  decl.  91. 
Sureau,  pron.,  19. 
burgen,  syn.,  531  (e). 
Surfd;r  decl.,  87. . 
Sufdj,  decl.,  82. 
Suffarb,  decl.,  77. 
Sutt,  Suite,  decl.,  75,  91. 
Sufc,  decl.,  87. 

c,  pron.,  8. 

5,  pron.,  8. 

Gabtj,  pron.,  29. 

Gampagne,  pron.,  31. 

Capital  letters,  use  of,  54-5. 

Cardinals,  150-4. 

Sarrtere,  pron.  and  orthog.,  1 8. 

Saftid,  better  Jlafu3,  decl.,  95. 

Cause :  see  Clauses. 

@c((e,  pron.,  29. 

Sentaur,  also  Jtentaur,  decl.,  93. 

d),  pron.,  8. 

ti),  suffix,  451. 

Gfyampagner,  pron.,  34. 

S^an,  decl.,  75. 

@f)an«,  pron.,  24. 

(Sfyarafter,  pron.,  28  ;  decl.,  8 1. 

d)artcrn,  pron.,  28. 

,  pron.  and  orthog.,  28. 
ie,  pron.,  28. 
sdjen,  substantival  suffix^  444  ;  verbal 

suffix,  464. 

Qfyicane,  pron.  and  orthog.,  28. 
Sfjimborajo,  pron.,  29. 

,  pron.,  28. 
e,  pron.  and  orthog.,  1 6,  28. 

,  pron.,  16,  28. 


S  S 


626 


GENERAL  INDEX 


(Sfyor,  pron.,  28 ;  decl.,  84 ;  gender,  96. 
Gfycrat,  decl.,  84. 
(Sfyrif,  pron.,  28. 
Gfyrifi,  pron.,  28 ;  decl.,  87,  96. 
$g  or  <f)f,  pron.,  8. 
Gitcerone,  pron.,  29. 
Simbcrn,  decl.,  88. 
(f,  pron.,  8. 
;rfen,  verbal  suf.,  464. 
(SCan,  decl.,  75. 
Clauses : 

Classification,     with     remarks    on 
mood,  abridgment,  word-order,  &c.: 
subject,  584-6. 
predicate,  586. 
adjective : 
attributive    substantive    clause, 

586-7. 

attributive  adj.  clause,  587-90. 
objective : 
gen.  clause,  590-1. 
dat.  clause,  591. 
ace.  clause,  591-2. 
prep,  phrase  clause,  592-3. 
adverbial  clause  of 
place,  594. 
time,  594-6. 
manner,  596-7. 
degree,  597-9. 
cause,  599. 
condition,  600-1. 
concession,  601-2. 
purpose,  602-3. 
means,  604. 
material,  604. 
(£lique,  pron.,  19. 

(£oaf$,  pron.  and  orthog.,  10 ;  decl.,  75. 
Sober,  pron.,  16. 
Sognac,  pron.  and  orthog.,  27. 
Comparison  :    see  under  Adjectives, 

Adverbs,  and  Participles. 
Compounds :  definition  of  a  com- 
pound, 479  ;  parts  of,  480 ;  different 
kinds  of :  composition  proper,  481; 
composition  improper,  482-9 ; 
compound  verbs  :  conjugation  of, 
323>  336-42 ;  separable  compounds, 
336-9  ;  inseparable,  336,  339  ; 
separable  or  inseparable,  336, 


340-2 ;  nouns  made  from  com- 
pound verbs,  342  ;  verbs  indirectly 
compounded,  342-3  ;  compound 
nouns :  inflection  of,  69  ;  gender, 
125-6. 

Concessive :  see  Clauses. 

Conditional  sentences  :  mood,  227 
(E),  237  (E),  600  (r);  different 
forms  of  the  conditional  clause, 
600  (b) ;  abridgment,  60 1  (d). 

Conjugation  :  forms  of,  250;  simple 
tenses  of  the  regular  weak  conju- 
gation, 251  ;  simple  tenses  of  the 
regular  strong  conjugation,  254-5  ; 
paradigm  of  compound  tenses, 
296-9  ;  gradation  classes  of  strong 
verbs,  308-22  ;  conjugation  of 
strong  verbs  in  compounds,  323 ; 
irregular  conjugation,  323-8 ;  con- 
jugation of  the  passive,  299-303  ; 
use  of  the  connecting  vowel  in 
conjugation,  257-60. 

Conjunctions :  definition  and  classi- 
fication, 418 ;  pure  coordinate, 
419;  adverbial  coordinate,  422; 
coordinate  conjunctions  with  a 
double  construction,  423  ;  subordi- 
nate, 424 ;  order  of  words,  424  ; 
position,  426 ;  classification  of 
subordinate  conjunctions,  426-33 ; 
conjunctions  used  in  making  com- 
parisons, 430-3  ;  used  as  coordinate 
or  subordinate,  433 ;  origin  of 
conjunctions,  418,  433  (240.  a). 

Connecting  vowel  in  verbs,  use  or 
omission,  257  (art.  178.  i)-26o. 

Consonants,  classification,  12;  pro- 
nunciation, 25-54  ;  brief  history  of, 

34-4°- 

Correlative  pronouns,  212-13. 
(Scrtej,  pron.,  29. 
Qjjedje,  pron.  and  orthog.,  29. 

b,  pron.,  8. 

ba :  adverb,  357  ;  =  rel.  pronoun, 
209  ;  conj.  with  a  double  construc- 
tion, 433  ;  sub.  conj.  of  place,  427 
(3.  A)  ;  sub.  conj.  of  time,  427  (B), 
428  (c) ;  of  cause,  429  (E)  ;  of  con- 


GENERAL  INDEX 


627 


cession,  430  (G)  ;  ba  +  prep,  (banttt, 
barin,  &c.)  =  rel.  pronoun,  208. 

Dadj,  decl.,  85. 

!Dad)f5,  decl.,  75. 

bafern,  conj.,  430  (F). 

bafyet,  conj.,  423. 

bafyingegen,  conj.,  423. 

ballt,  434. 

bamtt,  conj.,  430  (H). 

£amm,  decl.,  82. 

bdmmern,  syn.,  350. 

!Ddmon,  decl.,  92. 

£>ampf,  decl.,  82. 

banad),  sub.  conj.,  429  (D.  i.  A.  b). 

£>anf,  decl.,  75 ;  ju  —  mad)en,  syn.,  534 
(C);  prep.  381. 

banfen,  syn.,  528  (a),  548. 

bann,  conj.,  423  (A.  c,  c). 

bar,  sep.  prefix,  339  ;  meaning,  355-6. 

Satlefyn,  decl.,  80. 

2)arm,  decl.,  82. 

batftetten,  syn.,  568  (b). 

barum,  conj.,  423 ;  —  bafj,  429  (E), 
430  (H). 

ba«,  def.  art.,  pron.,  15  ;  decl.,  56. 

bafelbjt,  357  (7- A). 

bafi :  pron.,  15  ;  origin,  433  (240.  a) ; 
sub.  conj.  in  substantive  clauses,  427 
(i.  d) ;  in  adjective  clauses,  427 
(2.  d) ;  in  clauses  of  manner,  429 
(3.  C.  c ) ;  of  degree,  429  (D.  2) ;  of 
cause,  429  (E)  ;  of  purpose,  430  (H)  ; 
of  means,  430  (i) ;  use  or  omission 
of,  585  (i.  c),  592  (/) ;  —  ni<$t, 
429  (c.  c). 

Dative : 

I.  in  the  adverbial  relation  to  denote  : 
place,  360  (d). 

time,  361  (II.  i),  362  (2.  b}. 
reference,  364  (c). 

II.  as  object : 

with  certain  verbs,  527-34. 
after  a  prep,  or  adverb  contained 
in  a  compound,  532  (B). 
dat.  of  possession,  530  (c). 

III.  dative  of  personal  interest : 
dat.  of  reference,  535. 

dat.  of  agent,  536. 
dat.  of  cause,  537. 

S 


dat.  of  interest,  537. 
ethical  dat.,  537. 

dat.  with  fufylen,  fennen,  toiffen,  tooflen, 
begcfjren,  538  (4). 

IV.  dat.  for  ace.,  538  (5). 

V.  either  dat.  or  ace.,  538-45. 

VI.  with     adjectives,     participles, 
nouns,  534-5. 

VII.  with  prepositions  : 
only  dat.,  388-400. 
dat.  and  ace.,  406-18. 

VIII.  double  object : 

ace.  of  thing  and  dat.  of  person, 

555-7- 

IX.  dat.  in  exclamations,  582  (3). 
35au«,  decl.,  85. 

ba»cn,  sep.  prefix,  339. 

bb,  pron.,  8. 

Serf,  decl.,  79. 

Declensions  :    see  nouns,  adjectives, 

&c.,  also  weak,  strong,  mixed. 
beinctfgleidjen,  214. 
bcinetf)atb(en),  186,  382. 
beinetroegen,  186,  382. 
betnetroUien,  186. 
£ei#mu<5,  pron.,  9. 
bcttaricren,  syn.,  568  (b). 
SDcfrct,  pron.,  16. 
bcm,  pron.,  15,  16. 
2)cmant,  decl.,  93. 
bemnadj,  conj.,  423. 
Demonstratives,  list,  157  ;  inflection, 

157-66. 

£)cmiit,  gender,  125. 
ben,  pron.,  15,  16. 
iCrnbrit,  decl.,  89. 
bcnfcn,  grad.,  325  ;  e$  btnft  mtr  or  mt<$, 

349,  563  ;  fid)  — ,  with  simple  infin., 

279 ;  syn.,  570. 
2>cnfma(,  decl.,  96. 
bcnn,  adv.,  369,  372,  373  ;  coordinate 

conj.,  419;  sub. conj., 429(0. 1.  B), 

432  (6) ;  benn  bafj,  429  (D.  i.  B)  ;  e« 

fci  bcnn  bap,  430  (F.  Note). 
bcnncd),  conj.,  423. 
bcnunjicrcn,  syn.,  568  (b). 
bcr,  relative:   pron.   16;   decl.,  201; 

use,  202 ;  replaced  by  weld?;,  202 ; 

replaced  by  other  words,  205-10. 
S2 


628 


GENERAL  INDEX 


terart,  bergeftolt,  366. 

bere  =  beren,  160. 

bergleidjen,  214-15. 

berl)alb(en),  360,  423. 

Derivation  :  by  means  of  suffix  :  sub- 
stantival suffixes,  437-52 ;  adjec- 
tival suffixes,  452-62  ;  verbal  suf- 
fixes, 462-4 ;  derivative  or  com- 
pound adverbs,  465-7 ;  derivation 
of  prepositions,  467-8  ;  derivation 
by  means  of  prefix :  formation  of 
nouns,  adjectives  and  pronouns  by 
prefix,  468-70;  verbal  prefixes, 
471-9. 

betjenige,  decl.,  162 ;  use  as  a  deter- 
minative, 163. 

berlet,  215. 

bermafjen,  366. 

bero  =  beren,  160. 

berofyalben,  423. 

berofoegen,  423. 

berfelbe,  decl.,  165  ;  meanings  and  use, 
165-6. 

berir>egen,  423. 

bettoett,  sub.  conj.,  428  (B). 

£>ertwfd),  decl.,  77. 

be^  =  bag,  161. 

befertieren,  conjugated  with  fein,  295. 
feidjen,  214-15  ;  conj.,  422. 
b,  160,  423. 
,  160. 

befienungeacfytet,  conj.,  423. 

!Deffert,  pron.,  21. 

beStoegen,  160. 

be$totl(en :  um  — ,  160. 

35etatl,  pron.,  34. 

beittfd),  etymol.,  457  (a). 

2>ejenwr,  decl.,  93. 

3)tafon,  decl.,  81. 

Clamant,  decl.,  93  (/). 

SHebjkfil,  decl.,  83. 

bienen,  syn.,  528  (a). 

3Menfl :  ju  —en  flrfjen,  syn.,  533  (c). 

btef^,  decl.,  157  ;  meaning,  157. 

bteferfjalb,  360. 

biefennaf  en,  366. 

biegfeitS,  prep.,  381. 

btetoeil,  sub.  conj.,  428  (B),  429  (E). 

Differentiation  of  substantive  forms, 


95  ;  differentiation  of  verbal  forms, 

3°7- 

£>ing,  decL,  79,  96. 
bingen,  grad.,  315. 
$)ipljtl)ong,  decl.,  89. 
bit  =  tf)r,  187. 
2)ifHd)on,  decl.,  92. 
to$,  369,  370,  371,  373  J  conj.  with  a 

double  construction,  423  ;   —  bafj, 

43°  (*). 

JDocfyt,  decl.,  75. 
35orf,  decl.,  79,  94. 
Softer,  pron.,  16  ;  decl.,  92. 
JDoftoranb,  decl.,  89. 
),  decl.,  75. 

,  decl.,  87. 
35om,  decl.,  75. 
botmnieren,  syn.,  528  (a). 
2)omino,  decl.,  93. 
$)on,  pron.,  22. 
£>on  Outrote,  pron.,  12,  29. 
JDovf,  decl.,  85. 
,  decl.,  75. 
,  decl.,  75. 
bort,  bcrten,  357. 
border,  357. 
bortiiin,  357. 
bo$  =  beg  =  ba«,  161. 
JDra^t,  decl.,  82. 
£>ratt,  decl.,  75. 
2)rama,  decl.,  92. 
35rang,  decl.,  82. 
3)rangfaf,  gender,  124. 
brafd),  pron.,  15. 
breftyen,  grad.,  311,  317. 
J)tegben,  pron.,  20. 
bringen,  grad.,  315;  conjugated  with 

fein  or  Jjaben,  294. 
£rttteU,  2)tttte[,  gender,  126. 
broken,  syn.,  528  (a),  529  (Note). 
S>roft,  decl.,  75,  87. 
£rucf,  decl.,  75,  96. 
2)rub,  decl.,  87. 
£>rufd&,  decl.,  75,  82. 
bt,  pron.,  II. 
Dual,  187  (g). 
£>ueU,  pron.,  II. 
£>uft,  decl.,  82. 

,  pron.,  19. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


6: 


bumm,  compar.,  144. 

biittWn,  syn.,  540. 

biinfen,  grad.,  325  ;  e3  bnnftmtd)  or  mir, 

540;    jtdj  — ,   with  infin.  or  pres. 

part.,  279-80  ;  syn.,  540,  570  (c). 
2)un3,  decl.,  75. 
$)unfl,  decl.,  82. 
burdj,  prefix,  sep.  or  insep.,  340 ;  prep., 

401. 
burdjfafyren,  conjugated  with  fyaben  or 

fein,  290. 
burdjgefyen,  conjugated  with  fyaben  or 

fetn,  290. 

£>utdjtaf,  decl.,  77. 
IDurdjlaudjt,  324  (a). 
burdjlaufen,  conjugated  with  Ijaben  or 

fetn,  290. 
burdjtoanbern,   conjugated  with  fatten 

or  fein,  290. 
burd)jiefi,en,  conjugated  with  fyaben  or 

fein,  290. 
biirfen,   conjugation,    326;    uses    of, 

328-9  ;  with  simple  infin.,  278. 
bufier,  pron.,  15,  19. 
Sufcenb,  decl.,  80. 

?,  pron.,  9. 
e,  pron.,  9. 

e,  unaccented  pron.,  23. 
6,  in  French  words,  pron.,  9. 
tt,  substantival  suffix,  437-9  ;  adver- 
bial suffix,  465  (2.  a). 
tbenfo,  419 ;  ebenfo  tote,  419. 
®ber$,  443  (a). 
(Sdf,  decl.,  79. 
ee,  pron.,  20  (n.  i). 
eetf$,  interj.,  434. 
@ffeft,  decl.,  96. 
eft,,  pron.,  9. 
efye,  conj.,  428  (B). 
ef)ebred)en,  343. 
(Sfteftalt,  decl.,  87. 
ei,  pron.,  9. 
(Si,  decl.,  85. 
m,  suffix,  439,  440. 
©ibarn,  decl.,  77. 
men,  verbal  suffix,  464. 
eignen,  syn.,  530  (c). 
Ctitanb,  belonging  to  the  list  d,  p.  80. 


eUen,  syn.,  350. 

ein,  decl.,  58  ;  for  use  see  Article  ;  as 

an    indefinite,    175;     einer  =  man, 

196. 
ein,  sep.  prefix,  339 ;  meaning  and  use 

in  compounds,  359  (9) ;  syn.,  532 

(B)  ;  replaced  by  in  in  dialect,  359 

(9-  a). 

ein,  pron.  in  French  words,  9. 
(Sinbtucf  mad)en,  syn.,  534  (c). 
einerfeiW  —  anber(er)feit$,  conj.,  423. 
etnesteite  —  anbernteite,  conj.,  423. 
einfaKen,  syn.,  350. 
eingebenf,  syn.,  552. 
etngefyen,  conjugated  with  I;aben  or  fein, 

290. 
etnig,  decl.  and  meaning,  179;  syn., 

552. 

einigermajj en,  366. 
©inlajj,  decl.,  77. 
etna,  syn.,  552. 
etnfcfylagen,  formerly  conjugated  with 

fein,  290 ;  intrans.  with  fein,  293. 
einfcfynefjltdj,  prep.,  380. 
einfefcen,  syn.,  569  (d). 
eimoanb,  decl.,  83. 
efeln,  syn.,  350,  563. 
id,  suffix,  440. 
<Hf,  decl.,  87. 
;eln,  verbal  suffix,  463. 
Glfafj,  gender,  64  (6),  124. 
em,  pron.  in  French  words,  9. 
enu?;,  insep.  prefix,   339;    meaning, 

472. 

empfeljlen,  grad.,  318  ;  syn.,  568  (6). 
empfinben,   with    simple    infin.,    279; 

syn.,  570  (c). 

empor,  pron.,  16  ;  sep.  prefix,  339. 
en,  pron.  in  French  words,  9. 
;cn,  substantival  suffix,  441 ;   :tn,  t\\, 

?ern,  adjectival  suffix,  452  ;  ;en,  ver- 
bal suffix,  462-3 ;    --en,  in  sing,  of 

weak  feminines,  89. 
@nbe,  decl.,  91. 
enf,  enfer  =  eudj,  met,  187  (g). 
ftn&,  gen.  ending,  102 ;  in  compounds, 

484;  in  ordinal  adverbs,  154  (b] ; 

in    superlative    of    adverbs,    145 

(2.  a). 


630 


GENERAL  INDEX 


enk,  insep.  prefix,  339 ;  meaning,  472  ; 
meaning  compared  with  that  of  ab 
and  cuu$,  358  ;  syn.,  532  (B). 

entiiitfjcrn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

entbetjten,  grad.,  322 ;  syn.,  548. 

entbtnben,  syn.,  557. 

entbloben:  ftd) — ,  syn.,  559. 

entblofien,  syn.,  557. 

entbredjen :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

enterbcn,  syn.,  557. 

entgegen,  sep.  prefix,  339;  syn.t  532 
(B)  ;  prep.,  391. 

entgegnen,  syn.,  531  (*). 

entgeltett,  syn.,  548. 

entfjattm:  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

entfyeben,  syn.,  557. 

entfleiben,  syn.,  557  ;  fid)  — ,  559- 

enttaben,  syn.,  557  ;  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

enttang,  prep.,  392. 

entlangfl,  prep.,  392. 

entlaffen,  syn.,  557. 

tnttafhn,  syn.,  557 ;  fid)  — ,syn.,  559. 

enttebigen,    syn.,   557;   ftdj  — ,   syn, 

559- 

entraten,  syn.,  548. 
Crntm,  pron.,  24. 
entringen  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
entfagen,  syn.,  548,  559;  ftd)  — ,  syn., 

559- 

entfdjutbigm  :  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  5  59. 

entfdjlagen  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

ttttfefcen,  syn.,  557 ;  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

cntjinnen  :  fidj — ,  syn.,  559. 

entubrtgen,  syn.,  557. 

entoeber  —  ober,  419,  420,  423. 

enhtetiren,  syn.,  557  ;  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 

enttooljnen,  syn.,  557  ;  ft$  — ,  syn.,  559. 

entjte^en  :  $%  —,  syn.,  559. 

entjtoei,  sep.  prefix,  339. 

;enjen,  verbal  suffix,  464. 

(Spigrantm,  decl.,  81. 

«*,  insep.  prefix,  339  ;  meaning,  473. 

:n,  substantival  suffix,  441-2  ;  adjec- 
tival suffix,  456  (b),  137  (a). 

etbarmen,  syn.,  561  (c),  562  (</);  fld^ 
— ,  syn.,  559. 

(Srbe,  gender,  96. 

erblaffm,  syn.,  531  (/). 

erbteic^en,  grad.,  308. 


erbticfen,  with  simple  infin.,  279 ;  syn., 

570  (C). 

erbf(f;lei^en,  343. 
(Srbteit,  gender,  126. 
(Srbe,  pron.,  20. 
trfaljten,  part.,  syn.,  552. 
erjtnben,  syn.,  568  (b). 
trfrecfyett :  ft^ — ,  syn.,  559. 
erfreuen,  syn.,  557;  itdj  — ,  559. 
erfiiflt,  part.,  syn.,  552. 
erfjaUen,  with  infin.  w.  ju,  274  ;  use  in 

passive  construction,  301. 
erfjeben  :  fidj — ,  syn.,  559. 
ertyclen  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
ertnnern,  syn.,  558  ;  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
Gmnnerung :   fid)  in  —  btingen,  syn., 

534  (C). 

(Srfenntnis,  gender,  96. 
erfiiljnen :  ftd) — ,  syn.,  559. 
(Srfaf,  decl.,  76. 
erfafen,  syn.,  558. 
erlaitd)t,  324  (a). 

crtebtgen,  syn.,  558  ;  ftd)— ,  syn.,  559. 
jcrtet,  suffix,  155,  453. 
erttegen,  syn.,  530  (</). 
ertcfd)en,  grad.,  312. 
mnafjnen,  syn.,  558. 
evmangetn,  syn.,  549. 
ermuben,  syn.,  548. 
sent,  verbal  suffix,  463 ;    adj.  suffix, 

452. 

erndfjren  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  559. 
ernennen,  syn.,  569  (</). 
erretten,  syn.,  558. 
erfdttigen  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
erfdttigt,  part.,  syn.,  552. 
erfd)al(en,  grad.,  312. 
erfd)einen,  syn.,  530  (//). 
erfdjrecfen,  grad.,  318  ;  syn.,  548. 
erfefyen  :  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
SrfparmS,  gender,  96. 
erjl,  pron.,  20  ;  meaning,  365  ;  conj., 

423- 

erfiens,  conj.,  423. 
erfiltd),  conj.,  423. 
ertonen,  syn.,  531  (/). 
@rtrag,  decl.,  83. 
eritdgcn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
fttodi)nen,  syn.,  548. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


631 


tun,  syn.,  552. 
erroarten,  syn.,  548. 
erwefyren  :  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
GmerS,  decl.,  77. 
ewibern,  syn.,  531  (e). 
<5rj,  decl.,  79. 
erg;,  prefix,  469. 
c<S  =  il)t,  187  (g). 

effen,  grad.,  319  ;  syn.,  528  (a),  547. 
et;,  prefix,  469. 
etwa,  370,  372  ;  —  nidjt,  372  ;  nidjt  — , 

372. 
enuag,  indef.  adj.,  177  ;  indef.  pronoun, 

196. 

Sttymologte,  pron.,  16. 
eu,  pron.,  9. 
eurer,  instead  of  euer   in  gen.  pi.  of 

personal  pronouns,  185. 
Sitter,  gender,  124. 
(Soangelium,  pron.,  27. 
erflufw,  prep.,  380. 
el),  pron.,  9. 

f,  pron.,  9. 

ga$,  decl.,  85. 

*fa$,  suffix,  155,453- 

Factitive    verb,     explanation,    306 ; 

manner  of  formation  and  inflection, 

306. 

gaben,  decl.,  72,  96. 
fafyen,  grad.,  322. 
fa%  syn.,  552. 
fafyren,  grad.,  320;   conjugated  with 

fein  or  fyaben,  294 ;  with  simple  infin., 

277;  syn.,  551  (a), 
gafftmtle,  pron.,  16. 
gall,  decl.,  82. 
fallen,  grad.,    321  ;    conjugated  with 

fein,  295  ;  {t$  — ,  syn.,  569  (d,  B). 
falls,  sub.  conj.,  430  (F). 
sfaltig,  suffix,  155,  453. 
galj,  decl.,  75. 
Sang,  decl.,  82. 
faitgen,  grad.,  322. 
gant,  decl.,  75. 
garn,  decl.,  75. 
garr,  decl.,  87. 
gafan,  decl.,  93. 
$a&,  decl.,  85. 


gaun,  decl.,  75,  87. 

Bfaaft  decl.,  83. 

ftauteuil,  pron.,  21,  34. 

fedjten,  grad.,  312. 

fe^Ien,  syn.,  350,  529  (6),  548. 

fe^(fd;(agen,  conjugated  with   fein    or 

fyaben,  293. 
Sett,  decl.,  85. 
gefl,  decl.,  79. 
Selfen,  decl.,  74. 
genn,  decl.,  79. 
genfier,  decl.,  91  (Note). 
ffejl,  decl.,  79. 
gett,  decl.,  79. 
Seuifltton,  pron.,  21. 
5er,  decl.,  87. 
Siafer,  pron.,  14. 
8iljr  decl.,  87. 
finben,  gradation,  315 ;  with  gerundive, 

265  ;   with  simple   infin.  or  pres. 

part.,  279-80;  syn.,  570  (c). 
fxng,  jteng,  15. 
ginf,  decl.,  87. 
Sjefl,  gjelb,  decl.,  79. 
gjorb,  decl.,  75. 
8Ia<$,  decl.,  79. 
ftlafy,  decl.,  75. 
Sta^«,  decl.,  75. 
flattteren,  syn.,  528  (a). 
5taum,  decL,  91. 
g(au«,  decl.,  75. 
Slaiifd),  decl.,  75. 
fled^ten,  grad.,  312. 
glerf  or  glecfen,  96. 
gleet,  decl.,  79. 
fle^en,  syn.,  542. 
fleifyen,  grad.,  310. 
fltegcn,  grad.,  313;   conjugated   with 

fein,  295. 
fliejjen,   grad.,   311;    meaning,    324; 

conjugated  with  fein,  295. 
glitter,  decl.,  91. 
glcfj,  decl.,  82. 
glcr,  decl.,  75,  82. 
glojj,  decl.,  82,  84  ;  gender,  124. 
glofft,  313  (<0- 
glcfc,  better  gloj,  decl.,  79. 
gludj,  pron.,  23 ;  decl.,  82 ;  pi.  gludj«, 

pron.,  19. 


632 


GENERAL  INDEX 


flud)en,  syn.,  528  (a). 
;flud;>t,  decl.,  83. 
ftlug,  decl.,  82. 
flug(3,  pron.,  14,  27. 
gfa$,  decl.,  83. 
glunf,  decl.,  82. 
glut,  decl.,  75  ;  gender,  97. 
fr  decl.,  82. 
$,  decl.,  92. 
fclgen,  conjugated  with  fein  or  Ijaben, 

2955  syn.,  530  forf). 
fclgfid),  conj.,  423. 
jforbe,  pron.,  20. 
ftcrfl,  decl.,  75,  91. 
Sort,  pron.,  22. 
fort,  meaning,  358  (F). 
fortfafyren,  conjugated  with  Ijaben  or 

fein,  294. 
Soffit,  decl.,  93. 
Sotyet  =/6:aJJ. 
ftracf,  decl.,  82. 
fragen,     grad.,      320     syn.,      558, 

564. 

grant,  decl.,  88. 
ftrafc,  decl.,  88,  91. 
fret,  syn.,  552. 
Steimut,  gender,  125. 
freifpred)en,  syn.,  558. 
greutblinger,  443  (a). 
freffen,  grad.,  319. 
grett,  decl.,  79. 
freuen :   fid)  — ,  syn.,   560 ;  impers., 

561  (c)t  562  (d). 
5re»el,  pron.,  29. 
grtebe,  decl.,  74. 
frteren,  grad.,  313  ;  syn.,  349. 
frof),  syn.,  552. 
frofytocfen,  syn.,  548. 
froutrn,  compar.,  144. 
frommen,  syn.,  529  (b). 
ftonen,  fronen,  syn.,  528  (a). 
Front  vowels,  1 8. 
grofd),  decl.,  82. 
grojl,  decl.,  82. 

frofWn :  e«  frofWt  mid)  (mir),  349. 
gritc^t,  decl.,  83. 
ftudjten,  syn.,  529  (b). 
gudi«,  decl.,  82,  88. 
fiiljten,  with  simple  infin.,  279 ;  with 


dependent  infin.  which  has  passive 

force,  283  ;  syn.,  570  (c). 
fiit;ren,  with  simple  infin.,  279  ;  use  in 

passive   construction,    302 ;     syn., 

566  (£•),  570  (C). 
gitnb,  decl.,  75. 
Sunfe,  decL,  74. 
fur,  sep.    prefix  =  »or,    339  ;    prep., 

401. 

furdjten,  syn.,  548  ;  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
gfurli,  decl.,  88. 
ffujj,  decl.,  75,  82,  97. 
Future   tense :    formation  of  future 

indie,  and  subj.,  287 ;  of  fut.  infin., 

287  ;  use  of  future  tense,  219. 
Future  perfect :  formation,  287 ;  use, 

219. 

g,  pron.,  9. 

©ang,  decl.,  82. 

gangen,  grad.,  322. 

®an3,  decl.,  83 ;  gender,  97. 

ganj,  decl.,  177 ;  ein  I)ubfd)e3  ©anjeS  or 

©anje,  135  (4.  a),  177  (c,  Note). 
gat :  id)  bad)te  gar,  370 ;  uwum  nidjt 

gar,  370 ;  Iteber  gar,  370. 
garen,  grad.,  314. 
©arn,  decl.,  79. 
©arnifon,  pron.,  24. 
©arten,  decl.,  72. 
®a8,  decl.,  79. 
©aft,  decl.,  82. 
©att,  decl.,  91. 
@au,  decl.,  75. 
©aud),  decl.,  82. 
©out,  decl.,  82. 
©aje,  pron.,  31. 
ge*f  verbal  prefix :  accent,  45  (b~) ;  use 

or  omission  with  perf.  part.,  260-4  ; 

inseparable,  339  ;  meaning,  475-6 ; 

substantival  prefix,  469-70. 
gebdren,  grad.,  318. 
geben,  grad.,   319;    with   gerundive, 

265 ;   with  infin.  with  gu,  274;   eg 

gibt,  348 ;  syn.,  547. 
gebieten,  syn.,  539. 
©ebraud),  decl.,  83. 
gebraudjen,  syn.,    548  ;    fid)   — ,   syn., 

560. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


G33 


gebredjen,    syn.,    529    (6) ;    impers., 

561  (c),  562  (d). 
gebiifyren,  syn.,  530  (c). 
©eburt,  pron.,  23. 
©ecf,  decl.,88. 
gebarft,  324  (a). 

©ebanfe,  decl.,  74  ;  fein  — ,  434. 
gebeifjen,  grad.,  310;  conjugated  with 

fein,  292  ;    with  fyaben,  293  ;    syn., 

529  (6). 

gebenf,  syn.,  552. 
gebenf en,  syn.,  548. 
gebtegen,  310. 
©efaUe,  decl.,  74. 
gefatten,  syn.,  350,  528  (a). 
gefiittt,  part.,  syn.,  552. 
gegen,  prep.,  402. 
©egenteil,  gender,  126;  im  — ,  conj. 

with  a  double  construction,  423. 
gegeniiber,  prep.,  391. 
©egenuber,  decl.,  94. 
gegenn>art$,  prep.,  381. 
geljaben,  grad.,  323. 
©eljalt,  decl.,  86 ;  gender,  97. 
gefyen,  grad.,   322  ;    conjugated  with 

fein,  295  ;  with  Ijaben,  296  (l>) ;  with 

gerundive,  265  ;  with  simple  infin., 

277;  syn.,  551  (a). 
getyorctyen,  syn.,  530  (c). 
geljoven,  use  in  passive  construction, 

302 ;  syn.,  530  (c). 
geljorfamen,  syn.,  530  (c). 
getjig,  syn.,  552. 
gelatyrt,  324  (a). 
©elb,  decl.,  85. 
gelegentltd),  prep.,  381. 
gelieben,  syn.,  350,  528  (a). 
gelingen,  grad.,  315  ;  conjugated  with 

fein,  292 ;  syn.,  350,  529  (b). 
geflen,  grad.,  322. 
getten,  grad.,  316;  syn.,  529  (b),  540, 

548. 

geluften,  syn.,  349,  540,  563. 
©emacf),  decl.,  86. 
©entail,  decl.,  77. 
gemaljnen,  syn.,  558,  561  (c),  563. 
gemafj,  pron.,  21 ;  prep.,  381,  392. 
gen,  prep.,  403. 
Gender  of  nouns,  120-7  ;  explanation 


of  grammatical  gender,  120;  gender 
according  to  meaning,  121  ;  ac- 
cording to  form,  123;  fluctuation, 
124  ;  gender  of  foreign  nouns,  125  ; 
gender  of  compounds,  125-6. 

©enerat,  decl.,  84. 

genefen,  grad.,  319;  conjugated  with 
fein,  292  ;  syn.,  548. 

gemejjen,  grad.,  311 ;  syn.,  548. 

Genitive : 

I.  used  attributively : 

A.  gen.  of  origin,  512. 

B.  possessive  gen.,  512. 

C.  subjective  gen.,  512. 

D.  objective  gen.,  512-14. 

E.  gen.  of  material,  514. 

F.  gen.  of  quality,  514. 

G.  appositive  gen.,  514. 
H.  partitive  gen.,  515-18. 

I.  gen.  having  the  construction  of 
the  gen.  found  with  verbs,  518. 
J.  position  of  the  gen.,  511. 

II.  in  the  predicate,  499  (c). 

III.  in    the    adverbial   relation    to 

denote : 

place  or  position,  360  (10.  a). 
time,  361-3. 
manner,  364,  368  (xi). 
degree,  366. 
condition,  368  (vi). 
concession,  368  (vii). 

IV.  as  an  object : 
of  a  verb,  545-51. 

of  an  adjective,  adverb,  participle, 

or  noun,  552-4. 
a  gen.  in  connection  with  an  ace., 

557-61. 

V.  after  prepositions,  377-88. 

VI.  gen.  in  exclamations,  581  (c.£). 
©enttetnan,  pron.,  32. 

genug,  179;  g<nung,  39. 

genugen,  syn.,  350,  529  (b). 

gemtgtun,  syn.,  533  (c). 

®enujj,  decl.,  83. 

geraten,  conjugated  with  fein,  292  ;  syn., 

529  (b}. 

gerdud)erter  ftifdjfyinbler,  112. 
gereidjen :  jum  {Rufyme  — ,  syn.,  533  (c). 
gereuen,  syn.,  349,  561  (c),  563. 


634 


GENERAL  INDEX 


gerinnen,  conjugated  with  fein,  292. 

©ernegrofj,  decl.,  78. 

®eru$,  decl.,  83. 

Gerundive :    predicate    form,    264 ; 

attributive  form,  265. 
gefamt,  180. 
©efang,  decl.,  83. 
gefattigt,  part.,  syn.,  552. 
gefcfyeljen,  grad.,  319;  conjugated  with 

fein,  292  ;  syn.,  529  (b). 
t,  decl.,  86. 
,  decl.,  83. 
©efdjret,  ®efd)reie,  97. 
gefcfyweige,  explanatory  conj.,  421  (c) ; 

—  benn  baf,  429  (c.  c). 
gefdjwetgen,  syn.,   549 ;    as  factitive, 

310. 

®efd)ttulfi,  decl.,  83. 
®efell,  decl.,  88. 
gefeflen :  ff$  — ,  syn.,  530  (d). 
©eftty,  decl.,  86,  97. 
©efpan,  decl.,  77. 
©eftenfi,  decl.,  86. 
®efpon3,  decl.,  77. 
©efptadj,  pron.,  21. 
geftanbig,  syn.,  552. 
©eftan!,  decl.,  83. 
gefunb,  compar.,  144. 
gefunb  en,  syn.,  548. 
getrcmett,  syn.,  540 ;  ft<§  — ,  syn.,  560. 
getroft,  324  (a). 
getroften :  ftdj  — ,  syn.,  560. 
©e»atter,  pron.  and  orthog.,  29  ;  decl., 

91- 

gewafyr  toerben,  syn.,  549,  552. 
getoafyren,  with  simple  infin.,  279 ;  syn., 

548,  549,  570  (c). 
gettdfyren,  syn.,  558. 
©etoaljrfant,  decl.,  77. 
©ewanb,  decl.,  86,  97. 
getoarten,  syn.,  548,  550. 
getoatttg,  syn.,  553. 
gewdrtigen :  jtd)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
©etotnn,  ©ewinjl,  decl.,  77. 
getotnnen,  grad.,  316. 
gen?t^,  syn.,  553. 
getoofynen,  syn.,  548. 
geito^nt,  part.,  syn.,  553. 
part.,  syn.,  553. 


©en>6(b,  ded.,  86. 
gg,  pron.,  9,  27. 

9. 

,  pron.  and  orthog.,  27. 
®id)t,  decl.,  85. 
®iebel,  decl.,  91. 
gtefen,  grad.,  311;  syn.,  547. 
®ift,  decl.,  79  ;  gender  and  meaning, 

97,  124. 
gtng,  gieng,  15. 
©lag,  decl.,  85. 
glatt,  compar.,  144. 
©{cube,  decl.,  74. 
gtauben,  with  simple  infin.,  279  ;  syn., 

530  (c),  541,  567  («)i  570  (C). 
glei^en,  grad.,  309  ;  syn.,  530  (d). 
©leidjmut,  gender,  125. 
gleidjtwe,  conj.,  429  (c.  a). 
gletcfywoljl,  conj.,  423  (B). 
®let$,  decl.,  79. 
gleijjen,  grad.,  322. 
gteitcn,  grad.,  309 ;   conjugated  with 

fein,  295. 
©lieb,  decl.,  85. 
gtimtnen,  grad.,  312. 
©tobuS,  decl.,  92. 
©(one,  pron.,  18. 
Glottal  stop,  33. 
©lucf,  decl.,  79. 
glucfen,   conjugated    with    fein,  292; 

with  fyaben,  293  ;  syn.,  529  (£). 
gn,  pron.,  9. 
gnaben,  syn.,  528  (a). 
©nom,  decl.,  88. 
©otb,  decl.,  79. 
©otf,  decl.,  75. 
©or,  decl.,  92. 
©ott,  decl.,  86. 
©tab,  decl.,  85. 
©taben,  decl.,  72. 
graben,  grad.,  320. 
©tab,  decl.,  75. 
Gradation,  explanation  of,  25,  305  ; 

gradation  classes  of  verbs,  308-23. 
©raf,  decl.,  88. 
©ramtn,  decl.,  79. 
©ramntatif,  pron.,  14. 
gtammattfcfy,  pron.,  14. 
©ran,  decl.,  75,  79- 


GENERAL  INDEX 


©remit,  decl.,  80. 

©rag,  decl.,  85. 

©rat,  decl.,  75  ;  gender,  124. 

gtatfdjen,  pron.,  21. 

gratulteren,  syn.,  528  (a). 

graueln,  syn.,  350. 

graueln,  syn.,  350. 

graiten,  syn.,  350. 

graufeln,  syn.,  350. 

graufetn,  syn.,  350. 

©reif,  decl.,  88. 

greifen,  grad.,  309. 

greinen,  grad.,  322. 

Grimm,    38 ;    Grimm's    law   of  the 

shifting  of  the  consonants,  35-8. 
grob,  pron.,  15,  22  ;  compar.,  144. 
©robtan,  decl.,  78. 
©rog,  pron.,  22,  27. 
©rott,  decl.,  75. 
groKen,  syn.,  528  (a). 
©ro$,  decl.,  79. 
grofi,  compar.,  144. 
©rojjmcgul,  decl.,  93. 
©rofjmut,  gender,  125. 
©ritft,  decl.,  83. 
©runb,  decl.,  82. 
©runj,  decl.,  75. 
gntfeltg,  syn.,  533  (c). 
grufetn,  syn.,  350. 
©ruf ,  decl.,  82. 
griifcn,  syn.,  567  (a). 
gu,  pron.,  10. 
©ucf,  decl.,  75. 
©ucftnbtetteU,  decl.,  78. 
©urt,  decl.,  75. 
©u£,  decl.,  82. 
©ut,  decl.,  85  ;    ju  gute  Ijalten,  syn., 

_534  (c). 

©iite :  i  bu  nteine  — ,  434. 
gutfagen,  syn.,  533  (c). 
©utta£erd)a,  pron.,  29. 
gutttm,  syn.,  533  (c). 

ty,  pron.,  10,  25  ;  formation  of  this 
sound,  26. 

£aar,  decl.,  79. 

Ijaben  :  conjugation  of  simple  tenses, 
256,  323  ;  use  as  auxiliary  of  tense, 
289-96 ;  use  with  the  infin.,  279-80 ; 


Ijat  fid)  toaS,  346 ;  with  gerundive, 
265  ;  with  simple  infin.,  279 ;  syn., 
547,  558,  570  (C). 

fjabfjaft,  syn.,  553. 

&aber,  decl.,  91. 

$afen,  decl.,  72. 

$ajf,  decl.,  79- 

£aft,  decl.,  75  ;  gender,  97. 

£aa,,  decl.,  75,  82. 

£agejlol$,  decl.,  77,  88. 

£af)n,  decl.,  82. 

fyalb,  decl.,  177. 

fyalb,  Ijalben,  Ijatber,  preps.,  381. 

fyalblregd,  ^albweg(e),  preps.,  383. 
,  decl.,  75,  91. 
,  decl.,  82. 

£alt,  decl.,  75  ;  gender,  97. 

fallen,  grad.,  321. 

jammer,  decl.,  72. 

tyan  =  ^aben,  323. 

£anb,  decl.,  83. 

§anbe(,  decl.,  72. 

fyanbljaben,  grad.,  323. 

Jpang,  decl.,  82. 

fiangen  or  I^angen,  grad.,  322 ;  conju- 
gated with  fyabtn  or  fcin,  291. 

£an$,  decl.,  83. 

^>an^»urji,  accent,  47 ;  decl.,  77. 

Barmen :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 

Jparnifdj,  decl.,  77. 

Barren,  syn.,  549. 

^tarfi,  decl.,  75. 

Jjart,  compar.,  144. 

Jparj,  pron.,  21 ;  decl.,  79. 

£af,  decl.,  75. 

fy5tfd)eln,  pron.,  21. 

£au,  decl.,  75. 

^aud),  dec!.,  75. 

fyauen,  grad.,  321. 
,  decl.,  74. 
,  decl.,  85. 
,  decl.,  85. 
,  decl.,  83. 
,  pron.  and  orthog.,  31. 

fjefcn,  grad.,  313,  320. 

£erf,  decl.,  79. 

^cbirig,  pron.,  20. 

•£>eer,  decl.,  79. 

J&eft,  decl.,  79. 


636 


GENERAL  INDEX 


t,  decl.,  79  ;  gender,  124. 

£etbe,  gender  and  meaning,  97. 

£eU,  decl.,  79. 

tyeim,  360. 

tyetmfomnten,  syn.,  533  (c). 

tyeimleucfyten,  syn.,  533  (c). 

^elmjo^Ien,  syn.,  533  (c). ' 

•§etrat,  gender,  126. 

tyeifdjen,  grad.,  322. 

Ijetf,  syn.,  533  (c). 

fjeifen,  grad.,  321 ;  with  simple  infin. 
as  predicate  complement,  277  ; 
with  simple  infin.  or  infin.  with  ju 
as  object,  278-9 ;  with  dependent 
infin.  which  has  passive  force,  283  ; 
syn.,  565  (tf),  567  (a);  bag  $eift, 
421. 

£etb,  decl.,  88. 

fyelfen,  grad.,  317;  with  simple  infin. 
or  infin.  with  jtt,  278-9 ;  syn.,  529 
(6),  541. 

£emb,  decl.,  85,  92. 

§enfer  =  nicfyt,  371. 

•£epf)a<htS,  pron.,  21. 

Jjer,  sep.  prefix,  339 ;  meaning,  355  ; 
Remitter,  fyerautf,  &c.,  355. 

Jperb,  pron.,  20. 

•§erbe,  pron.,  20. 

Jpetfuleg,  decl.,  92. 

£eroib,  decl.,  77. 

•§ero$,  decl.,  93. 

£err,  decl.,  88;  syn.,  553. 

tyerrfcfyen,  syn.,  549. 

Return,  meaning,  359. 

ljertt>drt$,  prep.,  383. 

£erg,  decl.,  92. 

£er$cg,  decl.,  83. 

^eraeber,  pron.,  8. 

tyier,  Ijteran,  &c.,  355. 

£ietoa,fypl)en,  pron.,  18. 

High  German,  its  place  in  the  Indo- 
European  family,  I ;  the  different 
periods  of,  1-4 ;  H.G.  shifting  of 
the  consonants,  35-40. 

tynt  355  >  compared  with  log  and  gu, 
355-6  ;  sep.  prefix,  339. 

fyinbuvd),  prep.,  401. 

tying,  Ijieng,  15. 

fyittfen,  grad.,  323. 


,  383. 
fytnter,  prefix,  sep.orinsep.,34o;  prep., 

413. 

tyinterrucfg,  prep.,  383. 

^»intertet(,  gender,  126. 

fytnteriwrtg,  prep.,  383. 

t)tnl»drtg,  prep.,  383. 

$i$Wgt$$l  decl.,  89. 

§irn,  decl.,  79. 

^bf4  decl.,  88. 

•£irfe,  decl.  and  gender,  87,  124. 

£trt,  decl.,  88. 

Historical  tenses,  220. 

tyocty,  compar.,  144. 

•§od)mut,  decl.,  83  ;  gender,  125. 

fyocfyfi,  pron.,  20. 

£od)geit,  pron.,  22. 

tyocfen,  conjugated  with  Ijafcm  or  fein, 

291. 
£of,  decl.,  82 ;  ben  —  ntad)en,  syn.,  533 

(c). 

Ijoffen,  synv  549- 

tyofieren,  syn.,  528  (a). 

^o^enjoflet,  decl.,  88. 

tycfynen,  syn.,  549. 

tyotynlac^en,    conjugation,    343 ;    syn., 

549- 

Ijotynforec$ett,  syn.,  533  (c). 
£ctf,  decl.,  75,  91. 
£cltn,  decl.,  75. 
$olj,  decl.,  85. 

la,  tyo^fa,  or  ^o^faffa,  434. 
,  decl.,  75. 
tyorcfyen,  syn.,  530  (c),  541. 
fyoren,  with  simple  infin.,  279;    with 

dependent  infin.  which  has  passive 

force,  283 ;  syn.,  530  (c),  549,  5?o 

(C). 

£orn,  decl.,  85,  97. 
•£orfi,  decl.,  75. 
Jpofpital,  decl.,  86. 
$otel,  pron.,  14. 
^otyetftoetba,  pron.,  23. 
•§ttb,  decl.,  82. 
tyiiben  unb  bruben,  prep.,  383. 
•§ubel,  decl.,  91. 
^»,  decl.,  85. 
tyut,  pron.,  23. 

igen,  syn.,  528  (a). 


GENERAL  INDEX 


637 


f,  decl.,  91. 
Rummer,  decl.,  91. 
$unbert,  decl.,  80. 
£unb$fott,  decl.,  86. 
$upf,  decl.,  75- 
£urra,  434. 
J&ufar,  decl.,  81. 
fotfd),  434- 
IjujleH,  pron.,  23. 
Jput,  decl.,  82  ;  gender,  97. 
tyuten,  syn.,  549. 
£tybra,  pron.,  14. 
4?tygiene,  pron.,  18. 
Jptypocfyonbrie,  pron.,  28. 

t,  pron.,  19. 

f,  pron.,  1 8. 

i,  unaccented  pron.,  10. 

ie,  pron.,  10  ;  pron.  and  orthog.,  18. 

tit,  suffix,  439-40. 

tel),  pron.,  10. 

«ien,  suffix,  440. 

ter,  pron.,  18. 

teu,  pron.,  10. 

i  bu  menu  ®iite,  434. 

i^too,  434. 

idfyt,  substantival  suffix,  451  ;  adjec- 
tival suffix,  454. 

3bee :  feine  — ,  434. 

neren,  verbal  suffix,  464. 

t'\§,  substantival  suffix,  451 ;  adjec- 
tival suffix,  454. 

3ge(,  pron.,  18. 

ttym,  pron.,  16,  18. 

tfyn,  pron.,  16,  18. 

ifynen,  pron.,  18. 

ifynet  =  if>r,  168  (136.0). 

iljr,  pron.,  18. 

ifyrer,  pron.,  18. 

%etf>alb(en),  186,  382. 

t^retftcgen,  186,  382. 

ifjrettmllen,  186. 

3iffel,  pron.,  23. 

it,  U(,  pron.  in  French  words,  10. 

im,  in,  pron.  in  French  words,  10. 

Smperfcftum,  decl.,  95. 

impersonal  verbs :  groups  of,  347-52  ; 
e3  gifct,  348  ;  impersonal  verbs  with 
the  ace.,  349 ;  with  the  dat.,  349- 


350 ;  with  ace.  and  gen.,  561  (c) ; 
impersonal  passive,  351-2 ;  im- 
personal verbs  without  a  subject, 

350-1. 

ttnpomcren,  syn.,  533  (&). 

inuwtieren,  syn.,  533  (b). 

in,  pron.,  15  ;  adv.,  359 ;  used  instead 
of  ein  in  dialect,  359  ;  prep.,  413. 

-An,  suffix,  442. 

Indefinite  article,  decl.,  58  ;  contrac- 
tions of,  58  ;  use  of,  58,  59  ;  omis- 
sion, 65. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  inflection  and 
use,  195-7. 

tnbetn,  sub.  conj.,  428  (B),  429  (c.  b, 

E). 

Independent  elements,  577-82. 

inbe$  or  inbeffen,  adv.  conj.  with  a 
double  construction,  423  ;  sub. 
conj.,  428. 

Indirect  discourse,  240-9 }  indirect 
form  :  mood,  241-2;  tense,  243-6; 
mood  and  tense  in  indirect  ques- 
tions, 246-7 ;  imperative  sentences 
in  indirect  form,  247-8;  indepen- 
dent form  of  indirect  discourse, 
248-9. 

Snbiwbiium,  decl.,  92. 

Infinitive,  earlier  inflection  and  ex- 
planation of  the  form  with  ju,  273. 

infinitive  with  jit : 
I.  i.  a.  as  subject,  273. 

b.  in  the  predicate,  273. 

2.  in    the    following    dependent 
relations : 

a.  as  complement  of  a  noun  or 
adjective,  273,  514  (G.  b). 

b.  in  the  dat.  relation,  274. 

c.  in  the  ace.  relation,  274. 

3.  as  explanatory  of  a  preceding 
anticipative  subject  or  object, 
274. 

4.  in  contracted  substantive  and 
adverbial  clauses,  274. 

5.  in  exclamations,  274. 

6.  after   (an)treffen,   bcfommat,   or* 
Ijalten,  ftnbeu,  geben,gc^en,  fd^enfen, 
fdjtrfen,  fdjlagen,  fetjen,  uberlaffen, 
274. 


638 


GENERAL  INDEX 


infinitive  with  \\\ : 

7.  the  ace.  with  the  infin.,  275. 

8.  used  absolutely,  276,  581  (d). 
II.  I.  position  and  repetition  of  gu, 

275. 

2.  subject  of  the  infin.,  276. 
infinitive  without  ju : 

I.  I.  a.  as  subject,  277. 

b.  as  predicate,  277. 

c.  as  an  imperative,  278. 

2.  with  auxiliaries  or  auxiliary- 

like  verbs  : 

a.  tmrfen,  fcnnen,  mfgen,  miifen, 
fatten,  tootten,  braudjen,  278. 

b.  taffen,  278. 

c.  bebeuten,  btafen,  tyetfen,  fyelfen, 

leljren,  lernen,  nennen,  vergeffen, 
278. 

d.  with  verbs  of  perceiving  and 

knowing  ;  also  with  fiiljten, 
Ijaben,  mad)en,  tragen,  nnegen, 
jeigen,  279. 

e.  tun,  280. 

3.  used  to  repeat  an  idea,  281. 

4.  in  questions,  281. 

II.  form  and  use  of  the  infin.  with 
past  force,  282-3. 

two  infinitives  connected  by  afe,  283. 

infin.  with  passive  force,  283. 

infinitive-substantive,  284. 
tnfotge,  prep.,  383. 
4ng,  suffix,  442-3,  445  (/). 
tnfyaltUdj,  inljaltg,  383. 
inftufifoe,  prep.,  380. 
inmitten,  prep.,  383. 
irate  or  tnnen,  359-60 ;  syn.,  532  (B), 

553- 

innerljalb,  prep.,  380. 
inner(t),  prep.,  414. 
Snfeft,  decl.,  93. 
Inseparable  compounds,  336, 339-40  ; 

inseparable  prefixes,  339. 
(tn)fofern,  sub.  conj.,  429  (i.  A.  c). 
(in)fowett,  sub.  conj.,  429  (i.  A.  c). 
SnfHnft,  pron.,  29. 
Snfult,  decl.,  77. 
Sntereffe,  decl.,  93. 
Interjections,   nature   of,   434 ;   list, 

434- 


Interrogative  adjectives,  166-7  5   in- 
terrogative pronouns,  197-200. 
intoarts,  prep.,  383. 
inunefern,  sub.  conj.,  429  (D.  i.  A.  c). 
inhnetoett,  sub.  conj.,  429  (D.  i.  A.^). 
injtoifdjen  (baf ),  427  (B),  428  (a). 
4fd)  or  ;fd),  sufifix,  455-8. 
3fegrint,  pron.,  18. 
nfteren,  verbal  suffix,  464. 
i|l,  pron.,  15. 

j,  pron.,  10. 

j<x,  368  ;  jo  bo^,  370  ;  ja  too^t,  369. 

3agbntut,  gender,  125. 

jagen,  grad.,  320. 

3a^r,  decl.,  79. 

jammern,  syn.,  561  (<r),  563  (d),  563 
(Note). 

fjan,  pron.,  16;  meaning,  451. 

3anfen,  443  (a). 

jdten,  grad.,  323. 

jauc^jen,  syn.,  528  (a). 

je,  sub.  conj.,  429  (D.  i.  A.  b) ;  word- 
order,  618  (d) ;  je  na^bem,  429  (D. 
l.A.6). 

jjebj,  decl.  and  use,  175. 

jebcrmann,  decl.,  195. 

|ebo(^,  conj.,  423. 

3el)ottalj,  pron.,  25. 

jemanb,  decl.,  195  ;  syn.,  195, 196. 

jenj,  decl.  and  use,  157-8. 

ienfeit(«),  prep.,  383. 

3od^,  decl.,  79. 

3ocE ei  (Sorfet)),  pron.,  20. 

Soft,  pron.,  22. 

Sot,  pron.,  22. 

SubUditm,  pron.,  23. 

ju^e(t),  434. 

3uba$,  decl.,  92. 

Siibe,  97. 

jung,  compar.,  144. 

Surty,  pron.,  18. 

Sitftjel,  decl.,  93  ;  gender,  124. 

Sur,  decl.,  75. 


f,  pron.,  10. 
Jtaffer,  decl.,  91. 
J?at)n,  decl.,  82. 
'*-'•--"— -«jf  pron.,  20. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


639 


f,  decl.,  88,  91. 
JtaftaS,  decl.,  92. 
Jtol&,  decl.,  85. 
Jfalf,  decl.,  75. 

fait,  compar.,  144  ;  syn.,  350. 
Jtamtn,  gender,  124. 
Jtaraifel,  decl.,  86. 
Jtamm,  decl.,  82. 
.f  amp,  decl.,  82. 
Jlampf,  decl.,  82. 
Jtanal,  decl.,  84. 
fannegiefie(r)n,  343. 
Jlant,  decl.,  75. 
;fant,  decl.,  92. 
Canton,  decl.,  92. 
Jfapernaiint,  pron.,  23. 
Capital,  .fajntefl,  decl.,  86. 
Jtapitel,  pron.,  15, 19. 
.Kaplan,  decl.,  84. 
,ftarbdtfd)e,  pron.,  21. 
Jtarbinal,  decL,  84. 
fatg,  compar.,  144. 
Jlarotinger,  443  (a). 
•Rarriere,  pron.  and  orthog.,  18. 
Jtarjl,  decl.,  75. 
J?artdtfcfye,  pron.,  21. 
Jtaften,  decl.,  72. 
Jlatfyeber,  gender,  124. 
fauevn,  conjugated  with  fein,  295. 
Jtauf,  decl.,  82. 

fawn,  (baft),  conj.,  427  (B),  428  (d] ; 
—  bafi,  429  (D.  2). 
;|,  decl.,  82. 

pron.,  20. 
Jfefyrtcfjt,  gender,  124. 
feifen,  grad.,  309. 
fein,  decl.  and  use,  180. 
fennen,  grad.,  324  ;  syn.,  568  (b}. 
fennjeif^nen,  syn.,  568  (b). 
fentern,  conjugated  with  fein,  295. 
.Riebifc,  decl.,  78. 
fiefen,  grad.,  313,  314. 
Jttnb,  decl.,  85. 
^tnn,  decl.,  79. 
fiabbctabatfd),  434. 
ftagen,  syn.,  531  (e). 
tj,  decl.,  82. 
,  ^(apg,  decl.,  75,  82. 
decl.,  75. 


ftebtn,  310  (c) ;  conjugated  with 

or  fein,  291. 
fUtben,  310. 
tfleib,  decl.,  85. 
Heiben,  syn.,  541. 
Jlteinmut,  gender,  125. 
Jlleinob,  decl.,  80,  92. 
Hteben,  grad.,  313. 
Jllijf,  decl.,  79. 

fUmmen,  grad.,  312 ;  etymoL,  310  (c). 
fltngefn,  syn.,  531  (e),  542. 
ftingen,  grad.,  315  ;   conjugated  with 

fein,  296. 
Jtloafe,  pron.,  10. 

,  decl.,  75. 

,  decl.,  75. 
Jllopf,  decl.,  75. 

,  decl.,  75. 
,  decl.,  82. 
Jtlojto,  pron.,  22 ;  decl.,  72. 
JHofc,  decl.,  82. 
Jthtft,  decl.,  83. 
f(ug,  compar.,  144. 
Jlhrotp,  decl.,  82. 
filter,  decl.,  80. 
fnocfe,  434. 
^na((,  decl.,  75. 
fnapp,  comp.,  144. 
$ nafl,  decl.,  75. 
^nauf,  decl.,  82. 

Jlnaitl,  ^nditl,  decl.,  75  ;  gender,  124. 
JlnauS,  decl.,  82. 
fneifen,  grad.,  309. 
fneten,  grad.,  323. 
^nie,  decl.,  79. 
fnie(e)n,  conjugated  with  fjabtn  or  fein, 

291. 

.Knopf,  decl.,  82. 
Jlnorj,  decl.,  75. 
Jtnuff,  decl.,  82. 
JtnupS,  decl.,  75. 
^nuft,  decl.,  75,  82. 
Jtcbalt,  decl.,  78. 
Jtobclb,  decl.,  78 ;  etymol.,  451. 
^oc^,  decl.,  82. 
fobern,  syn.,  542. 
Jtog,  decl.,  82. 

Jtognaf,  pron.  and  orthog.,  27. 
r,  decl.,  75. 


640 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Jtofg,  pron.  and  orthog.,  22;   decl., 

75- 

jjclf,  decl.,  75. 

JMett,  decl.,  86. 

JMonabe,  pron.,  16. 

Jfotome,  pron.,  16, 18. 

JMcmne,  pron.,  16. 

Jtclojj,  pron.,  16;  decl.,  81. 

foloffat,  pron.,  16  ;  use,  143. 

hornet,  decl.,  89. 

j?omitee,  pron.,  16. 

fomnten,  grad.,  318;  conjugated  with 

fein,  295  ;  with  infin.  with  jit,  274  ; 

with  simple  infin.,  277 ;  with  perf. 

part.,  282  ;  syn.,  530  (ct),  542  (21), 

55  *  («);  J«  9"t«  — /  syn.,  533  (c); 

gu  $ilfe  — ,  syn.,  533  (c) ;  jit  flatten 

— ,  syn.,  533  (c) ;  jit  jleljen  — ,  533 

(C),  543- 

Jtompaf ,  accent  and  decl.,  80. 
.Compliment,  decl.,  89. 
Jtompromtfj,  gender,  124. 
fonbolieren,  syn.,  528  (a). 
Jlcmggfyofen,  decl.  and  etymol.,  83. 
fonnen,  conjugation,  326;  uses,  329- 

30  ;  with  simple  infin.,  278. 
Jlonfcnant,  decl.,  89. 
JJonful,  decl.,  93. 
fontratjicren,  pron.,  25. 
fontrtbuteren,  syn.,  533  (b). 
fon»emeren,  syn.,  528  (a). 
foorbtnieren,  syn.,  533  (i>). 
Stotf,  decl.,  82. 
^orb,  decl.,  82. 
Jforf,  decl.,  75. 
Jtorn,  decl.,  85. 
foment,  syn.,  542. 
Jtorfar,  decl.,  93. 
Jtofaf,  decl.,  89. 
fofen,  syn.,  541. 
fojien,  syn.,  542,  549. 
Jlofcebite,  pron.,  n. 
Jlra[a]I,  decl.,  75. 
Jlrad^,  decl.,  75. 

JJraft,  decl.,  83  ;  fraft,  prep.,  383. 
Jtragen,  decl.,  72. 
•Rrarn,  decl.,  82. 
JJrampf,  decl.,  82. 
Jttan,  decl.,  82. 


franf,  compar.,  144. 

^ranj,  decl.,  82. 

Jlraut,  decl.,  85. 

JfrebS,  pron.,  20. 

freif^en,  grad.,  323. 

fre^teren,  conjugated  with  fetn,  292. 

,Kreii$,  decl.,  79. 

friec^en,  grad.,  311  ;  conjugated  with 

fein,  295. 
ftiegen,  pron.,  14,  19 ;  grad.,  323,  325  ; 

use  in  passive  construction,  301. 
Jtrofobtl,  pron.,  16. 
JlrohtS,  decl.,  92. 

f,  decl.,  82. 

,  decl.,  82. 
frumnt,  compar.,  144. 
.ffulj,  decl.,  84. 
tfudjen,  pron.,  23 ;  ja  — ,  434. 
•Rud)e,  pron.,  20. 
,  decl.,  78. 

,  ^uffe,  decl.,  79. 

t,  decl.,  75. 

tttg,  decl.,  75. 
Jlummet,  ^ttmt,  decl.,  79. 
Jt umpan,  decl.,  88. 
^uttt>)f,  Jt mnp,  decl.,  75,  82. 
Ittnbtg,  fiinbig,  syn.,  553. 
sfttnft,  decl.,  84. 
Jhtnjl,  decl.,  84. 
^ttng,  pron.,  23. 
fimn,  grad.,  314. 
JhtrS,  decl.,  75. 
furj,  comp.,  144. 
Jhtfi,  decl.,  82. 
J?itjlo3,  decl.,  93. 
Jtttr,  decl.,  75. 

(,  pron.,  10. 

tat^eln,  syn.,  528  (a),  549. 

lad&en,  syn.,  528  (a),  549,  531  (/). 

8ad)$,  decl.,  75. 

8arf,  decl.,  75. 

gaben,  decl.,  72,  97. 

laben,  grad.,  320. 

Sabty,  decl.,  94. 

Saefen,  pron.,  22. 

2ager,  decl.,  72. 

8af>n,  decl.,  75. 

Samnt,  decl.,  85. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


641 


Sanb,  decl.,  79,  97. 

lanben,  conjugated  with  fein,  295. 

tang,  compar.,  144. 

tang,  prep.,  392. 

Sangmut,  gender,  125. 

Iang3,  langft,  preps.,  383,  392. 

tangSfeit,  prep.,  383. 

i'ar»e,  pron.,  29. 

tap,  syn.,  553. 

lajfen,  grad.,  321 ;  with  infin.  with  ju, 
274  (6) ;  with  simple  infin.,  278  ; 
with  dependent  infin.  which  has 
passive  force,  283  ;  nom.  or  ace. 
in  connection  with  fein  or  toerben 
laffen,  497  (2.  A.  a.  Note) ;  nterfen, 
ful)len,  or  nnffen  lajfen,  570  (c) ;  in 
the  sense  to  become,  syn.,  530  (c)  ; 
with  an  ace.  of  the  direct  object 
and  a  pred.  infin.,  570  (c). 

Saft  (fern.),  two  tons,  uninflected  in 
the  pi.  like  the  fern,  on  p.  114 

(4- (I))- 
Safc,  decl.,  82. 
Saub,  decl.,  79. 
gaud),  decl.,  75. 
tanern,  syn.,  549. 
Sattf,  decl.,  82. 
laufen,  grad.,   321  ;     meaning,    324 ; 

conjugated  with  fein,  295  ;   ©efafyr 

taufen  with  fyabenor  fein,  290  ;  laufen 

with  simple  infin.,  277-8. 
£au<5,  decl.,  84. 
laufdjen,  syn.,  528  (a). 
8aut,  decl.,  75  ;  taut,  prep.,  383. 
tauten,  syn.,  531  (e),  542. 
Sautfdjwunb,  suppression  of  a  sound, 

belonging  to  the  list  c.  (2)  on  p.  83. 
leben,  syn.,  528  (a),  551  (b). 
8eben>ot)l,  decl.,  80. 
Serf,  decl.,  79. 
tebig,  syn.,  553. 
leer,  syn.,  553. 

tegen,  with  simple  infin.,  277. 
letjren,  with  simple  infin.  or  infin.  with 

ju,  278-9  ;  syn.,  565  (/). 
Sett),  decl.,  86. 
Setrfwant,  decl.,  78. 
leib,  syn.,  350,  533  (c),  534  (a). 
leiben,  grad.,  309. 


letfyen,  grad.,  310. 

fieilad),  decl.,  80,  92. 

4etn,  suffix,  444-6. 

letten,  factitive  of  letben,  309 ;  syn., 
566  (g). 

lenfen,  syn.,  566  (g). 

8enj,  decl.,  88. 

Seoparb,  decl.,  89. 

4er,  suffix,  441  (Note). 

tcrnen,  with  simple  infin.  or  infin.  with 
ju,  278-9. 

tefen,  grad.,  319. 

Setfye,  pron.,  16. 

8eu,  decl.,  88. 

teud)ten,  syn.,  528  (a). 

teugnnt,  syn.,  549. 

Levelling,  307. 

Secfoie,  pron.,  23  (24),  29. 

slid),  adjectival  suffix,  458-61  ;  adver- 
bial suffix,  465. 

2i$t,  decl.,  85,  97. 

2ib,  pron.,  18;  decl.,  85. 

tieb,  syn.,  350. 

Siebe,  pron.,  18. 

(teben,  syn.,  532  (g). 

(tebfofcn,  syn.,  542. 

8teb,  decl.,  85. 

liegett,  grad.,  319;  conjugated  with 
fyaben  or  fein,  291 ;  with  simple  infin., 
277;  syn.,  350;  in  the  sense  to  be 
adapted  to,  530  (c). 

(tegen  =  liigen,  314. 

lieutenant,  pron.  and  orthog.,  23. 

i!ilte,  pron.,  19. 

4ing,  suffix,  442. 

4tng3,  adverbial  suffix,  465. 

ItnfsS,  prep.;  384. 

2ob,  decl.,  79. 

lobpretfen,   grad.,    310 ;    conjugation, 

343- 

(obftngen,  343  ;  syn.,  533  (c). 
?o*,  decl.,  85. 
todfen,  syn.,  542. 
i!og[g],  decl.,  79. 
?ctj,  decl.,  75,  85. 
8o^n,  decl.,  82. 
lotynen,  syn.,  542,  549 ;   fi$  — ,  syn., 

560. 
?eld),  decl.,  75. 


T  t 


C42 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Sorbeer,  pron.,  22 ;  decl.,  91. 
Sorfy  Serf,  decl.,  75. 
SoS,  decl.,  79. 
tog,  adj.,  syn.,  553. 
log,  sep.  prefix,  339,  355  (A). 
lofen,  syn.,  558. 
tcgfpredjen,  syn.,  558. 
Sot,  decl.,  79. 
Sotfe,  pron.,  22. 
26$eu,  pron.,  20. 
Low  German,  I,  2,  4. 
*,  decl.,  79,  85. 

f?,  decl.,  75. 
Subtoig,  pron.,  23. 
Suft,  decl.,  84. 

liigen,  grad.,  314  ;  syn.,  531  (e). 
Sutfe,  pron.,  n. 
Suttyotb,  pron.,  II. 
Suntp,  decl.,  75,  91,  97. 
Sundj,  decl.,  75. 
2uvd),  decl.,  75. 
lufien,  syn.,  349,  561  (<:),  563, 
lufiern,  syn.,  349. 
Sutler,  pron.,  15,  22. 

nt,  pron.,  10. 

5Kaat,  decl.,  75. 

mad)en,  with  infin.  with  gu,  274,  279- 

90 ;  with  simple  infin.,  279 ;  syn., 

567  (a),  569  (d),  570  (c). 
SKadjt,  decl.,  84  ;  madjt,  prep.,  384. 
ntad)ttg,  syn.,  553. 
2JJagb,  pron.,  22  ;  decl.,  84. 
2Jlagett,  decl.,  72. 
SDIagnet,  decl.,  89. 
3Hat)(,  decl.,  79,  85. 
ntafylen,  grad.,  320. 
maljnen,  syn.,  558. 
SDlat)t,  decl.,  75. 
SDlat,  decl.,  88. 
3Kajor,  decl.,  92. 
3)lal,  decl.,  79,  85. 
SKalj,  decl.,  79. 
SDIama,  decl.,  94. 
Sittann,  decl.,  86,  97. 
3J}ante(,  decl.,  72. 
SDIarte,  pron.,  18. 
SDJarft,  decl.,  82. 
2J?arqui$,  pron.,  34. 


SD?arS,  decl.,  91. 

3Rarfi,  decl.,  82. 

3Jlarfd)atf,  decl.,  83. 

attarfdjaK,  decl.,  83. 

3»or§,  decl.,  88. 

STOaf^tne,  pron.,  18. 

9J?a^futinum,  decl.,  93. 

3JJaft,  decl.,  79. 

ma^en,  conj.,  429  (E). 

majj tgen  :  jl^  — ,  syn.,  560. 

SHajl,  decl.,  76,  91. 

SDJatfytlbe,  pron.  and  orthog.,  25. 

,  pron.,  23. 
,  decl.,  76,  82. 

SWauI,  decl.,  85. 

3Hau<5,  decl.,  84. 

2DJed)anif,  pron.,  28. 

9Keer,  decl.,  79. 

9Kebaif(e,  pron.,  34. 

3Ke^t,  decl.,  79. 

nteftr,  180  ;  tnel)rer;,  148,  176;  meljr  = 
noc^,  361. 

mciben,  grad.,  310. 

ineinegg[et(f)cn,  214. 

tnetnetf)alc(en),  186,  382. 

meinetocgen,  186,  382. 

inetnetn>t([en,  186. 

2Reiper,  syn.,  553. 

melfen,  grad.,  312. 

,  pron.,  23. 

,   decl.,  85,  88,  97  ;    etymol., 
457  (2.  a}. 

tner  =  man,  196  (d.  Note  2). 

nterfen,  with  simple  infin.,  279. 

mefim,  grad.,  319. 

3Jlefjing,  decl.,  80. 

OHetapfyer,  pron.,  14. 

SKeter,  gender,  124. 

SKetrunt,  pron.,  15, 1 6. 

SJHdjaet,  pron.,  8. 

Middle  High  German  :  literature 
and  language,  I  ;  language  com- 
pared with  N.H.G.,  3. 

SKignon,  pron.,  31. 

3JHgrdne,  pron.,  16. 

SDHfroffity,  pron.,  15. 

SRinevat,  decl.,  93. 

mir,  pron.,  18  ;  =  iwr,  187. 
),  pron.,  23. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


643 


2JHfj,  decl.,  94. 

mtf),  insep.  verbal  prefix,  339 ;  mean- 
ing, 478-9  ;  substantival  and  adjec- 
tival prefix,  470. 

mifbeljagen,  syn.,  528  (a). 

mijjbraud)en,  syn.,  548. 

mifien,  syn.,  549. 

nu'fjfatten,  syn.,  350,  528  (a). 

mifgefialt,  324  (a). 

mifjglucfen,  conjugated  with  fein,  292 ; 
syn.,  529. 

mijjlingen,  conjugated  with  fein,  292  ; 
syn.,  529  (6). 

SDltfimut,  gender,  125. 

mifjraten,  conjugated  with  fein,  292 ; 
syn.,  529  (£). 

mifjtrauen,  syn.,  530  (c). 

ntit,  pron.,  15  ;  sep.  prefix,  339;  syn., 
532  (B)  ;  prep.,  392. 

mitftin,  conj.,  423. 

3Jhtta,  pron.,  15. 

mitfatntnen,  meaning,  359  (l). 

mitfamt,  prep.,  394. 

mitftnelen,  532  (B). 

SDHttag,  gender,  97. 

mittete,  mtttetfi,  preps.,  384  ;  synony- 
mous with  »on,  turd),  ntit,  384. 

5JJitneod),  decl.,  77  ;  gender,  126. 

Mixed  declension  of  nouns,  90-94  ; 
mixed  declension  of  adjectives, 

Mixed  vowel,  18. 

SKcbel,  decl.,  92. 

mcgen,  conjugation,  326  ;  uses,  330-1 ; 

with  simple  infin.,  278. 
3J?ot)n,  decl.,  76. 
3M)t,  decl.,  76,  88. 
3Md),  decl.,  76. 
2J?ontent,  gender,  97. 
2J?onb,  pron.,  22  ;  decl.,  76,  97. 
SWonclitf),  decl.,  89. 
2J?ocr,  decl.,  79. 
2)?oo<3,  decl.,  79,  97. 
2Rep<?,  decl.,  82. 
3JJoraft,  decl.,  84. 
Sfficrb,  decl.,  76. 
2ftoft,  decl.,  76. 
mube,  syn.,  553. 
3M,  3K«ff«,  decl.,  76. 

T 


9Rulattt,  pron.,  23  (2). 
SKultiplifanb,  decl.,  89. 
SDtunb,  decl.,  76. 
munben,  syn.,  528  (a). 
2Jlunftcr,  gender,  124. 
3Jlurf$,  decl.,  76. 

u«,  decl.,  79. 
SKufelman,  decl.,  88. 
SDlufeum,  decl.,  92. 
3)luftfu«,  decl.,  95. 
2JJu$fel,  decl.,  91. 
muffen,  conjugation,  326  ;  uses,  331-2; 

with  simple  infin.,  278. 
Mutation   of  back  vowels,  24,  307  ; 

a-mutation,  24,  307;  mutation  off, 

24,  3°7- 

SJJutter,  decl.,  72,  97. 
SWiitterteit,  gender,  126. 
3Hufc,  decl.,  76. 
SDfyrte,  pron.,  20. 
SDtyfttf,  pron.,  16. 

n,  pron.,  10. 

na,  interj.,  434;  —  ob,  434. 

9labet,  decl.,  72. 

nac^,  sep.  prefix,  339,  394  (/)  ;  syn.; 

532  (B)  ;  prep.,  393. 
nacfyaffen,  syn.,  542. 
na^a^ntcn,  syn.,  542. 
Sfacfybar,  decl.,  91. 
nadjbcm,  conj.,  428  (B)  ;  429  (D.  L.  A. 


r,  decl.,  88. 
,  decl.,  77. 
nadjft,  prep.,  394. 
gja^t,  decl.,  84. 
9Rad)»ei«,  decl.,  77. 
37agcl,  decL,  72. 
nagcn,  grad.,  323. 
na()c,  compar.,  144. 
na()cn,  fid}  nafycrn,  syn.,  530  (//). 
naljrcn  :  (id>,  syn.,  560. 
91a()t,  decl.,  84. 
Dlamc,  decl.,  74. 
nantcna,  prep.,  384. 
itantcntltd},  conj.,  421. 
nantltd),    pronom.    adj.,    decl.,    166  ; 
meaning,  16  ;  coordinate  conj.,  419, 
420;  explanatory  conj.,  421. 
t  2 


644 


GENERAL  INDEX 


nanti,  434. 

9tapf,  decl.,  82. 

Dtarr,  decl.,  88. 

Narrowness,  13. 

Nasality,  13. 

nafdjen,  syn.,  547. 

na$fiif)ren,  343. 

nafj,  compar.,  144. 

;nb,  suffix,  451. 

ne,  434- 

ncben,  prep.,  414. 

r.ebji,  pron.,  20  ;  prep.,  394. 

Negation,  370  ;    double,  370  ;   pleo- 

nastic, 371  ;  after  compar.,  598. 
nefymen,  grad.,  318;    use   in    passive 

construction,  302  ;  syn.,  547  (l). 
nennen,  grad.,  324  ;  with  simple  infin., 

278  ;  syn.,  567  (a). 
stier,  suffix,  441  (Note). 
9teji,  decl.,  85. 
9lefc,  decl.,  79. 
9teunauge,  gender,  124. 
ng,  pron.,  10. 
9tibelungen,  decl.,  88. 
nid)  =  nidjt,  370. 
md)t,  meaning,  370,  371,  372,  373  ;  — 

bod),  370  ;    bodj  —  ,  370  ;    —  erroa, 

370  ;   bod)  —  erroa,  373  ;   toarum  — 

Sar-  37°- 

nid)t$,  decl.  and  syn.,  197. 
nid)t3bejiotoemger,  conj.,  423. 
nib,  prep.,  395. 

niebet,  sep.  prefix,  339,  356  (B.  a). 
niebertoarts,  prep.,  384. 
niemanb,  decl.  and  syn.,  196. 
ntefjen,  syn.,  548. 
9iiftet  (fern.),  archaic  H.G.  form,  now 

replaced  by  L.G.  9ltd)te. 
--nit,  suffix,  446-7. 
nit  =  nid)t,  370. 
nod),  meaning,  361-2. 
9Jocf,  decl.,  79. 
Nominative  : 

I.  as  a  subject,  490. 

II.  as  an  appositive,  519-21  (l.  a, 


III.  as  a  predicate  : 
after  verbs  of  incomplete  predica- 
tion, 497  (2.  A.  a,  b). 


with  reference  to  a  preceding  ace. 

object,  497  (2.  A.  a.  Note). 
instead   of  a   predicate   ace.,  568 

(Note). 

IV.  as  a  vocative,  578  (A). 

V.  in  exclamations,  581  (b.  (i)). 
9Jcrb,  decl.,  76. 

norblid),  prep.,  384. 

norb»drt$,  prep.,  384. 

9Jot,  decl.,  84 ;  not  tun,  syn.,  533  (c) ; 
not  fetn,  syn.,  533  (c),  553 ;  not  J)dben, 
syn.,  553- 

nottg,  »on  noten,  syn.,  553. 

Nouns,  inflection :  common  nouns, 
67-95  j  proper  nouns,  99-103 ;  pi. 
of  names  of  persons  and  places, 
IO5~9  i  peculiarities  in  the  inflec- 
tion of  nouns,  108-13. 

Number  of  nouns,  113-19  ;  sing,  to 
express  a  collective  idea,  113  ;  pi. 
lacking,  114-15  ;  sing,  for  plur., 
114-15  ;  words  which  borrow  a  pi., 
116-17;  sing,  lacking,  117;  pi. 
of  smann,  118;  pi.  in  English, 
sing,  in  German,  119;  number  in 
verbs,  501-7. 

Numerals,  150-6;  cardinals,  150-4; 
ordinals,  154-5  ;  compound  nume- 
rals, 155. 

nun,  adv.  conj.,  423  (c) ;  meaning, 
361  ;  sub.  conj.,  429  (E). 

StunttuS,  decl.,  92. 

nur,  meaning,  365,  371,  372,  373  ; 
conj.  with  a  double  construction, 
423 ;  nur  nteljr  =  nur  no*,  361 ;  — 
baf,  conj.,  423  (a),  430  (F). 

9hiJ5,  decl.,  84. 

9iufler,  pron.,  19. 

nufcen  or  nufcen,  syn.,  350,  529  (£). 

?,  pron.,  22. 

o,  pron.,  22. 

o,  pron.,  21. 

c7,  pron.,  20. 

oa,  pron.,  10. 

ob,  pron.,  15;  ob,  sep.  prefix,  339 ; 
syn.,  532  (B)  ;  prep.,  395 ;  sub. 
conj.  in  substantive  clauses,  427 
(i.</);  in  adjective  clauses,  427 


GENERAL  INDEX 


645 


(•z.d) ;  =  trenn,  430  (F)  ;  =  obgletcfy, 

430  (G)  ;  itnb  ob  =  obg(etd),  430  (G)  ; 

cb  —  ob  (ib.) ;  ob  —  audj  (ib.). 
Dbdfof,  decl.,  89. 
cber,  prep.,  415. 
oberfyalb,  prep.,  380. 
Dberft,  decl.,  88. 
eberttarte,  prep.,  384. 
obgletdE},  conj.,  430  (G). 
Object,  see  ace.,  dat.,  gen.,  infin.  ; 

object  clauses :    gen.  clause,  590 ; 

dat.  clause,  591 ;   ace.  clause,  591 ; 

prep,  phrase  clause,  592-3. 
obfdjon,  conj.,  430  (G). 
Dbft,  pron.,  22. 
obwcfyl,  conj.,  430  (G). 
ob$war,  conj.,  430  (G). 
Dd?«,  decl.,  88. 
Dctrot,  pron.,  22. 
cber,  419. 
oe,  pron.,  10. 
cety,  pron.,  20. 
Detyttfyaufen,  pron.,  20. 
Dfen,  decl.,  72. 
Cfftjier,  pron.,  18  ;  decl.,  80. 
oft,  compar.,   148;    fo  oft,  conj.,  427 

(B). 

clj,  pron.,  10. 

of),  pron.,  20. 

Dfyeim,  pron.,  25  ;  decl.,  78. 

Dfjm,  decl.,  76,  78. 

cljne,  prep.,  404 ;  conj.,  375  (2) ;   - 

bafc,  429  (c.  c),  430  (F). 
of)nera<f)tet,  prep.,  386. 
ofyngeacfytet,  prep.,  386. 
Dfyr,  decl.,  92. 
£)f)r,  decl.,  79. 
ot,  pron.,  10. 
Dftant,  decl.,  89. 
Dl,  decl.,  79. 
Old    High    German,    language   and 

literature,  I. 
Dim,  decl.,  76. 

cm,  pron.  in  French  words,  II. 
£5mntbn$,  decl.,  92. 
en,  pron.  in  French  words,  1 1. 
oc,  pron.,  1 1. 
opponiemt,  syn.,  533  (t>). 
Crcfycjicr,  pron.,  28. 


Ordinals,  154-5. 

Drt,  decl.,  76. 

Orthography,  4. 

c«  =  tyt,  187  (^). 

Djl,  decl.,  76 ;  meaning,  97. 

often,  prep.,  384. 

Cfiern,   pron.,   15,  22;   number   and 

m  gender,  113  (i). 

Djl(er)ret^,  pron.,  20. 

cjHi<$,  prep.,  385. 

ofi»drt5,  prep.,  385. 

ou,  pron.,  ii. 

ott>,  pron.,  ii. 

oty,  pron.,  ii. 

\\  pron.,  n. 

^}aar,  decl.,  79;  etn  paar,  176. 
t,  decl.,  76;  gender,  124. 
f,  decl.,  82  ;  gender  and  meaning, 
98. 

$aft,  decl.,  76. 
,  pron.,  21. 

,  accent  and  decl.,  84. 
paletot,  decl.,  94. 
^allaf*,  decl.,  78. 
*pantoffet,  decl.,  93. 
<papagei,  decl.,  93. 
papier,  pron.,  22  (2.  (a) ). 
l,  pron.,  22  ;  decl.,  82. 
iefl,  pron.,  18  (7.  (£)). 
,  decl.,  88. 
^arfum,  pron.  and  orthog.,  24. 

,  syn.,  530  (c,  d). 
f,  decl.,  76. 
t,  decl.,  76. 
Participle : 

pres.  part,  used  as  an  adj.,  266; 
used  in  predicate,  266  ;  pres.  part. 
in  adj.  use  replaced  in  German 
by  other  constructions,  267 ;  its 
use  as  a  noun,  adverb,  preposi- 
tion, or  with  the  force  of  a  clause, 
267  ;  used  absolutely,  267,  578  (B); 
with  active  or  passive  force,  268 ; 
subject  of  a  pres.  part.,  268  (d) ; 
paucity  of  participles,  268  (3) ;  use 
of  the  pres.  part,  to  express  present, 
past,  and  future  time,  268  ;  com- 
parison, 147  (4),  145  (3)  ;  perfect 


646 


GENERAL  INDEX 


part. :  with  or  without  ge;,  260-4 ; 
with  the  form  of  an  infin.,  261-4  > 
different  forms  of  the  perfect  part., 
272  (d,  e) ;  used  as  an  adj.,  269; 
used  substantively,  269 ;  used  as 
an  adverb,  preposition,  imperative, 
with  the  force  of  a  clause,  269  ; 
used  absolutely,  269  (F),  578  (a), 
579-80;  used  with  the  force  of  an 
independent  verb,  269  (G)  ;  classes 
of  verbs  which  have  a  perf.  part, 
with  active  force,  270-2 ;  with 
active  or  passive  force,  270-1  ; 
subject  of  a  perf.  part.,  271  (c,  2nd 
par.)  ;  comparison,  147  (4),  145  (3). 

Particles,  352-435. 

*J}artigtjnum,  decl.,  92, 93. 

$afdj,  decl.,  76,  82. 

$afc,  dec!.,  82. 

paffen,  syn.,  530  (c). 

fafjteren,  conjugated  with  Ijaben  or  fetn, 
290 ;  with  fetn  only,  292 ;  syn., 
529  (b). 

Passive  :   formation,  299 ;    synopsis, 

303  ;  conjugated  with  toerben,  299  ; 
conjugated  with  fetn,  299  (B)~3oi  ; 
peculiar  passive  construction  with 
fcefctmnen,  etJjalten,  frtegen,  301  (2) ; 
passive   construction   with   fufyren, 
brtngen,  nefymen,  302 ;  passive  con- 
struction with  gefycren,  302  ;  quasi- 
passive,  302  (4) ;  substitutes  for  the 
passive,  303 ;   impersonal  passive, 

304  (II)  ;  active  in  form  but  pas- 
sive in  meaning,  283  (i,  2). 

Past-present  verbs,  325-8. 

Past  tense,  formation,  251-7;   use, 

217-9. 
Past   perfect   tense,  formation,  286 ; 

dialect  form,  286  (a),  246  (e) ;  use, 

219. 

^aflor,  decl.,  81. 
patient,  pron.,  34. 
),  decl.,  79. 

,  decl.,  89. 
^enbel,  gender,  124. 
$ennal,  decl.,  80,  86. 
per,  prep.,  404. 
^erpenbifel,  gender,  124. 


Personal    pronouns,     183-92;     use, 
^3-5  5   replaced   by  other  forms, 
187-92. 
$etfdjaft,  decl.,  80. 
t>f,  pron.,  33. 
$faff,  decl.,  88. 
$fal)I,  decl.,  82. 
$fanb,  decl,  85. 
$fan,  decl.,  76,  88,  91. 
pfeifen,  grad.,  309  ;  syn.,  542. 
spfen,  verbal  suffix,  464. 
pfenning,  39. 

$ferb,  pron.,  20  ;  decl.,  79. 
$ftngften,  number  and  gender,  113  (i). 
*Pfirjt<f)r  decl.  and  gender,  98. 
Vffegen,  grad.,  313  ;  syn.,  549. 
^fu'cfyttett,  gender,  126. 
$fiocf,  decl.,  82. 
,  decl.,  82. 
,  decl.,  91. 
,  decl.,  76. 
pfitt,  pron.,  23  ;  use,  434  ;  syn.,  582. 

,  decl.,  79. 
pron.,  ii. 

,  decl.,  81. 
5|}iebejiaf,  pron.,  18. 
Pitch,  54. 
plabieren,  pron.,  21. 
$fan,  decl.,  82. 
sJManet,  decl.,  89. 
plateau,  pron.,  22. 
qjla^,  decl.,  82. 

Vtajjen,  conjugated  with  fein,  292. 
plural,  decl.,  78. 
,  decl.,  76. 
,  syn.,  528  (a). 
,  pron.,  10. 
tyol,  decl.,  76. 

,  decl.,  88. 
,  decl.,  76. 
Possessive  adjectives,  168-73  J   l'st> 
168  ;  decl.,  168 ;  non-inflection  in 
the   predicate,    169-70;     used   as 
substantives,  170;   use  of  posses- 
sives,  171-3;  use  of  capitals  with, 
171 ;   possessives  replaced  by  de- 
monstratives, 172  (d). 
,  decl.,  82. 
pron.,  ii. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


647 


^rdfeft,  decl.,  93. 

^rafym,  ^raijme,  decl.,  76. 

$ra«,  decl.,  76. 

^rdfent,  decl.,  86. 

prdftbieren,  syn.,  533  (b). 

Predicate :    the  forms  and  case  of, 

496-501. 
predicate  noun : 

in  the  nom.,  497  (2.  A.  a). 

in  the  nom.  introduced  by  afe,  497 

(Mi)). 

in  the  ace.  after  fur,  498  (b.  (2)) ; 
in  the  ace.  attracted  by  an  ace., 
497  (2.  A.  a.  Note}. 
in  the  dat.  after  ju,  498  (3). 
in  the  gen.,  499. 
•  as  objective  predicate : 
in  the  simple  ace.,  567  (a). 
the  ace.  introduced  by  ate,  568  (i>), 
by  fur,  568  (c). 
in  the  dat.  after  ju,  569  (d). 
predicate  adjective : 
in  the  nom.  relation,  500-1. 
in  the  ace.  relation,  569  (B). 
predicate  pronouns,  501  (c). 
predicate    infinitive,    501    (D)  ;    as 
objective  pred.,  570  (c). 
predicate  adverb,  501  (E). 
predicate  clause,  501  (F),  586. 
agreement    of  predicate  verb  with 
subject,  501-8. 

omission  of  predicate,  496  (a.  Note  I ), 
497  (b.  Note). 

predicate  in  attributive  form,  497  (b. 
Note,  toward  end). 
Vrebtcjen,  syn.,  531  (e). 
Prefixes,  separable,  338  ;  inseparable, 
339  ;  separable  or  inseparable,  340 ; 
prefixes  used  to  form  nouns,  ad- 
jectives,   and    pronouns,    468-70  ; 
verbal  prefixes,  471-9. 
pretfen,  grad.,  310  ;  syn.,  568  (b). 
pvci&jebm,  syn.,  534  (c). 
Prepositional     phrase    as    adverbial 
modifier,   577 ;   as   modifier  of  a 
noun,  522. 

Prepositions  :  nature,  374  ;  approach 
the  nature  of  adverbs,  374  ;  fluc- 
tuation of  conception,  374-5  ;  ap- 


proach the  nature  of  conjunc- 
tions, 375  ;  government  of  prepo- 
sitions, 376;  list,  377;  origin, 
meaning,  and  use  of  preps,  with 
gen.,  377-88 ;  meaning  and  use  of 
preps,  with  dat.,  388-400  ;  preps, 
with  the  ace.,  400-6 ;  preps,  with 
either  dat.  or  ace.,  406-18 ;  for- 
mation of  preps.,  467-8. 

Present  tense,  formation,  251-7;  use, 
216-17. 

Present    perfect    tense,    formation, 
285  ;  use,  217. 

preffteren,  syn.,  350. 

$rqe(,  pron.  and  orthog.,  20. 

$rima$,  decl.,  93. 

Primitives,  436-7. 

Principal  tenses,  220. 
nj,  decl.,  88. 
t,  decl.,  98. 

promemeren,     conjugated     with     fein, 
295. 

Pronouns,   183-215;   see  under  per- 
sonal, relative,  &c. 

Pronunciation,  best,  7;   sounds  and 
their  classification,  8-12. 

Proper   names,    inflection,    99-103  ; 
plural,  1 06-8. 

proponieten,  syn.,  533  (b). 

^ropft,  pron.,  22  ;  decl.,  82. 

$rofc,  decl.,  88. 

<Pfalm,  decl.,  91. 

pfl,  interj.,  434. 

$uff,  decl.,  82. 

$ul«,  decl.,  76. 

<Pult,  decl.,  79. 

^5 limp,  decl.,  76. 

^utift,  decl.,  76. 

Vunfto,  prep.,  385. 

$unf#,  decl.,  76. 

Purpose,  clause  of,  602. 

Vuftcn,  pron.,  23. 

^utfd?,  decl.,  76. 

^Sitfc,  decl.,  76. 

<nt,  pron.,  11,34. 
Cliiacf,  decl.,  86. 
duabrupeb,  decl.,  89. 
Oualm,  decl.,  76. 


648 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Quantity  of  vowels  :  general  rules,  14; 

rules  for  quantity  in  detail,  15-17. 
£luatt,  decl.,  79. 
duarj,  pron.,  15,  21 ;  decl.,  76. 
Cuajl,  decl.,  76. 
<l«ef(en,  grad.,  312  ;  as  factitive,  312  ; 

conjugated  with  fein,  292. 
quitt,  syn.,  553. 
Guotient,  decl.,  89. 

r,  pron.,  11,  30,33. 

vadjen,  grad.,  312. 

<Wab,  decl.,  85. 

rabebred)en,  343. 

9lanb,  decl.,  86. 

flianft,  decl.,  82. 

OJang,  decl.,  82. 

tappeln,  syn.,  350. 

9JapS,  decl.,  76. 

rafen,  conjugated  with  fein  or  fatten, 
294. 

SRat,  decl.,  82. 

raten,  grad.,  321  ;  syn.,  542. 

ratfdjlagen,  343. 

Otafc,  decl.,  76 ;  meaning,  98. 

SRaub,  decl.,  76. 

9laud),  decl.,  82. 

Otaum,  decl.,  82. 

{Raufd},  decl.,  82. 

9Jeagen$,  decl.,  93. 

9hd?t,  decl.,  79;  red)t  madjen,  syn., 
534  (c). 

redjtg,  prep.,  385. 

Reciprocal  pronouns,  195. 

9Jecf,  decl.,  79. 

SRebe :  —  fiefyen,  syn.,  533  (c). 

reben,  syn.,  543. 

(Keep,  decl.,  79. 

SReff,  decl.,  79. 

Reflexive  pronouns,  193-5  »  reflexive 
verbs :  conjugation,  343  ;  case  of 
the  predicate  complement  of  re- 
flexive verbs,  344;  uses  of  the 
reflexive  verb,  345-7. 

Regiment,  decl.,  86. 

{Refy,  decl.,  79. 

reiben,  grad.,  310. 

SReid),  decl.,  79. 

fteif,  decl.,  91. 


ig,  decl.,  85. 
veifen,  conjugated  with  fein,  295. 
retjjen,  grad.,   309;    conjugated  with 

fein,  292. 

retten,  gradw   309 ;   conjugated   with 
fyaben  or  fein,  294  ;  with  infin.,  277. 
reitenbe  5lrti((eriefafevne,  112. 
rei$en,  factitive  of  reiben,  309. 
Relative  : 
adjectives,  166. 

pronouns,  200-12;  list,  200;  re- 
placed by  adverbs,  207-10 ; 
never  omitted,  210;  indefinite 
relatives  toer  and  it»a3,  210-11  ; 
conditional  relative,  212  ;  corre- 
latives, 212-13. 
adverbs,  208-9;  parts  separated, 

208. 

clause,  587-90  ;  synesis  of  gender, 
588  (a)  ;  synesis  of  number,  588 
(a)  •     mood,    589 ;    abridgment, 
590;  spurious  clause,  590. 
SleUef,  pron.,  14. 
remebieren,  syn.,  529  (ff). 
9Jenbej»oug,  pron.,  23. 
rennen,  grad.,  324 ;  meaning,  324. 
Rentier,  pron.,  18. 
refpeftfoe,  419. 
JRejfcrt,  pron.,  22. 
OZejfource,  pron.,  22. 
9le|t,  decl.,  98. 
Otefiaurant,  decl.,  93. 
Result,  clause  of,  596  (c),  598  (2). 
retiricrea,  conjugated  with  fein,  295. 
reuen,  grad.,  322 ;  syn.,  349,  561  (c), 

563. 

pron.,  19. 

,  decl.,  93. 
t\\fy,  suffix,  451. 
ticd)en,  grad.,  311. 
JHieb,  decl.,  79,  85. 
{Rinb,  decl.,  85. 
ringen,  grad.,  315. 
rings,  prep.,  385. 
tiniien,   grad.,   316;    meaning,   324; 

conjugated  with  fein,  295. 
rittttngS,  prep.,  385. 
<Hocf,  decl.,  82. 
9?oJjr,  decl.,  79,  84. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


649 


(Roman,  decl.,  81. 

9lofj,  decl.,  79. 

gjoft,  decl.,  76. 

roften,  conjugated  with  tyaben  orfciti,292. 

Rounding,  13. 

9Jubin,  decl.,  93. 

(Wubfen,  pron.,  19. 

Oiucf,  decl.,  76. 

OJucfgrat,  decl.,  80  ;  gender,  124. 

rucffldjtlid),  prep.,   385 ;    synonymous 

with  fyinjtdjtttd),  385. 
rucfwdrte,  prep.,  385. 
Oluf,  decl.,  76. 

rufen,  grad.,  321  ;  syn.,  542,  567  (a). 
rufymen,   syn.,  568  (b) ;    fid)  — ,  syn., 

560. 

{Riimpf,  decl.,  82. 
rumpfen,  syn.,  531  (/). 
9fhmb,  decl.,  79. 
Qiufd;,  decl.,  76. 
Oiufdje,  pron.,  19. 
9tufhr,  pron.,  19. 
JJiittfd),  decl.,  76. 

$,  f,  pron.,  1 1 . 

-.t,  gen.  ending,  67-9 ;  as  plural  sign, 
93-4;  in  compounds,  483  (B),  485 
(ff)  j  as  adverbial  suffix,  465  (i.  b}, 
487  (a). 

©aal,  decl.,  82. 

fad)t,  from  L.G.  =  H.G.  fanft. 

©arf,  decl.,  82. 

©aft,  decl.,  82. 

fagen,  syn.,  543. 

Sahara,  pron.,  25. 

sfal,  pron.,  16  ;  meaning,  447. 

©aim,  decl.,  76,  88. 

©alomc,  pron.,  16. 

©alpinr,  decl.,  78. 

©alj,  decl.,  79. 

fallen,  grad.,  321. 

;fam,  pron.,  16  ;  meaning,  461. 

@amc,  decl.,  74. 

Sarnt,  decl.,  76. 

famt,  prep.,  394. 

fdmtlic^,  decl.  and  meaning,  180. 

©anftmut,  gender,  125. 

Sang,  decl.,  82. 
r,  pron.,  14. 


<2arajen(e),  decl.,  89. 
@arg,  decl.,  82. 
SateHit,  decl.,  89. 
fatt,  syn.,  553. 
©attet,  decl.,  72. 
fatttgen  :  fi(^  — ,  syn.,  560. 
(Satyr,  decl.,  93. 
©afc,  decl.,  82. 
@au,  decl.,  84,  98. 
faubcr,  compar.,  144. 
©auce,  pron.,  22. 
fauer  hserten,  syn.,  533  (c). 
faufen,  grad^  312. 
fauo,en,  grad.,  314. 
<2aum,  decl.,  82. 
©asotyen,  pron.,  23. 
Scepter,  orthog.  and  gender,  124. 
fcfy,  pron.,  11,29. 
fdjabett,  grad.,  323. 
©diacfyt,  decl.,  76. 
©c^aben,  decl.,  72,  74. 
fdjaben,  syn.,  529  (b). 
©d>af,  decl.,  79. 
@ct)aff,  decl.,  79. 
fc^affcit,  grad.,  320. 
©djaft,  decl.,  82. 
;fd)aft,  suffix,  448. 
©*a(f,  decl.,  76. 
©rf)a((,  decl.,  76. 
flatten,  grad.,  312. 
flatten,  grad.,  323. 
fdjanun:  fid?—,  560. 
©djavv,  decl.,  79. 
fdjarf,  compar.,  144. 
,  decl.,  82. 
,  syn.,  568  (b). 
©d>aub,  decl.,  76. 
f*au(b)crn,  syn.,  349. 
fdjaiteit,  with  simple  infin.,  279  ;  syn., 

570  (C). 

©cftaum,  decl.,  82. 
@d?«f,  decl.,  88. 
©djecf    (English    check),    pron.    and 

orthog.,  28. 
fd^eiben,  grad.,  310;   conjugated  with 

fctn,  295. 
fd)etncn,  grad.,  310 ;  with  gerundive, 

265  ;  with  infin.  with  ju  with  active 

force,  273  ;  syn.,  350. 


650 


GENERAL  INDEX 


(Sdjeit,  decl.,  85,  98. 

fdjeitern,  conjugated  with  fein,  292. 

fcfjeHen,  grad.,  312  ;  as  factitive,  312  ; 

syn.,  531  (*),  542. 
(S^elm,  decl.,  88. 
fatten,  grad.,  316  ;  syn.,  567  (a). 
t\d)m,  verbal  suffix,  464. 
@$enf,  decl.,  88. 
fcfyenfen,  with  infinitive  with  311,  274  ; 

syn.,  547. 
fcfyeren,  grad.,  313. 
fd)emn,  grad.,  323. 
fcfynten  :  ftd)  —  ,  syn.,  560. 
fcfytcfen,  with  infin.  with  $u,  274  ;  with 

simple  infin.,  277. 
fd)teben,  grad.,  313. 
filter,  meaning,  365. 
fffytefen,  grad.,  311. 
©djiff,  decl.,  79. 
©d)iU>,  decl.,  85. 
fdjtlbern,  syn.,  568  (b), 
@d)ttf,  decl.,  79. 
fcflimpfen,  syn.,  567  (a). 
fd)inben,  grad.,  315. 
©djlaf,  decl.,  82. 
fdjlafen,  grad.,  321. 
©d?(ag,  decl.,  82. 
fd)Iagen,  grad.,  320  ;    with  infin.  with 


,  decl.,  76. 
$,  decl.,  76. 
<Sd)taud),  decl.,  82. 
(Scfyleet,  decl.,  79. 

fcfytetdjen,  grad.,  309  ;  conjugated  with 
fein,  295  ;  with  simple  infin.,  277  ; 
syn.,  551. 
@$leife,  313  (rf). 
fdjleifen,    grad.,    309  ;     as    factitive, 

309- 
fdjletjjen  (intrans.),  grad.,  309  ;  as  fac- 

titive, 309. 
fcftfiefen,  grad.,  311. 
fcfyliejjen,  grad.,  311. 
fc()Itngen,  grad.,  315. 
(Scfylot,  decl.,  76,  82. 
<S<i)ludE)t,  decl.,  84;    of    L.G.  origin, 

313  (<*)• 

©c^Iucf,  decl.,  76. 
@^tuf(f)f  decl.,  76. 


©djluft,  decl.,  84  ;  grad.,  313  (//). 
<Sd)(unb,    decl.,    82 ;    from    fcfylinben, 

older  form  of  fdjlingen. 
@(i>tu^f,  decl.,  82. 
©d^turf,  decl.,  82. 
©c^Iuf,  decl.,  82. 
©c^macf),  pron.,  21. 
fi^mat,  compar.,  144. 
©djmajj,  decl.,  76, 
(S^mau^,  decl.,  82. 
fd)mecfcn,  syn.,  350,  528  (a). 
fcfymetcfyeui,  syn.,  528  (a),  529  (Note) ; 

jid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
fcfymeijjen,  grad.,  309. 
fdjnwtjen,  grad.,  312  ;  as  factitive,  312  ; 

conjugated  with  fein,  292. 
@d?merj,  decl.,  91. 
fcfytmegen,  grad.,  323. 
fdjmitjen,  grad.,  312. 
fcfymoKen,  to  be  sulky  toward,  belonging 

to  the  list  a  on  p.  528. 
@d)nuicf,  decl.,  76. 
©djntitl,  decl.,  76. 
fcf)mun$eln,  syn.,  531  (/). 
<2>d;)mu$,  decl.,  76. 
@d)nabet,  decl.,  72. 
<Sd)na}>$,  decl.,  82. 
fc^nauben,  grad.,  314. 
f^netben,  grad.,  309. 
fdjneien,  grad.,  323. 
©c^nur,  decl.,  84. 
@d)ocf,  decl.,  79. 
@d)of,  decl.,  76. 
©c^ofolabe,    pron.,    16 ;      pron.    and 

orthog.,  28. 
(Scholar,  decl.,  81. 
fd^on,  meaning,  363,  369,  370. 
fdjonen,  syn.,  532,  549. 
@d)<tyf,  decl.,  82. 
©cfyopfj,  decl.,  88. 
<Sc^ovf,  decl.,  76. 
@d>cjj,  decl.,  76,  82. 
©cfyott,  decl.,  79,  92. 
@d)ranf,  decl.,  82. 
@cf)rat,  decl.,  76. 
fc^rauben,  grad.,  314. 
fdjrecfen,  grad.,  318. 
fdjreiben,  grad.,  310. 
fc^reien,  grad.,  310;  syn.,  542. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


651 


fcfyretten,  grad.,  309;  conjugated  with 

fein,  295. 

fcfyrimpfen,  grad.,  323. 
fdjrinben,  grad.,  315. 
©$wH,  decl.,  88. 
©cfyrot,  decl.,  79. 
fdjroten,  grad.,  321. 
@d)runb,  decl.,  82. 
fdjt,  interj.,  434. 
©djitb,  decl.,  82. 
(Sdjuft,  decl.,  76. 
@d)ufy,  decl.,  76. 
©djulju,  pron.,  25. 
fd)utbig,  syn.,  553. 
©djultfjetji,  decl.,  88. 
f,  decl.,  76. 
s,  decl.,  76. 
©cfyurf,  decl.,  82. 
@d)ur$,  decl.,  76  ;  meaning,  98. 
@<f?ug,  decl.,  82. 
Sdjitflet,  pron.,  23. 

,  <£d)tt?abe(n),  decl.,  79. 
r,  decl.,  72. 
d),  decl.,  76. 
@d)ft>amm,  decl.,  82. 
<8d)tt>an,  decl.,  82. 
fd)n>anen,  syn.,  350. 
Sevang,  decl.,  82. 
<Scf)tt>anf,  decl.,  82. 
©cfywaitj,  decl.,  82. 
fd)tt>aren,  grad.,  314. 
<Sd?nwrm,  decl.,  82. 
fcfytoatj,  compar.,  144. 
<5d)tt>ajj,  decl.,  76. 
fdjfteben,  conjugated  with  fjabett  or  fein, 

291. 

©d)n>ebt,  pron.,  20. 
fdjtoeifcn,  grad.,  323. 
fd?tt>eigcn,grad.,  310  ;  as  factitive,  310  ; 

syn.,  532  (g),  549- 
©c^tuetn,  decl.,  79. 
f$n>e((cn,  grad.,  312  ;  as  factitive,  313  ; 

conjugated  with  fein,  292. 
©cfynxrmut,  gender,  125. 
©c^tpett,  pron.,  15,  20  ;  decl.,  85. 
<Sdjtt>efc,  pron.,  20. 
fdjwimmen,   grad.,   316;     conjugated 

with  fein  or  fyaben,  294. 
,  syn.,  350. 


fd)tt>inben,  grad.,  315  ;  conjugated  with 
fein,  295. 

fdjwingen,  grad.,  315. 

@d)»of,  decl.,  76. 

fe^iuoren,  grad.,  314;  syn.,  528 
(a). 

,  decl.,  82,  83. 
j,  decL,  83. 
,  interj.,  434. 

@d}l»ur,  decl.,  83. 

©djntyj,  pron.,  18. 

@ee,  decl.,  91  ;  gender,  98. 

fegeln,  conjugated  with  fein,  295. 

fejjnen,  syn.,  532  (g). 

fefyen,  grad.,  319;  with  gerundive, 
265  ;  with  simple  infin.,  279;  with 
dependent  infin.  which  has  passive 
force,  283 ;  syn.,  568  (b),  570 
(c). 

feigcn,  grad.,  323. 

feifyen,  grad.,  323. 

fein,  grad.,  319;  use  as  auxiliary  of 
tense,  289-96  ;  auxiliary  of  voice, 
299-303  ;  conjugated  with  fein,  291  ; 
with  the  gerundive,  265  ;  with  the 
simple  infin.,  277  ;  with  possessive 
dat.,  530  (c) ;  in  the  sense  to  ail 
with  dat.,  529  (b) ;  in  the  sense  to 
be  accorded  (o,  syn.,  550  (c). 

fcitte6gtei$ett,  214. 

feinetfyalb(en),  186,  382. 

feinetttegen,  186,  382. 

fetnetwtden,  186. 

feit,  prep.,  395  ;  conj.,  428  (B). 

feitob,  prep.,  385. 

feittem,  conj.,  428  (B)  ;  —  ba j,  ib. 

feitenfl,  prep.,  385. 

fetilid},  prep.,  385. 

feiteatttf,  prep.,  385. 

Sefretar,  pron.,  20  (11.  2). 

fcfunbieren,  syn.,  529  (6). 

•^(\,  suffix,  447. 

fclber,  194-5. 

fclbfl,  193-4  ;  adverb,  195 ;  explana- 
tory conj.,  4»i. 

fclig,  syn.,  553. 

@e((erie,  pron.,  18. 

-.\tn,  verbal  suffix,  464. 

fenben,  grad.,  324 ;  syn.,  547. 


652 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Sentences  :  classes  of,  582  ;  the  com- 
pound sentence,  582-3  ;  the  com- 
plex sentence,  583. 

Separable  compounds,  336-9  ;  separ- 
able prefixes,  338-9 ;  separable  or 
inseparable  compounds  and  pre- 
fixes, 336,  340-2. 

©erapf),  decl.,  95. 

<Ser»tette,  pron.,  18. 

fefcen  :  fid)  — ,  with  simple  infin.,  277. 

©fyatof,  pron.  and  orthog.,  22 ;  decl., 
76. 

ftdj  =  ma,  193  (£). 

ftdjer,  syn.,  553. 

ftd)ern,  syn.,  558. 

©ieb,  decl.,  79. 

fteben,  grad.,  311. 

(Signal,  pron.  32. 

©{([I],  @it[l]e,  decl.,  79. 

ftngen,  grad.,  315. 

ftnfen,  grad.,  315;  conjugated  with 
fetn,  295  ;  syn.,  531  (/). 

©inn,  decl.,  91. 

fintten,  grad.,  316. 

fintentat,  conj.,  429  (E). 

fifcen,  grad.,  319;  conjugated  with 
fyaben  or  fetn,  291 ;  syn.,  530  (r). 

©falp,  decl.,  76. 

©Impel,  decl.,  91. 

fo,  sub.  conj.,  430  (F,  G);  —  bod)  = 
obgfeid),  430  (G). 

fobalb,  sub.  conj.,  427  (B). 

©ob,  decl.,  76. 

fofern,  sub.  conj.,  429  (i.  A.  c). 

©og,  decl.,  76. 

fogar,  word-order  after,  423. 

©oljn,  decl.,  82. 

fctange,  sub.  conj.,  428  (B). 

fold),  decl.,  163  ;  use  as  a  determina- 
tive, 164  ;  use  instead  of  a  personal 
pronoun,  the  numeral  eitt,  the  indef. 
toetd),  the  determinative  ber,  164. 

fold)ergejk(t,  366. 

foldjermafjen,  366. 

(often,  conjugation,  326 ;  uses,  332-4  ; 
with  simple  infin.,  278. 

fomit,  conj.,  423. 

fonad),  conj.,  423. 

fcnber,  prep.,  405. 


fonbern,  419  ;  compared  with  abet  and 

attein,  420. 

fcnnet  =  tfjr,  168  (136.  a). 
©cpfyie,  pron.,  18. 
forgen,  syn.,  532  (g). 
fofteit,  sub.  conj.,  429  (i.  A.  c). 
fohne,  conj.,  419,  427  (B),  429  (c.  a). 
fon>ol)l  —  ate  0»ie),  419,  431. 
fp,  pron.,  II,  29. 
©jjatt,  decl.,  76. 
flatten,  grad.,  321. 
©pan,  decl.,  82. 
©pann,  decl.,  76. 
fpannen,  grad.,  323. 
©pant,  decl.,  92, 
fparen,  syn.,  549. 
©pafj,  decl.,  82. 
©pat,  decl.,  76. 
©pafc,  decl.,  88,  91. 
fpeien,  grad.,  310. 
fpenben,  syn.,  547. 
©p^tnx,  decl.,  78. 
©ptef,  decl.,  79. 
©pielen,  syn.,  549. 
©pif(,  decl.,  79. 
©pinb,  syn.,  79,  92. 
fpinnen,  grad.,  316. 
©pion,  decl.,  81. 
©pitat,  decl.,  86. 
©plttter,  decl.,  91. 
©pong,  decl.,  88. 
©porn,  decl.,  91. 
fpotten,  syn.,  549;    with  poetic  dat, 

belonging  to  the  list  p.  531  (/). 
©prad)e,  pron.,  21. 
fpredjen,  grad.,  318  ;  past  indie,  fprad), 

pron.,  21  ;  past  subj.  fprddje,  pron., 

21 ;  syn.,  543. 
fpriefien,  grad.,  311  ;  conjugated  with 

fein,  292. 
©prtet,  decl.,  79. 
fprtngen,  grad., 315;  with  simple  infin., 

277. 

©pringingfelb,  decl.,  78,  112. 
©prop,  decl.,  76,  91. 
©pmd),  decl.,  82 ;  pi.  ©priid)f,  pron., 

20. 

©prnng,  decl.,  82. 
©pitf,  decl.,  76. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


653 


©yunb,  decl.,  82. 

fpuren,  with  simple  infin.,  279  ;  syn., 
570  (c). 


ft,  pron.,  II,  29. 

©taat,  decl.,  91. 

©tab,  decl.,  82. 

©tad)e(,  decl.,  91. 

©tabt,  decl.,   84  ;     pi.  ©tcibte,  pron., 

21. 

(Stag,  decl.,  79. 

©tafyl,  decl.,  76. 

flaCW«,  grad.,  320. 

@taf<3,  decl.,  76. 

©tail,  decl.,  82. 

©tamtn,  decl.,  82. 

©taub,  decl.,  83. 

ftanben,  grad.,  320. 

ftanbfyatten,  syn.,  533  (c). 

©tar,  decl.,  76. 

ftarf,  compar.,  144. 

Start,  pron.,  21  ;  decl.,  76. 

ftatt,  prep.,  380. 

fhcfyen,  grad.,  318;   past   indie,    flacb, 

pron.,  21. 
fterfen,  grad.,   318;   conjugated   with 

fyaben  or  fein,  291. 
©teg,  310  (d). 
ftefjen,   grad.,   320  ;    conjugated   with 

fcin,    291  ;     with   gerundive,    265  ; 

with  simple  infin.,  277  ;  syn.,  350, 

530  (c),  543- 
fUfylcn,  grad.,  318. 
fhigen,   grad.,   310;    conjugated  with 

fein,  295. 

©tetnmefc,  decl.,  88. 
©tedbidjein,  decl.,  94. 
ftevbcn,  grad.,  317  ;   conjugated  with 

fein,  292;  syn.,  551  (b). 
Stereotyped  pronominal  forms,  213- 

214. 

fhtfl,  pron.,  20. 
fUuerit,  Syn.,  530  (d\  543. 
fltebcn,  grad.,  313. 
©tiefd,  decl,  91. 
@ticgli{j,  decl.,  78. 
©tift,  decl.,  85. 
jHmmen,  syn.,  529  (b). 


jltnfen,  grad.,  315. 
©tocf,  decl.,  76,  83. 
©tcjf,  decl.,  76. 
©tc^jf,  decl.,  76. 

@tordj,  decl.,  83. 

@torr,  decl.,  88. 

©tojj,  decl.,  83. 

fto^en,  grad.,  321. 

©to^,  decl.,  88. 

firafcn,  syn.,  558. 

©tra()(,  decl.,  91. 

©tranb,  decl.,  76. 

flranbcn,  conjugated  with  fein,  295. 

©trana,,  decl.,  83. 

©trauc^,  decl.,  83. 

flraucfyetn,  conjugated  with  f«in,  295. 

©traiijj,  decl.,  76. 

ftretc^cu,  grad.,  309. 

fhcttcn,  grad.,  309. 

ftreuen,  syn.,  529  (^). 

©trot(f>,  decl.,  76. 

©trom,  decl.,  83. 

Strong  declension :  of  nouns,  69-86  ; 
general  rules,  69-70 ;  first  class, 
70-4 ;  second  class,  74-81  ;  third 
class,  81-5  ;  fourth  class,  85-6; 
of  adjectives,  130. 
strong  verb  :  conjugation  of  the 
simple  forms,  254-5. 

©trow,  decl.,  76. 

©trumvf,  decl.,  83. 

©tritnf,  decl.,  83. 

©turf,  ©turf,  decl.,  79. 

©tubent,  decl.,  89. 

fiubicren,  pron.  and  orthog.,  18. 

©tiifjt,  decl.,  83. 

©tumpf,  decl.,  83. 

Stuyf,  decl.,  76. 

©tupa,  decl.,  76. 

©turm,  decl.,  83. 

©turj,  decl.,  83. 

flur^fn,  conjugated  with  fttn,  295. 

©tu&,  decl.,  76. 

Subject :  the  case  and  forms  of,  490- 
492 ;  omission  and  expression  of, 
492-6;  logical  subject,  491  ;  gram- 
matical or  provisional  subject,  491  ; 
anticipative  subject,  491 ;  indefinite 
t<J  as  subject,  491-2. 


654 


GENERAL  INDEX 


SUBJUNCTIVE  : 
subjunctive  of  principal  tenses  : 

I.  optative  subj.,  221-5  : 

1.  in  principal  propositions : 

A.  hortatory,  221. 

B.  sanguine,  221. 

C.  in  logical  reasoning,  221. 

2.  in  subordinate  clauses  : 

A.  concessive,  221. 

B.  sanguine  opt.  of  purpose,  222. 

C.  optative  in  conditions,  223. 

D.  in  relative  clauses,  224. 

E.  optative       in        substantive 

clauses,  224. 

F.  optative  in  adverbial  clauses, 

225. 

II.  potential  subj.,  225-30: 

A.  in    indirect    discourse,    225, 

241-8. 

B.  in  clauses  of  manner,  226. 

C.  after  neg.  or  a  question,  226. 

D.  in  neg.  clauses  after  neg.  or 

question,  227. 

E.  in  possible  conditions,  227. 

F.  in  relative  and  interrogative 

clauses,  228. 

G.  in  substantive  clauses,  229. 
H.  in  clauses  of  degree,  230. 

subjunctive  of  historical  tenses  : 

1.  optative  subjunctive : 

A.  unreal  opt.,  230. 

B.  unreal  concessive,  231. 

C.  unreal  opt.  of  purpose,  231. 

2.  unreal  potential : 

A.  (l)  in  direct  statements  and 

questions,     232 ;     subj.    of 
cautious  statement,  233. 
(2)  in  indirect  discourse,  233, 
241-9. 

B.  in  clauses  of  manner,  234. 

C.  after  a  neg.,  235. 

D.  in  neg.  clauses  after  a  neg., 

236. 

E.  in  unreal  conditions,  237. 

F.  unreal    potential    in    relative 

and    interrogative    clauses, 
238. 

G.  unreal  potential  in  substan- 

tive clauses,  239. 


H.  unreal  potential  in  clauses  of 

degree,  240. 
I.  unreal  potential  in  clauses  of 

time  and  place,  240. 
J.  unreal  potential  in  clauses  of 

cause,  240. 

fubflttuieren,  syn.,  533  (£). 
fud)en,  pron.,  23. 
<Sudjt,  dec!.,  84. 
<Sub,  decl.,  76. 
fitbltdj,  prep.,  385. 
fubto&tttf,  prep.,  385. 
Suffixes  of  nouns,  437-52  ;  of  adjec- 
tives, 452-62  ;  of  verbs,  462-4  ;  of 
adverbs,  465-6. 
fuggerieren,  syn.,  533  (£). 
fitfjebteren,  syn.,  533  (£). 
@umpf,  decl.,  83. 
@unb,  decl.,  76. 
©ityerlatts,  decl.,  78. 
Superlative,  see  Adjective, 
©urtotit,  pron.,  20. 

Syllables :  open  and  closed,  14  (art. 
4.  a,  b] ;  syllabic  division,  40  ;  syl- 
lables in  connected  discourse,  41 ; 
separation  of  at  the  end  of  line, 
41. 

©tympatfyte,  pron.,  19. 
Synesis  of  gender,  571-5  ;  of  number, 

575-7- 
Syntax,  490-618. 

t,  pron.,  ii. 
Sabaf,  decl.,  78. 
5!aft,  decl.,  76. 
£ag,  pron.,  14 ;  decl.,  76. 
£aft,  decl.,  76. 
Sal,  decl.,  85. 
£alg,  decl.,  76. 
$alf,  decl.,  76. 
£ang,  decl.,  76. 

£anf,  tank,  a  masc.  belonging  to  list 
p.  76  ;  pi.  also 
j,  decl.,  83. 
,  decl.,  76. 
£a(r)tar,  decl.,  89. 
Safj,  decl.,  76. 
Sater,  decl.,  88. 
Sau,  decl.,  79. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


G55 


taufen,  syn.,  567  (a). 
taugen,  earlier  inflection,  328  (/). 
Saugenicfjts,  decl.,  94. 
Saufd),  decl.,  76. 
Saufenb,  decl.,  80. 
Sebeum,  pron.,  23. 
See,  pron.  and  orthog.,  20. 
Sett,  decl.,  79  ;    gender  and  meaning, 
98,  126 ;    ju  tetl   werbcn,  syn.,  533 
(c). 

tetlfjaft,  tetlljafttg,  syn.,  553. 
tette  —  tells,  conj.,  423. 
4e(,  suffix,  448. 
Setegrapfy,  decl.,  89. 
telegravfyteren,  syn.,  531  (e). 
telepfyonieren,  syn.,  531  (e). 
Senor,  decl.,  81. 

Tenses  :  formation  of  simple  tenses, 
25 1  -7  ;     formation    of    compound 
tenses,  285-9,  296-9  ;  use  of  fyaben 
and  fetn  in  compound  tenses,  289- 
296;  use  of  the  tenses  of  the  indie., 
216-19;  of  the  subj.,  220;  of  the 
principal  tenses  of  the  subj.,  220- 
230  ;  of  the  historical  tenses  of  the 
subj.,  230-40  ;  of  tenses  in  indirect 
discourse,  243-8  ;     lack   of  tense 
forms  for  the  progressive  idea,  250. 
Serratn,  pron.,  21. 
Sefdjtng,  decl.,  80. 
Xeufel  =  ntcfyt,  371. 
tfy,  pron.,  ii. 

Sfyee,  pron.  and  orthog.,  20. 
Sfyeobor,  pron.,  16. 
Sfyron,  decl.,  76. 
tyuten,  328  (/.  (2)). 
tt,  pron.,  ii. 
Stef,  decl.,  79. 
Ster,  decl.,  79. 
tir-tyr,  187  (Note). 
Titles,  decl.,  103-6,  662. 
tttutieren,  syn.,  567  (a). 
5>aft,  pron.,  22  ;  decl.,  76. 
Xodjter,  decl.,  72. 
£ob,  decl.,  76. 
toilette,  pron.,  22. 
Sou,  decl.,  76,  83. 
Xopf,  decl.,  83. 
,  decl.,  76. 


Xor,  decL,  79,  88. 

Xorf,  decl.,  76,  83. 

Soft,  decl.,  76. 

Sour,  pron.,  23. 

tragen,  grad.,  320  ;  with  simple  infin., 

279  ;  syn.,  570  (c). 
Trajection,  588  (e). 
Sraft,  decl.,  76. 
Sran,  decl.,  76. 
Xranf,  decl.,  83. 
Srapejoib,  pron.,  10. 
Srafj,  decl.,  76. 
Srauc^,  decl.,  76. 
tvaucn,  syn.,  530  (c),  540. 
Sraum,  decl.,  83. 
traumen,  syn.,  350,  530  (d). 
treffcn,  grad.,  318  ;  with  infin.  with  ju 

274. 

tretben,  grad.,  310. 
treten,  grad.,   319  ;    conjugated   with 

fyaben  or  fetn,  295. 
Srtbun,  decl.,  93. 
triefen,  grad.,  311. 
tricgen  =  triigen,  314. 
Srift,  310  (d). 

tvinfen,  grad.,  315;  syn.,  547. 
Srtumvir,  decl.,  93. 
Srcg,  decl.,  83. 
JrotiSborf,  pron.,  22. 
SroK,  decl.,  77. 
Xretf,  decl.,  83. 
Srovl)ae,  pron.,  16. 
Srof*,  decl.,  77. 
Srefj,  decl.,  77. 
Srojl,  pron.,  22. 
treflcn :  ftc^  — ,  syn.,  560. 
trc£,  prep.,  385. 

trofcbcnt,  conj.,  423,  430  (G),  433. 
trefcen,  syn.,  528  (a). 

pron.,  23. 

,  pron.,  23  ;  decl.,  88. 
2 rug,  decl.,  83. 
trugtn,  grad.,  314. 
Xrumm,  decl.,  86. 
Srumpf,  decl.,  83. 
Xruw,  decl.,  77;    Iru^P  and 

98. 

Sfdicdjf,  pron.  and  orthog.,  29. 
Subingcn,  443  (a). 


656 


GENERAL  INDEX 


End),  pron.,  23  ;    decl.,  79,  98 ;   pi. 

Xii^er,  pron.,  19. 
Xuff,  decl.,  77. 
tugen,  328  (/). 
itvmi,  pron.,  16 ;  decl.,  86  ;  meaning, 

448. 
tun,   grad.,  325  ;   with  simple  infin., 

280-1 ;  with  infin.  with  jit,  281. 
Xunidjtgut,  decl.,  94. 
Xttpf,  decl.,  77. 
£urm,  decl.,  83. 
Xufd),  decl.,  77. 
$,  pron.,  II. 

it,  pron.,  22. 

u,  pron.,  23. 

5,  pron.,  19. 

5,  pron.,  19. 

u  =  lo,  31 ;  =  ii,  II. 

itbel,  syn.,  350. 

fiber,  prefix  sep.  or  insep.,  340 ;   — 

fetn,  syn.,  534  (a) ;  prep.,  415. 
itberbiea,  conj.,  422. 
uberbrufjtg,  syn.,  553. 
uberfiiljten,   in   the    sense  /<?  convey, 

bring,    properly     sep.,    but    often 

insep. ;  in  the  sense  to  convict  of, 

syn.,  558. 

iibergdjen,  formerly  with  fetn,  290. 
iibertyaupt,  meaning,  366. 
iiberf)eben,  syn.,  558  ;  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
uberfyoben,  perf.  part.,  syn.,  553. 
uberfyoren,  syn.,  564  (c). 
uberfontmen,  conjugated  with  Ijaben  or 

fein,  290 ;  syn.,  543. 
uberlaffen,  with  infin.  with  jit,  274. 
ubennorgen,  accent,  361. 
Ubetmut,  gender,  125. 
uberreben,  syn.,  566  (/') ;  reflex.,  560. 
iiberoeifen,  syn.,  558. 
ubernnegen,  syn.,  543. 
uberjeugen,  syn.,  558. 
iibrtg,  decl.,  181. 
itbrigena,  conj.,  423. 
lidjtrtfc,  pron.,  19. 
ue,  pron.,  n. 
uf),  pron.,  23. 
u(>,  pron.,  19. 
Ufyt,  uninflected,  98. 


llf)ii,  pron.,  25  ;  decl.,  78. 

nt,  pron.,  1 1 . 

Ulan,  decl.,  81. 

UK,  decl.,  77. 

litjen,  pron.,  19. 

urn,  pron.,  1 5  ;  prefix,  sep.  or  insep., 

340 ;    prep.,  405 ;    urn  .  .  .  iwKen, 

386. 

um,  pron.  in  French  words,  n. 
iimfafyren,   formerly   conjugated   with 

fetn,  290. 

umT>er,  meaning,  359. 
iuu,  prefix,  470. 
un,  pron.  in  French  words,  11. 
itna^tenb,  syn.,  553. 
ttnangefefyen,  prep.,  386. 
itnbefcf)abet,  prep.,  386. 
unb,  conj.,  419;  inversion  after  itnb, 

420  ;   —  ob,  interj.,  434  ;   —  jttar, 

explanatory  conj.,  421. 
unentroegt,  315. 

unerad^tet,  prep.,  386 ;  conj.,  430  (G). 
ttnfern,  prep.,  386. 
jung,  suffix,  449. 
Ungar,  decl.,  89,  91. 
ttngea^tet,  prep.,  386 ;  conj.,  430  (G)  ; 

—  bafj ,  ib. 

ungeredjnet,  prep.,  386. 
ungefialt,  324  (a). 
ttnglaubtg,  syn.,  553. 
Unijolb,  decl.,  77. 
Unmttt,  gender,  125. 
itnfdjitlbtg,  syn.,  553. 
itnfereinS  or  unfereiner,  215. 
itnferer,  instead  of  itnfer  in  gen.  pi.  of 

personal  pronouns,  185. 
unfereSgleicfyen,  214. 
imtet,  prefix,  sep.  or  insep.,  340 ;  syn., 

532  (B) ;  prep.,  416. 
itnterbefl  or  nnterfcfJTen,  co-ordinate  or 

subordinate  conj.,  433  ;  sub.  conj., 

428. 

unterfangen :  ftdj  — ,  syn.,  560. 
unterfyalb,  prep.,  380. 
unterliegen,  conjugated  with  Ijaben  or 

fetn,  292. 

imterrtdjten,  syn.,  558,  565  (/"). 
Unterf^tttjjf,  decl.,  77. 
unterfteljen  :  ft^  — ,  syn.,  560,  567  (/). 


GENERAL  INDEX 


657 


Untertan,  decl.,  91. 

unterttdrte,  prep.,  386. 

untertoegc(n),  360. 

unteroegS,  360. 

untettceifen,  syn.,  558,  565  (/). 

unteroinben  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 

unterjidjen  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 

tnttoeit,  prep.,  386. 

uo,  pron.,  ii. 

llr,  decl.,  77. 

ur;,  prefix,  470. 

Urteil,  decl.,  80  ;  gender,  126. 

tut,  pron.,  16;  meaning,  451  (e). 

»,  pron.,  ii,  12. 

SSater,  pron.  and  orthog.,  28 ;  decl., 

72. 

SSefyine,  pron.  and  orthog.,  29. 
SSetldjen,  pron.,  29. 
S3eit,  pron.,  29. 
SSelberfe,  pron.,  29. 
»er;,   pron.,  29 ;    insep.  prefix,   339 ; 

meaning,  476-8. 
»eranht>ortcn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
Verb,    classification,   215  ;   gramma- 
tical forms,  216  ;  for  tense,  voice, 

mood,  see  Tenses,  &c. 
ttcrHctdjen,  grad.,  308. 
SSerb(um),  decl.,  93. 
»erbdd)tig,  syn.,  553. 
»erbdd)tigen,  syn.,  558. 
93erben,  pron.,  20. 
scrberben,  grad.,  317. 
SSerbienfi,  gender,' 98. 
»erbingcn,  syn.,  568  (b). 
verbriejjen,  syn.,  561  (c). 
93erbun,  pron.,  24. 
SSerein,  decl.,  77. 
verfafyrcn,    conjugated    with     fetn    or 

fyabcn,  295. 

verfaflen,  syn.,  530  (d). 
»«fef)len,  syn.,  549. 
»etgeBcn,  syn.,  529  (£),  544. 
»ergcffcn,  grad.,  319  ;   with  infin.  with 

git,   or   sometimes   with   a  simple 

infin.,  278  ;  syn.,  549. 
ttercjcffcn,  perf.  part.,  syn.,  553. 
wgertnJTern,  syn.,  558 ;   ftdj  — ,  syn.} 

560. 


U 


SSergtfjmeinmd)!,  decl.,  80. 

23crg(eid),  decl.,  77. 

93er()arf,  decl.,  77. 

23erf)au,  decl.,  77. 

»erf)tnbern,  syn.,  532  (g). 

ttcrfycren,  syn.,  564  (c). 

serjagett,  syn.,  558. 

»crttagen,  syn.,  558. 

serftcmmen,  312. 

»erlangen,  syn.,  349,  549,  561  (c),  563. 

tterletbcn,  grad.,  309. 

serteugnen,   syn.,   549 ;     fid)  — ,  syn., 

560. 

ocrltercn,  grad.,  313. 
akrlief,  decl.,  80. 
tterlofynen :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
aSerluft,  decl.,  77. 
»ertufltg,  syn.,  553. 
vcrmefien  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
uermteten,  syn.,  568  (b). 
ttenrnficn,  syn.,  549. 
wmittete,     vermtttelft,     preps.,    384; 

synonymous  with  t»on,  burd),  mit, 

384- 
»ermogc,  prep.,  386 ;  synonymous  with 

fraft  and  ccrmtttcls,  387. 
vermuten :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
mmuten(b),  syn.,  553. 
tterneljmen,   with    simple   infin.,   279 ; 

syn.,  570  (c). 
Verner,  K.,  38  ;   Verner's  Law,  38, 

307- 
aScrnunft ;    jiic  —  fpreditn,  syn.,  533 

(c). 

93 era,  pron.,  29. 
»erfct)cn  :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
»etfid)crn,  syn.,  544,  558  ;  fid)  — ,  syn., 

560. 

»crftd)crt,  perf.  part.,  553. 
»frfd)d(cn,  312. 

»erfd)ontn,  syn.,  532  (g),  549. 
wfdjrebfit,  314. 
93er|lanb,  decl.,  83. 
SSerflerf,  decl.,  80;  gender,  124. 
ttctfhfyen :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
$trfud),  decl.,  77. 
93nrtrag,  decl.,  83. 
sertrauen,  syn.,  530  (c). 
vertrofUn :  fid)  — ,  syn.,  560. 
u 


658 


GENERAL  INDEX 


»er»agen,  grad.,    314;    ft<$  — ,  syn., 
560. 

ttertoegen,  314  (5). 

33em?ei$,  decl.,  77. 

cewwfcn,  syn.,  558. 

serwogen,  314  (5). 

,  grad.,  317. 
:  ftd)  — ,  syn.,  560. 

»erjeit>en,  syn.,  529  (6),  544  ;  fidj  — , 
syn.,  560. 

SBerjicfjt,  decl.,  77. 

SSeteran,  decl.,  81. 

Setter,  pron.  and  orthog.,  28 ;  decl., 
91. 

SSejter,  pron.  and  orthog.,  31. 

93ie6,,  pron.,  29 ;  decl.,  79,  85. 

fiel,  pron.,  29  ;  decl.,  181. 

aSteljIo^,  decl.,  80. 

aStelftafi,  decl.,  77 

MeKeidjt,  pron.,  19. 

tnetfl,  (trieljte  ©rufie),  absolute  super- 
lative. 

aStertel,  pron.,  19. 

ttierjefyn,  pron.,  19. 

»t«jtfl,  pron.,  19. 

SBttta,  decl.,  94. 

SJUntar,  pron.,  29. 

SBtoloncell,  pron.,  29. 

SBtrcfyoto,  pron.,  29. 

23tfcfyer,  pron.,  29. 

S3Ue$,  pron.  and  orthog.,  29;    decl., 

79- 

SBogel,  pron.,  29 ;  decl.,  72. 
33oge(fcfycit,  gender,  126. 
2$ogt,  pron.,  22,  29  ;  decl.,  83. 
SBoIf,  pron.,  29  ;  decl.,  86. 
ttott,  pron.  and  orthog.,  29  ;  prefix  sep. 

or  insep.,   340;   adjective   »o((   or 

ttofler,  139  (8) ;  syn.,  553. 
SBoItolut,  decl.,  80. 
i?of(enb^,  word-order  after,  423. 
von,  pron.,  15;   prep.,  395;  »on  .  .  . 

fetten,  prep.,  387 ;    tton  .  .  .  icegen, 

prep.,  387. 
»or,  pron.,  16  ;  sep.  prefix,  339  ;  syn., 

532  (B)  ;  prep.,  417. 
f,  syn.,  532  (B). 
,  syn.,  532  (B). 
»orbef>attli<^,'  prep.,  387. 


sorbet,  syn.,  532  (B),  544 ;   see  also 

»oriiber. 

sttorbe,  pron.,  20. 
33orberteil,  gender,  126. 
93orfat)r,  decl.,  88. 
»crgangtg,  prep.,  397. 
Sorter,  syn.,  532  (B). 
SBortnunb,  decl.,  86. 
SSorteit,  pron.,  22. 
worubet  or  ttotbei,  with  verbs  of  motion 

conjugated  with  fein,  290 ;  syn.,  544. 
SSorivanb,  decl.,  83. 
»ortoart$,  prep.,  387. 
SSo^,  pron.,  29. 
Vowels:  classification,  12;  quantity, 

14-17  ;       pronunciation,      17-24 ; 

mutation,  24-5  ;  gradation,  25. 

tt),  pron.,  12. 

ttacfyfen,  grad.,  321 ;  conjugated  with 

fetn,  292. 

SSage,  etymol.,  313  (Note). 
3Bagen,  decl.,  72  ;  etymol.,  313. 
ttxigen,  grad.,  313. 
n>df)len,  syn.,  569  (d). 
»dt)nen,  with  simple  infin.  or  present 

part.,  279-80;    syn.,  567  (a),  570 

(c). 

toaljren,  syn.,  549. 
Jna^renb,  prep.,  387 ;   sub.  conj.,  427 

(B),  428  (a). 
toafyrnefymen,  syn.,  549. 
SBal,  decl.,  77. 
©alb,  decl.,  86. 
2BaH,  decl.,  83. 
2Ba((a^,  decl.,  78. 
9Batm,  decl.,  77. 
Sklnuf,  58. 
ttatten,  syn.,  549. 
Itjatjen,  grad.,  323. 
2Bamg,  decl.,  86. 
2Banb,  decl.,  84. 
toanbeln,    conjugated   with  fettt,  295  ; 

with  simple  infin.,  277. 
SBanfl,  decl.,  83. 
SSart,  decl.,  77. 
toarm,  compar.,  144 ;   syn.,  350,  533 

(c). 

,  decl.,  77. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


659 


SBart,  decl.,  77. 

irarten,  syn.,  550. 

ntdttg,  adverbial  suffix,  465. 

warum  =  ujcrunt,  358. 

2Barje,  pron.,  21. 

n>a3,  inter,  pronoun  :  pron.,  15  ;  decl., 

197 ;  relative,  210. 
ffiaffer,  decl.,  72. 
watcn, -grad.,  323. 
2iktt,  decl.,  79,  92. 
©cm,  decl.,  77. 
Weak  declension  of  nouns,    87-90 ; 

of  adjectives,  131. 
ttcbcn,  grad.,  314. 
lr>eber  —  nocfc,  conj.,  422. 
tteber,  sub.  conj.,  433  (7). 
»eg,  pron.,  14,  15  ;  sep.  prefix,  339; 

meaning  compared  with    that  of 

fort,  358- 

UBeg,  etymol.,  313  (Nott-). 
,  prep.,  381,  387. 
,  decl.,  92  ;  »el)(e),  syn.,  582. 
(,  SScfylc,  decl,  and  gender,  79. 
SBcfymut,  gender,  125. 
SScfir,  decl.,  79 ;  gender  and  mean- 
ing, 98. 
ttcfjren,  syn.,  530  (ti) ;    fid)  — ,  syn., 

560. 
irdjtuu,  syn.,  533  (c), 

fib,  decl.,  £6. 

,  grad.,  309  ;  as  factitive,  309 ; 

conjugated   with    fein,   295 ;    syn., 

53°  (rf). 

nvtflern  :  fid)  — ,  560. 
SBe'ty,  decl.,  88. 
ttwl,  sub.  conj.  of  time,  428  (B; ;  of 

cause,  429  (E). 
95?ctnad)ten,    number      and     gender, 

113- 

irctfcn,  grad.,  310. 

n>eitfmaci»cn,  syn.,  534  (c\ 

irciter,  sep.  prefix,  339. 

n>cld) :  indcf.  adj.,  decl,  182  ;  inter, 
pronoun,  decl.,  200  ;  used  in  ex- 
pressions of  identity,  coo  (a) ;  rel. 
pronoun  decl.,  204  ;  use,  204 ;  re- 
placed by  bcr,  202-5  ;  replaced  by 
other  words,  205-10. 

SSclf,  decl.,  88. 

U  u 


ttjcffcn,  conjugated  with  fein,  293. 

ivcnben,  grad.,  324. 

ft'entg,  decl.,  182  ;  tin  — ,  178. 

tt>enn,  sub.  conj.  of  time,  427  (3.  B), 
428  (b,  c) ;  of  manner  in  the  com- 
bination a(3  wenn,  429  (c.  a),  where, 
however,  it  may  be  omitted,  424 
(237.  i.  A.  c) ;  in  conditional  clauses, 
430  (F)  ;  in  concessive  clauses,  430 
(G)  ;  as  an  adv.  =  u?ann,  428  (t>) ; 
-  anbettJ,  430  (F);  -  f*en,  430 
(G) ;  —  audi,  ib  ;  aud)  — ,  ib. 

h?er,  pron.,  16 ;  indef.  pronoun  = 
jemanb  or  eincr,  196  (e)  ;  interro- 
gative pronoun,  decl.  and  syn., 
197-200. 

ivcrben,  grad.,  317. 

njcrbcn,  pron.,  15,  20;  conjugation, 
257,  298-9;  grad. ,317  ;  conjugated 
with  fctn,  293 ;  with  simple  infin., 
277  ;  syn.,  530  («.-),  49«  (3)~9- 

SBevtcr,  pron.,  20. 

ivcrfcn,  grad.,  317. 

SSerft,  decl.  and  gender,  79. 

9Btrf,dccl.,  80. 

2Bert,  pron.,  20. 

rccrt,  syn.,  5-3. 
ltd',  prep.,  387. 
,  prep.,  387. 

ivcttcifcrn,  343. 

nicttlauffn,  343. 

frfttrrnnen,  343. 

\Videness,  13. 

unbcr,  pron.,  18  ;  insep.  prefix,  339; 
meaning,  478  ;  syn.,  532  (B) ;  prep., 
402. 

unbent,  syn.,  350,  528  (a). 

UMtcriMicn,  conjugated  with  fjubtn  or 
fein,  292. 

trie,  co-ordinate  conj.,  419,  420;  ex- 
planatory conj.,  421  ;  sub.  conj., 
4:7  (\.,t,  2.<t,  3.  B),  428  ((),  429 
(C.  a,  D.  I.  B),  431-2  ;  sub.  conj. 
used  instead  of  aW,  431  (I.  a. 
Nste  I,  b,  Note,  d\  432  (2.  c,  3,  4. 
«)  ;  used  with  appositives,  5:0  (/) ; 
used  as  a  relative,  209  (B,  D.  (l) ) ; 
ivie  u?enn,  429  (c.  a). 

3BtrttIjcvf,  decl.,  78. 


660 


GENERAL  INDEX 


imegen,  grad.,  313  ;  with  simple  infin., 

279 ;  syn.,  570  (c). 
ttneit>cl)(,  conj.,  430  (G). 
String,  decl.,  86. 
SBUfyetm,  pron.,  25. 
aBtflen,  decl.,  74. 
triKen,  prep.,  387. 
SBUfy,  pron.,  18. 
totnben,  grad.,  315. 
irinfen,  syn.,  542. 

hnfien,  conjugation,  326 ;  with  infin. 
with  jii,  274 ;  with  simple  infin.  or 
pres.  part.,  279-80 ;  syn.,  558, 
570  (c). 

ttnffenb,  syn.,  5.53, 

tt»o,  adverb,  357;   =  rel.  pron.,  209; 
foomit,  hjoran,  etc.  =  rel.   pronoun, 
207-8 ;     too,    separated  from    the 
prep.,  208 ;    i  tt>o,  370,  434 ;    sub. 
conj.,  4- 7  (B),  428  (4  43°  (*")• 
toofern,  conj.,  430  (F). 
SBrge,  etymol.,  313. 
\oofy,  compar.,  148  :  modal  adv.,  369, 

370,  372^ 

ttof)(gejklt,  324  (a). 
toofylrted)enber  JJBafierfabrifant,  112. 
2Bol)l»of{en,  syn.,  533  (c). 
2Belf,  decl.,  83. 
lr>o((en,  conjugation,  326 ;  uses,  334-5 ; 

with  simple  infin.,  278. 
Word-formation,    436-89 ;    see    also 
under  derivatives  and  compounds. 
Word-order,  general  principles,  604  j 
historical  explanations,  604  (a). 
varieties  of  word-order,  604-6  : 
normal  order,  606-12 : 
word-order  of  the  subject,  607. 
position  of  the  gen.,  607. 
word-order  of  the  predicate  : 
position  of  the  verb,  607. 
position  of  the  predicate   parti- 
ciple, infin.,  sep.  prefix,  adj.,  or 
noun,  608-9. 
order  of  objects,  610-11. 
order  of  adverbs,  611. 
word-order  of  adjective  modifiers, 
612. 

inverted  order,  612-5. 
use,  612-3. 


particulars    of    this    word-order, 

613-5. 

question  order,  615-7. 
use,  616-7. 

transposed  order,  617-8. 
use,  6  1  8. 
9Bort,  decl.,  80,  98  ;  bag  —  reben,  syn., 

533  (c). 

SBortf),  pron.,  20. 
icortljalten,  syn.,  533  (c). 
Jffiracf,  decl.,  80. 
hmngen,  grad.,  315. 
SBudjer,  pron.,  23. 
aBitdjtf,  pron.,  23  ;'  decl.,  83. 
hntd)$,  pron.,  15,  23. 
SBultl,  decl.,  83,  84. 
tounbent,  syn.,  561  (*r)  ;   fidj  —  ,  syn., 

560. 

SBitnfd),  decl.,  83. 
hwrbtg,  syn.,  553. 
ftiirbigen,  558. 
2Burf,  decl.,  83. 
SBurm,  decl.,  86  ;   gender  and  mean- 

ing, 98. 

nntrmen,  syn.,  349. 
SBurfl,  decl.,  84. 
tourjetn,  conjugated  with  fein  or  Ijaben, 

293- 

hmfd?,  pron.,  15. 
SBuft,  pron.,  23. 
iDujl,  pron.,  19. 

r,  pron.,  12. 

ty,  pron.,  12. 

,  pron.  and  orthog.,  23. 


j,  pron.,  12. 
=jacf,  decl.,  77. 
3at»n,  decl.,  83. 
3«nf,  decl.,  83. 
3aw>,  decl.,  77. 
3ar,  decl.,  88. 

gart,  pron.,  22  ;  compar.,  144. 
3aum,  decl.,  83. 
3ef),  decl.,  91. 
3«d)en,  310  (rf). 

•jetgen,  310;  with  simple  infinn  279; 
syn.,  568  (b). 


GENERAL  INDEX 


661 


jetyen,  grad.,  310;  syn.,  558,  566  (/). 

jrit,  prep.,  387. 

3ett,  decl.,  80. 

;gen,  verbal  suffix,  464. 

jer,  msep.  prefix,  339  ;  meaning,  478. 

3cug,  decl.,  80. 


3iegc(,  decl.,  91. 

jiefyen,  grad.,  313;     conjugated   with 

fetn,295;  syn.,  551  (a). 
3iet,  decl.,  80. 
jiemen,  syn.,  530  (c). 
3ierrat,  decl.,  91 ;  gender,  124. 
ijjtg,  suffix,  462. 
3mf,  decl.,  80. 
3ittS,  decl.,  91. 
jinfen,  syn.,  529  (V). 
Bitter,  pron.,  15,  19. 
Bittern,  syn.,  531  (/). 
3o((,  decl.,  77,  83. 
3cvf,  decl.,  83. 
3crn,  decl.,  77. 
§u,  sep.  prefix,  339,  355  (A)  ;  syn.,  532 

(B)  ;  prep.,  397  ;  511  fcttcn,  388. 
3ucf,  decl.,  77. 
jubem,  conj.,  422. 
3uflud)t,  decl.,  83. 
jufclge,  prep.,  383,  400. 


jufricben,  synl,  553. 
3ug,  decl.,  83. 
jugunften,  prep.,  388. 
3uibfrfee,  pron.,  23. 

tun,  syn.,  534  (c). 
,  decl.,  77. 
$um,  pron.,  22. 
jitntat,  conj.,  429  (E). 
^una*tl,  prep.,  394. 
3unft,  decl.,  84. 
}urnen,  syn.,  528  (a),  550. 
jurucf,  sep.  prefix,  339. 
^itfantmen,  sep.  prefix,  339;   synony- 
mous with  bcifammen,  359. 
jufamt,  prep.,  394. 
jtt  ungunjlen,  prep.,  388. 
$iH?or,  sep.  prefix,  339  ;  syn.,  532  (B). 
3u»ac^g,  decl.,  77. 
jinwbcr,  prep.,  400. 
^i^ugHtfc,  prep.,  388. 
jroecft,  prep.,  380. 
jlrcen,  152  ;  bet  jiuette,  154. 
jh>eiten(?,  conj.,  423. 
3n?cr^,  decl.,  88. 
3«»kbacf,  decl.,  77. 

,  grad.,  315. 

,  prep.,  417. 
,  152;  bet  jjoote,  154. 


CORRECTIONS. 

P.  104.  Article  2.  a  puts  too  much  emphasis  upon  the  non-inflection  of 
the  title.  The  following  modifying  statement  will,  perhaps,  place  the  matter 
in  a  truer  light.  The  non-inflection  of  the  title  in  all  these  cases  is  the 
survival  of  older  usage.  The  title  and  name  were  formerly  felt  as  a  compound 
name,  and  hence  the  inflectional  ending  was  added  only  to  the  second 
element.  The  example  from  Raabe's  Pechlin  is  a  survival  of  this  older 
usage.  Modern  usage  drops  the  genitive  3  when  the  article  precedes,  and 
such  forms  result  as  the  example  from  Scheffel's  Trompeter.  At  present 
the  title  is  often  felt  as  an  independent  word,  and  literary  usage  in  general 
inclines  to  inflect  it,  as  in  bie  2Jlenfcfyenltebe  beg  Jl  aiferg  3cfcf.  Older  usage 
manifests  itself  most  frequently  in  colloquial  language  in  set  expressions 
where  title  and  name  have  become  so  thoroughly  fused  that  separation  by 
inflection  of  the  first  element  is  unnatural :  ber  £cb  beg  Softer  SDlatttn  Sutler. 

P.  104.     In  article  b,  lines  3-4,  change  '  non-inflection  '  to  '  inflection.' 

P.  285.  In  article  a  transfer  the  last  German  example  to  B.  b  on  the 
next  page. 

P.  495.  Insert  in  line  15  from  below  immediately  before  the  words  '  Kurt 
(unter  erneuten  Kiissen) '  the  following  statement :  Except  in  case  of 
personal  pronouns  this  same  order  is  sometimes  employed  to  emphasize 
the  subject,  which  thus  becomes  emphatic,  not  only  by  strong  stress,  but 
also  by  its  unusual  position  : 


A    001  241  642 


